CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

More than 160,000 people affected worldwide shows 19 known cases of Zika virus

infection in the Philippines were caused by mosquito bites. (Department of Health, 2013) After

several doctors in the Philippine Children’s Medical Center contracted severe dengue, the

Department of Health said it was investigating the upsurge of dengue cases in the hospital.

(Cruz, 2018) Dengue cases breached 80,000 mark that is 80, 745 cases. Deaths from dengue also

increased to 496 cases from 424 cases in the previous years. (DOH, 2013) In 2015, there were

28,600 cases of dengue, including 86 deaths, reported on the archipelago. (DOH,2015) ,

Figure 2. Chinese Bell Flower Abutilon indicum linn.

A chinese bell flower (Abutilon indicum linn.) commonly found native to tropic and

subtropical regions and sometimes cultivated as an ornamental, contains phytol and coumarin.

(Philippine Medical Plants, 2017) Scientific literature on essential oils had previously suggested

that phytol can play a repellent role. And coumarin has actually been commonly used as an

insect repellent forb many years—though it's never been marketed as one.(Handwerk,2015)
 The study of Tsgratog, Sanguanpong, Unchalee, Grieco, Ngoen-Kluan, and

Chareonviriyaphap et al (2016) shows numerous plants with insect repelling properties are native

to the tropics where they are produced for a wide range of medicinal purposes. In Thailand, these

native plant species have a history of use for personal protection against biting insects. From our

investigation we identified 37 plant species within 14 plant families that showed

some mosquito repellent properties. Of these, 9 plant species were characterized using an excito-

repellency test system against several Thai mosquito species. Results from these studies revealed

that five essential oils extracted from plants demonstrated promising insect repellent activity.

These active ingredients show promise for further development into formulations that may serve

as alternatives to DEET or possibly be used as natural bio-pesticides to kill mosquitoes.

Singh, B., Singh, P. J., and Mohanty, M.J. et al (2012) claimed that the mission to make

humans less attractive to mosquitoes has fuelled decades of scientific research

on mosquito behaviour and control. The search for the perfect topical insect repellent/killer

continues. This analysis was conducted to review and explore the scientific information on

toxicity produced by the ingredients/contents of a herbal product. In this process of systemic

review the following methodology was applied. By doing a MEDLINE search with key words of

selected plants, plant based insect repellents/killers pertinent articles published in journals and

authentic books were reviewed. The World Wide Web and the Extension Toxicity Network

database (IPCS-ITOX) were also searched for toxicology data and other pertinent

information. Repellents do not all share a single mode of action and surprisingly little is known

about how repellents act on their target insects. Moreover, different mosquito species may react

differently to the same repellent. After analysis of available data and information on the

ingredient, of the product in relation to medicinal uses, acute and chronic toxicity of the selected
medicinal plants, it can be concluded that the ingredients included in the herbal product can be

used as active agents against mosquitoes. If the product which contains the powder of the above

said plants is applied with care and safety, it is suitable fo use as a mosquito repellent/killer.

A study conducted by Gillij, Gleiser, Zygadlo, 2008 shows that mosquitoes are

important vectors of diseases and nuisance pests. Repellents minimize contact

with mosquitoes. Repellents based on essential oils (EO) are being developed as an alternative to

DEET (N,N-diethyl-m-methylbenzamide), an effective compound that has disadvantages

including toxic reactions, and damage to plastic and synthetic fabric. This work evaluated

the repellency against Aedes aegypti of EO from aromatic plantsthat grow in Argentina:

Acantholippia seriphioides, Achyrocline satureioides, Aloysia citriodora, Anemia tomentosa,

Baccharis spartioides, Chenopodium ambrosioides, Eucalyptus saligna, Hyptis mutabilis,

Minthostachys mollis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Tagetes minuta and Tagetes pusilla. Most EO

were effective. Variations depending on geographic origin of the plant were detected. At a 90%

EO concentration, A. satureoides and T. pusilla were the least repellent. At concentrations of

12.5% B. spartioides, R. officinalis and A. citriodora showed the longest repellency times.

Comparisons of the principal components of each EO suggest that limonene and camphor were

the main components responsible for the repellent effects.

A study about essential oils from fresh leaves of four aromatic plants viz., conducted by

Lalthazuali, Mathew, Nisha, et al in 2017. Ocimum sanctum, Mentha piperita, Eucalyptus

globulus and Plectranthus amboinicus were extracted by hydrodistillation. The test solutions

were prepared as 20% essential oil in ethanol and positive control as 20% DEET in ethanol.

Essential oil blend was prepared as 5% concentration. Nulliparous, 3-5-day-old female adult

Aedes aegypti mosquitoes were used for repellencyscreening as per ICMR protocol. The study
showed that the repellency of 20% essential oil of O. sanctum, M. piperita and P. amboinicus

were comparable with that of the standard DEET (20%) as no mosquito landing on the test was

observed up to 6 h. The E. globulus oil exhibited mosquito repellency only upto 1½ h.

Considerable mosquito landing and feeding was displayed in negative control. In the case of the

oil blend, no landing of mosquitoes was seen up to 6Â h as that of positive control. The results

showed that the essential oil blend from O. sanctum, M. piperita, E. globulus and P. amboinicus

could repel Ae. aegypti mosquitoes or prevent from feeding as in the case of DEET even at a

lower concentration of 5%. This study demonstrates the potential of essential oils from O.

sanctum, M. piperita, E. globulus and P. amboinicus and their blend

as mosquitorepellents against Ae. aegypti, the vector of dengue, chikungunya and yellow fever.

A study of Maguranyi, S.K., Webb, C.E., Mansfield, S., Russell, R.C., et al (2009).

While the use of topical insect repellents, particularly those containing synthetic active

ingredients such as deet (N,N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide), are a mainstay in personal protection

strategies emphasized in public health messages, there is a growing demand in the community

for alternative repellents, particularly those of botanical origin and thus deemed to be "natural."

This study evaluated the repellency of essential oils from 11 Australian native plants in 5% v/v

formulations against Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus, and Culex annulirostris under

laboratory conditions. A blend of the top 3 performing oils was then compared with deet and a

commercially available botanical insect repellent. All essential oils provided at least some

protection against the 3 mosquito species, with the longest protection time (110 min) afforded by

Prostanthera melissifolia against Cx. quinquefasciatus. Mean protection times against Ae.

aegypti were substantially lower than those for the Culex spp. tested. Deet provided significantly

longer protection against Ae. aegypti than both the 5% v/v blend of Leptospermum petersonii,
Prostanthera melissifolia, and Melaleuca alternifolia (the 3 most effective oils) and the

commercial botanical repellent. The results of this study indicate that these essential oils from

Australian native plants offer limited protection against biting mosquitoes and that a blend of

essential oils holds may offer commercial potential as a short-period repellent or under

conditions of low mosquito abundance. However, it is important that public health messages

continue to emphasize the greater effectiveness of deet-based repellentsin areas with risks

of mosquito-borne disease.

Study of Adams, Wongchai, Chaidee, Pfeiffer et al (2016) shows Plant essential oils have

been suggested as a promising alternative to the established mosquito repellent DEET (N,N-

diethyl-meta-toluamide). Searching for an assay with generally available equipment, we

designed a new audiovisual assay of repellent activity against mosquitoes "Singing in the Tube,"

testing single mosquitoes in Drosophila cultivation tubes. Statistics with regression analysis

should compensate for limitations of simple hardware. The assay was established with female

Culex pipiens mosquitoes in 60 experiments, 120-h audio recording, and 2580 estimations of the

distance between mosquito sitting position and the chemical. Correlations between parameters of

sitting position, flight activity pattern, and flight tone spectrum were analyzed. Regression

analysis of psycho-acoustic data of audio files (dB[A]) used a squared and modified sinus

function determining wing beat frequency WBF ± SD (357 ± 47 Hz).

Application of logistic regression defined the repelling velocity constant. The repelling velocity

constant showed a decreasing order of efficiency of plantessential oils: rosemary (Rosmarinus

officinalis), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus), lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), citronella

(Cymbopogon nardus), tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), clove (Syzygium aromaticum), lemon

(Citrus limon), patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), DEET, cedar wood (Cedrus atlantica). In
conclusion, we suggest (1) disease vector control (e.g., impregnation of bed nets) by

eight plant essential oils with repellingvelocity superior to DEET, (2)

simple mosquito repellency testing in Drosophila cultivation tubes, (3) automated approaches

and room surveillance by generally available audio equipment (dB[A]: ISO standard 226), and

(4) quantification of repellent activity by parameters of the audiovisual assay defined by

correlation and regression analyses.

Study of Vongsombath, Borg-Karlson, Jaenson et al (2012) show that essential oils of

Hyptis suaveolens (Lamiaceae), Croton roxburghii (Euphorbiaceae), and Litsea cubeba

(Lauraceae) were tested in the field near Vientiane city, Lao PDR, on humans

for repellent activity against mosquitoes. Landing mosquitoes were collected and later identified.

The most abundant mosquitoes captured belonged to the genera Armigeres, Culex, and Aedes.

All the plant oils tested at concentrations of 1.7 microg/cm(2), 3.3 microg/cm(2), and 6.3

microg/cm(2) were significantly more mosquito repellent than the negative control. Croton oil

was significantly repellent against mosquitoes of the three genera at the highest (6.3

microg/cm(2)) concentration tested. Litsea oil was significantly repellent against Armigeres at all

(1.7 microg/cm(2), 3.3 microg/cm(2), and 6.3 microg/cm(2)) concentrations tested. Hyptis oil

was significantly repellent against Armigeres at 3.3 microg/cm(2) and 6.3 microg/cm(2) and

against Culex at 1.7 microg/cm(2) and 6.3 microg/cm(2). The oils were analyzed for chemical

content of volatiles, mainly terpenes. Main constituents were beta-pinene, sabinene, and 1,8-

cineol from oils of the green parts of H. suaveolens; alpha-pinene, beta-pinene, and alpha-

phellandrene from fresh bark of C. roxburghii; and alpha-pinene, beta-phellandrene, sabinene,

and 1,8-cineol from fresh fruits of L. Cubeba.

objective to determine repellent activity of hexane, ethyl acetate, benzene, chloroform and

methanol extract of Cardiospermum halicacabum (C. halicacabum) against Culex

quinquefasciatus (Cx. quinquefasciatus), Aedes aegypti (Ae. aegypti) and Anopheles stephensi

(An. stephensi). Methods Evaluation was carried out in a net cage (45 cm×30 cm×25 cm)

containing 100 blood starved female mosquitoes of three mosquito species and were assayed in

the laboratory condition by using the protocol of WHO 2005; The plant leaf crude extracts of C.

halicacabum was applied at 1.0, 2.5, and 5.0 mg/cm2 separately in the exposed area of the fore

arm. Only ethanol served as control. Results In this observation, the plant crude extracts gave

protection against mosquitobites without any allergic reaction to the test person, and also,

the repellent activity was dependent on the strength of the plant extracts. The tested plant crude

extracts had exerted promising repellent against all the three mosquitoes. Conclusions From the

results it can be concluded the crude extract of C. halicacabum was potential for controlling Cx.

quinquefasciatus, Ae. aegypti and An. stephensi mosquitoes.

A study by Pohlit, Lopes, Gama, Tadei and Neto et al (2011) shows that the use

of plant repellents against nuisance biting insects is common and its potential for malaria vector

control requires evaluation in areas with different level of malaria endemicity. The essential oils

of Ocimum suave and Ocimum kilimandscharicum were evaluated against malaria vectors in

north-eastern Tanzania. Methodology An ethnobotanical study was conducted at Moshi in

Kilimanjaro region north-eastern Tanzania, through interviews, to investigate the range of

species of plants used as insect repellents. Also, bioassays were used to evaluate the protective

potential of selected plants extracts against mosquitoes. Results The plantspecies mostly used

as repellent at night are: fresh or smoke of the leaves of O. suave and O. kilimandscharicum
(Lamiaceae), Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae), Eucalyptus globules (Myrtaceae) and Lantana

camara (Verbenaceae). The most popular repellents were O. kilimandscharicum (OK) and O.

suave (OS) used by 67% out of 120 households interviewed. Bioassay of essential oils of the two

Ocimum plants was compared with citronella and DEET to study the repellence and feeding

inhibition of untreated and treated arms of volunteers. Using filter papers impregnated with

Ocimum extracts, knockdown effects and mortality was investigated on

malaria mosquito Anopheles arabiensis and Anopheles gambiae, including a nuisance mosquito,

Culex quinquefasciatus. High biting protection (83% to 91%) and feeding inhibition (71.2% to

92.5%) was observed against three species of mosquitoes. Likewise the extracts of

Ocimum plants induced KD90 of longer time in mosquitoes than citronella, a standard

botanical repellent. Mortality induced by standard dosage of 30 mg/m2 on filter papers, scored

after 24 hours was 47.3% for OK and 57% for OS, compared with 67.7% for citronella.

Most of the studies are relatively similar to each other when it comes to the procedures of

getting the active fractions that can repel mosquito..The current study explores if the variety of

will also show its potentiality to have active constiturents that can fight against mosquitoes as

reported in many studies published in literatures where its phytochemical analysis , physical and

chemical of the active constituents were mainly responsible for the Chinese Bell Flower as a

pesticides that can fight against mosquitoes.