ME 8491 ENGINEERING METALLURGY

UNIT I ALLOYS AND PHASE DIAGRAMS 9

Constitution of alloys – Solid solutions, substitutional and interstitial – phase diagrams,
Isomorphous,eutectic, eutectoid, peritectic, and peritectoid reactions, Iron – carbon
equilibrium diagram. Classification of steel and cast Iron microstructure, properties and
application.
UNIT II HEAT TREATMENT
Definition – Full annealing, stress relief, recrystallisation and spheroidising – normalising,
hardening and Tempering of steel. Isothermal transformation diagrams – cooling curves
superimposed on I.T.diagram CCR – Hardenability, Jominy end quench test -
Austempering, martempering – case hardening, carburizing, Nitriding, cyaniding,
carbonitriding – Flame and Induction hardening – Vacuum and Plasma hardening. .
UNIT III FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS 9
Effect of alloying additions on steel- α and β stabilisers– stainless and tool steels –
HSLA, Maraging steels – Cast Iron - Grey, white, malleable, spheroidal – alloy cast irons,
Copper and copper alloys – Brass, Bronze and Cupronickel – Aluminium and Al-Cu –
precipitation strengthening treatment – Bearing alloys, Mg-alloys, Ni-based super alloys
and Titanium alloys.
UNIT IV NON-METALLIC MATERIALS 9
Polymers – types of polymer, commodity and engineering polymers – Properties and
applications of various thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers (PP, PS, PVC, PMMA,
PET,PC, PA, ABS, PI, PAI, PPO, PPS, PEEK, PTFE, Polymers – Urea and Phenol
formaldehydes)- Engineering Ceramics – Properties and applications of Al2O3, SiC,
Si3N4, PSZ and SIALON –Composites-Classifications- Metal Matrix and FRP -
Applications of Composites.
UNIT V MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND DEFORMATION MECHANISMS 9
Mechanisms of plastic deformation, slip and twinning – Types of fracture – Testing of
materials under tension, compression and shear loads – Hardness tests (Brinell, Vickers
and Rockwell), hardness tests, Impact test lzod and charpy, fatigue and creep failure
mechanisms.

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of this course, the students can able to apply the different materials,
their processing, heat treatments in suitable application in mechanical engineering fields.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Avner,, S.H., ―Introduction to Physical Metallurgy‖, McGraw Hill Book Company,1994.
2. Williams D Callister, ―Material Science and Engineering‖ Wiley India Pvt Ltd, Revised
Indian Edition 2007
REFERENCES:
1. Raghavan.V, ―Materials Science and Engineering‖, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
1999.
2. Kenneth G.Budinski and Michael K. Budinski, ―Engineering Materials‖, Prentice Hall of
India Private Limited, 4th Indian Reprint 2002.
3. Upadhyay. G.S. and Anish Upadhyay, ―Materials Science and Engineering‖, Viva
Books Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2006.
 UNIT -1: ALLOYS AND PHASE DIAGRAMS
PART – A
1. What is meant by alloying elements? [M/J 12]
It is a mixture of two or more metals or a metals and a non – metals. The element which
is present in the largest proportion is called the base metal, and other element present is
called as alloying elements.
2. State Hume rothery’s rules? [A/M’15]
Size factor:The atoms must be of similar size, with less than 15% difference in atomic
radius
Crystal structure:The material must have the same crystal structure. Otherwise, there is
some point at which the transition occurs from one phase to a second phase with
different structure.
Valence:The atoms must have the same valence. Other wise the valence electrons
difference encourages the formation of compounds rather then solutions.
Electro negativity:The atoms must have approximately the same electro negativity.
3. What is phase diagram?
It is graphical representations of what phase are present in a materials system at various
temperatures, pressures, and compositions. And the phase diagrams are also known as
equilibrium diagram or constitutional diagrams.
4. State Gibbs phase rule?
It is a simple equation that relates the number of phases presents (P) in a system at
equilibrium with the number of degrees of freedom (F), the number of components
(C),And the number of non-compositional variables. Gibbs phase rule: F = C-P+2
5. Define critical cooling rate.
The slowest rate of cooling of austenite that will result in 100 percentage martensite
transformation is known as critical cooling rate.
6. State the conditions under which two metallic elements will exhibit unlimited
solid solutions [A/M’15]
i) Atomic size - for high solid solubility the atomic size of base metal and alloying must
be similar
ii) Chemical affinity- element having lower chemical affinity have great solid solution.
iii) Relative valency - for higher solid solubility,the two elements have lower valency
should be selected
iv)Crystal structure - metals with similarly crystal structure have higher solid solubility.
7. Differentiate Isomorphous and eutectic reaction.
Isomorphous is a system with complete liquid and solid soluability zero to hundred
percentage When an isomorphous alloy is cooled very, very slowly it is undergoes a
base change from liquid to solid form.
8. How steels are classified? [N/D’16]
PLAIN CARBON STEEL ALLOY STEEL
Low carbon steel Low alloy steel
High carbon steel High alloy steel
 Medium carbon steel

9. What does a Phase diagram inidcate?

The phase diagram indicates the temperature at which the solid alloy will start melting
and finish melting.
10. What is the significance of lever rule?
Lever rule is a method used to find out the exact amount of phase existing in a binary
system for a given alloy at any temperature under consideration.
11. Define the term solid solutions. [N/D’16]
A solid solution is formed when two metals are completely soluble in liquid state and also
completely soluble in solid state.
12. What do you mean by invariant reaction. [N/D’15]
When a reaction occurs under equilibrium condition at a specific temperature and alloy
composition that cannot be varied it is said to be invariant.

PART – B
1. With the help of neat sketch explain the two types of solid solution.(M/J2013)
Types of solid solution:
There are two types of solid solutions formed
i) Substitutional solid solution
(a) Random(Disordered) (b) Ordered
ii) Interstitial solid solution
i) Substitutional solid solution :-
Substitutional solid solutions are formed when some of the solvent atoms (Base
metal atoms) are replaced by the solute atoms (alloying elements atoms) in a crystal
lattice.

Substitutional solid solution occurs when the solute and solvent solution (atoms) are
equal or approximately equal in diameter.
Ex: Cu-Ni where Cu has radius of 1.28 A and Ni has radius of 1.24 A. Both copper and
Nickel have FCC crystal structure. The crystal structure of the solvent is uncharged, But
the lattice may be distorted by the presence of solute atoms, particularly if have is
significant difference in atoms radii’s of the solute and solvent atoms.

a) Random or Disordered substitution solid solution: In Random solid solution, the

solute atoms do not occupy and specific position but are randomly distributed in the
lattice structure of solvent. The concentrations of the solute atoms vary throughout the
lattice structure of the solvent.
b) Ordered Substitutional solution:When the atoms of the solute material occupy
similar lattice point with the crystal structure of the solvent material, the solid solution is
called ordered solution. During slow coding, diffusion tends to produce uniform
distribution of solute and solvent and solvent atoms. The solute atoms moves in definite
orderly manner and occupy orderly position in the lattice. Cu-Zn , Au-Cu , Cu2 MnAl are
some examples of ordered structures.

Interstitial solid solution

Interstitial solutions are formed when the solute atoms are very small in comparison with
solvent atoms.

The solute atoms occupy the holes(or) interstices between the solvent atoms. Here the
solution (or) solute atoms are much smaller than the parent atoms and have occupied
randomly in the interstitial voids between parent atoms.

The most important interstitial solid solution present in ferrous metals is ferrite which
consists of pure iron containing upto 0.008% carbon at room temperature. In several,
hydrogen, carbon , nitrogen and boron having small atomic diameters form interstitial
solid solutions with the base metal atoms.Atomic size is not only a parameter which
determines whether or not an interstitial solid solution, will form but also small solute
atoms like Fe, Ni, Mn, Mo , Cr, W etc dis solve more readily in transition metals.

2. Sketch neatly the ideal iron- carbide binary equilibrium diagram, indicating
temperatures, composition and different phases present. Also explain the
peritectic reaction of this system. [A/M’15]
  Iron-Iron carbide equilibrium diagram is very much useful in understanding the
microstructures and properties of cast irons and carbon steels
 It is also used to understand the basic differences among iron alloys and the
control of their properties
 This phase diagram is constructed by plotting the carbon composition (weight per
cent)along the X- axis and temperature along the Y- axis.
 The iron-iron carbide (Fe-Fe3C) phase diagram.
 This phase diagram presents the phases present at various temperatures for very
slowly cooled iron-carbon alloys with up to 6.67% carbon.
 As discussed in the pure iron exists in three allotropic forms .i.e ,alpha iron,beta
iron,comma iron it melts .At room temperature the stable form ,called ferrite exist
with a BCC crystal structure. Upon heating, ferrite transforms to FCC austenite at
912 C. This austenite continues till 1394C;at this temperature the FCC austenite
transforms back to a BCC phase known ass ferrite. Then finally the iron melts at
1538C.All these changes are seen the figure along the left vertical axis of the
phase diagram.
 Carbon is an interstitial impurity in iron and forms a solid solution with each of
alpha and betta ferrites ,and also with austenite, an indicated by the
alpha,betta,comma single phase fields as shown the figure.
The important information that can be obtained from the Fe-Fe3C can be studied under
the following topics:
 Solid phases in the phase diagram.
 Invariant reactions in the phase diagram.
 Eutectoid,Hypoeutecoid,and hypereutectoidsteels.
 Eutectic,hypoeutectic,and hypereutectic cast irons.

Solid phases in the phase Diagram:

The Fe-Fe3C phase diagram contains the following four solid phases:
1. Alpha Ferrite
2. Austenite
3. Cementite
4. Betta Ferrite

1.Alpha –Ferrite:
 This phase is an interstitial solid solution o carbon in the BCC iron crystal lattice.
 The solid solubility of carbon in alpha ferrite is a maximum of 0.02% at 723C and
decreases to 0.005% at 0C.
2.Austenite:
 The interstitial solid solution of carbon in betta iron is called austenite.
 Austenite has an FCC crystal structure and a much higher solid solubility for
carbon than alpha ferrite.
 As indicated by fig, the solid solubility of carbon in austenite is a maximum of
2.08% at 1148C and decreases to 0.8% at 723C.

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3.Cementite:
 The intermetallic iron-carbon compound is called cementite.
 Cementite has negligible solubility limits and a composition of 6.67%C and
93.3%Fe.
4.Comma ferrite:
 The interstitial solid solution of carbon in comma iron is called comma ferrite.
 Comma ferrite has a BCC crystal structure.
 The maximum soild solubility of carbon in comma ferrite is 0.09% at 1465C.

Invariant Reactions in the Fe-Fe3C Phase Diagram: The Three important invariant
reactions associated with the Fe-Fe3C diagram are peritectic,eutectic and eutectoid
reactions.

1.Peritectic reaction:
 As this peritectic reaction point, liquid of 0.53%C combines with comma ferrite of
0.09%C to form betta austenite of 0.17%C.
 This peritectic reaction, which occurs at 1495C.
 The peritectic reaction affects only solidification of steels with less
than0.55%carbon.
2.Eutectic reaction: [M/J’16]
 At the eutectic reaction point,liquid of 4.3% forms betta austentic of 2.08%C and
the inter metallic compound Fe3C,which contains 6.67%C.
 This Eutectic reaction, which occurs at 1148C.
 This reaction is of great importance in cast irons.
3.Eutectoid reaction: [M/J’16]
 At the eutectoid reaction point, solid austenite of 0.8%C produces alpha ferrite
with 0.02%C and fe3c that contains 6.67%C.
 This eutectoid reaction, which occurs at 723C.
 This reaction gains much importance for the heat treatment of steels.
Iron carbon equilibrium diagram indicates the phase changes that occur during heating
and cooling and the nature and amount of the structural components that exist at
temperature besides it establishes a correlation between the micro structure and
properties of steel and cast irons and provides a basic for the understanding of the
principles of heat treatment.

3. Discuss the classification, micro structure properties and application of steel

[M/J’16]
Steel : Steels are alloys of iron and carbon. However steels contain other elements like
silicon , manganese, sulphur, phosphorus, nickel etc.
The alloying elements are either intentionally added or retained during the refining
process.
Specification of steels:
The American Iron and steel institute the society of Automotive Engineers.
American society for testing and materials are responsible for the classification and
specification of steels as well as other alloys.
The AISI / SAE designation for the steels is s four digit number:
First two digit indicate the alloy content, and last two digit indicate the carbon
concentration.
Classification of steel:
Steel can be classified as follows
1. Plain carbon ( or) non alloy steels
(i) Low carbon steels
(ii) Medium carbon steels
(iii) High carbon steels
2, Alloy steels
(i) Low alloy steels
(ii) High alloy steels
Plain carbon steels:
Plain carbon steels are those in which carbon is the alloying element that
essentially controls the properties of the alloys and in which the amount of manganese
cannot exceed 1.65% and the copper and silicon contents each must be less that 0.6%.
Composition of plan carbon steels:
Carbon upto 1.5% Manganese upto 1.65% Copper upto 0.6% Silicon upto 0.6%
Other names: the plain carbon steels are also known by many terms such as carbon
steels, non alloy steels and straight carbon steels.
Characteristics of plain carbon steels:
- Plain carbon steels are the moderately priced steels due to the absence of
large amount of alloying elements.
- They are sufficiently ductile to readily formed.
- Plain carbon steels are available in almost all product forms: sheet , strip, bar
, plated, pipe, wire.
Applications of plain carbon steels
o Plain carbon steels are used for mass production products such as
automobiles and appliances.
o They also find applications in the production of ball bearings base plates
housing, chutes , structural member etc.
Classification of plain carbon steels:
o Low –carbon steel: those containg between 025 and 0.6 % carbon.
o Medium – carbon steels: those content between 0.25 and 0.60% carbon.
o High-carbon steels: those containing more than 0.6% carbon.
Low carbon steels:
o The low carbon steels represent the largest tonnage of all the steel
produced.
o The cow-carbon steels are those steels that contain less than about 0.25%
carbon.
o The low-carbon steels are also known as mild steels.
Characteristics of low carbon steels:
o Low carbon steels are relatively soft and week.
o They can not by hardened appreciably by heat treatment.
o They possess good formability and weldability .
 o Strengthening of low carbon steels are accomplished by cold work.
o They have outstanding ductility and toughness.
o The micro structure of low carbon steels consist of ferrite and peralite
constituents.
o Of all steels , the low carbon steels are the least expensive to produce.

Medium carbon steels:

o Medium carbon steels are those steels that have between 0.25 and 0.60%
carbon.
o The medium carbon steels may be heat treated, quenched and then
tempered to improve their mechanical properties.
Characteristics of medium carbon steels:
The main properties of medium carbon steels are:
1. The plain medium-carbon steels have low hardenabilities.
2. In plain medium carbon steels the high strength and hardness properties are
achieved.
Application of medium carbon steels:
The medium carbon steels include railway wheels, railway tracks, gears, crank
shafts, and other machine parts.
HIGH-CARBON STEELS:
High carbon steels are those steels that have more than 0.6%.
Characteristics of high carbon steels:
o High carbon steels are the hardest, and strongest of the carbon steels.
o They are the least ductile of the carbon steels.
o They have more wear resistant.
o They are capable of holding a sharp cutting edge (which is very important
properties for making tools).
Application of high carbon steels:
The plain high carbon steels in clued cutting tools and dies (for forming and
shaping materials) knives, razors, hack saw blades, springs and high strength wire.
Compositions:
Dead mile steel – 0.05 Mild steel - 0.08 – 0.15 Mild steel – 0.5 Mild steel –
0.1-0.3
Alloy steels: In general terms, alloy steels mean any steels other than carbon steels.
The steels products manual defines alloy steels as steels that steels.
Manganese -1.65, silicon – 0.6%, copper – 0.6%
Alloying elements:
The most commonly used alloying elements are chromium, nickel ,
molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, boron , copper and others.
Purpose of Alloying:
o To increase its strength
o To improve hardness
 o To improve toughness
o To improve resistance to abrasion and wear
o To improve Machinability
o To improve ductility
o To achieve better electrical ad magnetic properties
Classification of Alloy steels:
Alloy steels can be divided into two main groups.
1. Low alloy steels: these contain upto 3 to 4% of alloying elements.
2. High alloy steels: These contain more than 5% of alloying elements.
Low Alloy Steels:
o Low alloy steels are steels which contain upto 3% to 4% of one or more
alloying elements.
o They have similar microstructure and require similar heat treatments to that
of the plain carbon steel.
o They are also referred as pearlitic alloy steels as the normalised structure
contains the eutectoid pearlite.
Types of low alloy steel:
AISI steels and HSLA steels.
AISI steels:
o American Iron and steel institute are steels that are generally used in
machine construction.
o AISI steels are sometimes also referred as construction steels or structural
steels.
o AISI steel normally have less than about 5% total addition of elements such
as cr,Ni,Cu,n,Mo,V etc.
HSLA steels:
HSLA (high strength low, alloy) steels, also known as micro alloyed steels, have
been developed by making micro alloying additions of the elements Al, Nb and V either
singly or in combination to give a major gain refinement.
High Alloy steels:
o High alloy steels are steels which contain more than 5% of one or more
alloying elements.
o They have different microstructure and refine different heat treatment than
that of the plain carbon steels.
o The room temperature structures after normalizing may be austenitic,
martensitic or contain precipitated carbides.
Types of high alloy steels:
o Tool and die steels-high quality
o Stain less steel to improving corrosion resistance.
4.Discuss the composition, Properties and apply of the following cast iron.
[M/J’16]

(i) Malleable cast iron (ii) Spheroidal cast iron

Malleable cast iron:
Malleable iron is a iron that has been heat treated so that is has significant
ductility and malleability.
Composition:
The composition of a typical malleable cast iron is given below
Carbon – 2.0% to 3.0% Manganese-0.2% to 0.6% Silicon – 0.6% to 1.3% Phosphorus-
0.15% Silicon -0.10%
Micro structure of malleable cast iron
Malleable iron is produced by heat treating un alloyed (2.5%C, 0.5 si) white iron. During
the heat treatment process, the cementite in the white cast iron structure breaks down
into ferrite and graphite clumps (or) modules. This graphite nodule, also called tempered
carbon, appears like pon corn. This graphite shape permits a good combination of
strength and ductility in the pearlite matrix. The irons so produced are called pearlite.

Designation of malleable cast iron

The designation system for malleable cast iron given by ASTM, is a five digit
number.The first three digits represent the minimum yield strength in Psi of the iron, and
the last two digits represent the percent of elongation.
A grade 32510 malleable cast iron has a minimum yield strength of 32.5 x103 ,Psi
and 10% elongation, and a grade 35018 a minimum yield strength of 35x10 3 psi = 242
Mpa) and 18% elongation.

Characteristic of malleable cast iron:

The important properties of malleable cast iron are given below:

The malleable cast iron posses good ductility and malleability properties than grey cast
iron.

18
It exhibits high yield strength and tensile strength.
It is not brittle as grey cast iron.
It has high young’s modulus and low co-efficient of thermal expansion.
It has good wear resistance and vibration damping capacity.
It also has excellent Machinability
Types malleable irons:
Two types of malleable irons, depending on the type of heat treatment cycle used
to produce, are
1. Ferritic Malleable iron 2. Pearlitic malleable iron
1. Ferritic malleable iron:
The white iron castings are heating beyond the upper critical temperature
and held for a prolonged period of time so that carbon in the cementite
converts to graphite, subsequent low cooling through the eutectoid reaction
results in a ferrite matrix. The cast iron so obtained is termed as ferritic
malleable cast iron. The ferritic malleable cast iron has good toughness
compared with the of other cast iron.
2. Pearlitic malleable iron:
When the white cast iron is cooled from temperature higher than a upper
critical temperature more rapidly through the eutectoid transformation
range, the carbon in the austenite will not have enough time to form
additional graphite but is retained.
Application of malleable iron:
Automobile industries because of their combination of castability , shouk
resistance, and good Machinability. Typical components in clued brake-shoes , pedals,
levers, wheel hubs, axle housing, connecting rods, transmission gears, and door hinges.
Spheroidal graphite or nodular cast iron:
Spheroidal graphite cast iron is also known as nodular iron or as ductile iron.
Compostition:
The composition of a typical cast iron is given below Carbon -3.2 to 4% Silicon -1.8 to
3% Manganese-0.01% max
The SG iron is the cast iron with nodular or spheroidal graphite. The nodules also called
spheroids are about the same as those in malleable cast iron, expect that they are more
perfect spheres.
Micro structure of SG cast iron
The nodular cast iron is produced by adding magnesium and or cerium to molten
cast iron(ie the gray iron before casting) The magnesium converts the graphite of cast
iron from flake form into spheroidal or nodular form. The resulting alloy is called
spheroidal or nodular cast iron.
The presence of spheroidal graphite improves the ductility strength, fracture
toughness, and other mechanical properties.Ductility cast iron derives its name from the
fact its ductility is increased by 20%. Addition of magnesium gives good results and
hence it is widely used.

19
Magnesium is usually added in the form of a master alloy such as ferrous silicon
magnesium or nickel magnesium alloyed: a grade 60-40-18 SG cast iron has a minimum
tensile strength of 60x103 psi, minimum yield strength of 40x103 psi and 18% elongation.

Characteristics of SG cast iron

(i) It has good toughness than the grey cast iron.
(ii) It good fatigue strength.
(iii) It exhibits good impact strength.
(iv) It possesses good hardness and hish modulus of elasticity.
(v) It has corrosion resistance similar to that of gray iron.
(vi) It possesses excellent castability and wear resistance.
(vii) It has ability to resist oxidation at high temperatures.
(viii) It has good machinability.
Application of SG cast iron:-
The typical applications of SG cast iron include valves, pump, bodies, crankshaft,
gears, pinions, rollers, rocker arms, flanges, pipe fittings, power transmission
equipments, earth moving machineries and other machine components.

PART-C
1. Explain: [N/D’16]
1. Eutectic reaction (4)
2. Eutectoid reaction (4)
3. Peritectic reaction (4)
4. Peritectoid reaction (4)
Eutectic reaction:
A eutectic reaction is a three-phase reaction, by which, on cooling, a liquid
transforms into two solid phases at the same time. It is a phase reaction, but a special
one. For example: liquid alloy becomes a solid mixture of alpha and beta at a specific
temperature (rather than over a temperature range). The eutectic solid is commonly
lamellar (stripy) in form.

20
 Eutectoid reaction:
The eutectoid reaction describes the phase transformation of one solid into
two different solids. In the Fe-C system, there is a eutectoid point at approximately
0.8wt% C, 723°C. The phase just above the eutectoid temperature for plain carbon steels
is known as austenite or gamma. We now consider what happens as this phase is cooled
through the eutectoid temperature (723°C).
Peritectic Reaction:
A peritectic reaction is a reaction where a solid phase and liquid phase will together form
a second solid phase at a particular temperature and composition - e.g.
Liquid + alpha --> beta
These reactions are rather sluggish as the product phase will form at the boundary
between the two reacting phases thus separating them, and slowing down any further
reaction. Peritectics are not as common as eutectics and eutectiods, but do occur in
some alloy systems. There's one in the Fe-C system.
Diagram showing the Peritectic reaction, where a liquid and solid together form a new
solid phase.

Peritectoid reaction:

A three-phase reaction in which, upon cooling, two solid phases transform to give a third
solid phase.
2.Explain the procedural steps for constructing the binary phase diagram where
the components show complete liquid and solid solubility. Draw the labelled
diagram and name the system. Give one example for the alloy system showing
above mentioned behaviour.

Phase diagram for completely soluble Metals (Two metals completely soluble in
the liquid and solid state)

 A mixture of two metals is called binary alloy

 In some binary alloy system, the two elements are completely soluble in each
other in both the liquid and solid states. In these system only a single type of
crystal structure exists for all composition of the components, and therefore they
are called isomorphous systems.

 The equilibrium phase diagram for the isomorphous system is given below
The common examples of isomorphous system are:

1. Copper -Nickel (Cu-Ni) system

2. Antimony- Bismuth (Sb-Bi) system
3. Gold -Silver (Au-Ag) system
4. Cromium -Molybdenum (Cr-Mo) system
5. Tungsten - Molybdenum (W-Mo) system
6. Copper -Gold (Cu - Au) system

 The phase diagram is divided into three separate areas by two phase boundaries
namely the liquid and solidus.

 Above the liquid there is a uniform liquid solution, while below the solidus, there is
a single solid solution. Between the liquids and solidus, both liquid and solid
solution coexist.

 Unlike pure metals, alloy freeze over a range of temperature and that the region
between the liquids and solidus curves represents the temperature interval during
which the alloy are in a pasty condition.
 UNIT – 2:HEAT TREATMENT
PART: A
1.Define heat treatment process?
Heat treatment process may be defined as an operation or combinationOf operation
involving heating and cooling of a metal/alloy in the solid state to obtain desirable
properties.
purpose of heat treatment process
 To relieve internal stress.
 To improve machinability.
 To improve hardness of the metal surface.
 To increase resistance to wear, heat and corrosion
2. List any two factors that affect hardenability of steels.
i) Composition of steel
ii) Critical cooling rate
iii) Presence of alloying element
iv) Presence of complex carbides
v) Homogeneity of austenite
3. What is mar tempering?
Mar tempering, also known as mar quenching, is a interrupted cooling
procedure used for steels to minimize the stresses, distortion and cracking
of steels the may be develop during rapid quenching.
4. What is quenching?
Quenching refers accelerated cooling.The cooling can be accomplished by contact
with a quenching medium which may be a gas, liquid or solid.Most of the times, liquid
quenching media is widely used to achieve rapid cooling.
5. What are the different processes of surface hardening? [N/D’15]
I) DIFFUSION METHOD
- Carburizing
- Nitriding
- Cyaniding
- Carbonitriding
II) THERMAL METHOD
- Flame hardening
- Induction hardening
6. What is meant by recrystallisation?
Recrystallisation is a process by which distorted grains of cold-worked metal are
replaced by new, strain-free grains during heating above a specific minimum
temperature.
7. Differentiate carburizing and nitriding.
Carburizing, or carburization is a heat treatment process in which iron or steel absorbs
carbon liberated when the metal is heated in the presence of a carbon bearing material,
such as charcoal or carbon monoxide, with the intent of making the metal harder.
Nitriding is a heat treating process that diffuses nitrogen into the surface of a metal to
create a case-hardened surface. These processes are most commonly used on low-
carbon, low-alloy steels.
8. What are the types of heat treatment processes?
The important heat treatment processes are
1. Annealing 2. Normalizing 3.Hardening 4.Tempering 5.Aus tempering 6.Mar tempering
7.Case hardening
9. What do you mean by the term case hardening?
In many applications, it is desirable that the surfaces of the components should have
high hardness, while the core or inside should be soft the treatments given to the steel to
achieve this is called case hardening.
10. List any two factors that affect hardenability of steels.
Grain Size and Chemical Composition
11. What is austempering? [A/M’15]
 Austempering is a type of interrupted quenching that forms bainite structure.
 It is an isothermal heat treatment process used to reduce quenching distortion and
to make a tough and strong steel.
12. Differentiate Annealing and normalizing [A/M’15]
Annealing normalising
Cooling is established in the furnace Cooling is done in still air
Provides coarse grain structure Provides fine grain structure
Temperature is lower than normalising Temperature is higher than annealing
temperature temperature
Process is costly Process is economical

PART: B
1. Explain the short notes on Annealing
Various heat treatment processes for steels are classified as follows
i) Annealing (ii) normalizing (iii) hardening (iv) tempering
Annealing :
Process of heating a metal which has a distorted to structure to sufficient high
temperature remove all distortion subsequent cooling that microstructure metal is free
from any strain and distortion at room temperature.
Full annealing, spheroidising annealing, stress relief annealing, recrystallisation
annealing
FULL ANNEALING:
Purpose: it is used to improve ductility, remove internal stress, enhance magnetic and
electrical and refine grain structure properties.

Method : 1. heating the steel to austenitic region

2. Followed by slow cooling
3. Steel is heated above the upper critical temp for hypo eutectoid steels.
4.Above the lower critical temp for eutectoid
Structural change:
o Steel is heated lower critical pearlite changes to fines austenite crystal.
o As temp varied courses ferrite dissolved and disappears at upper critical temp.
o Subsequent furnace cooling ferrite and pearlite for hypoeutectoid steel.
o Pearlite for eutectoid steel.
o Properties based on size of pearlite and ferrite and their relation
o Small size better distribution of ferrite and pearlite
o Rate of cooling affect the size of ferrite and pearlite grains
o Slow cooling large rounded ferrite crystal formed and evenly distributed.
o Higher rate of cooling small ferrite crystals is produced with fine pearlite in the
centre.

Application:- This treatment improves the machinability of medium carbon steels.

Limitations:-This process is not employed for hypoeutectoid steel.
SPHEROIDISING ANNEALING:
Purpose:Improve machinability and ductility of high carbon steel and air hardening alloy
steels.
Various methods are available to produce spheroidising structure.
First method: Heating the steel just below lower critical temperature holding at that
temperature for a prolonged.
Second method: Heating and cooling steel alternately just above and below the lower
critical temperature.
Third method: Heating a steel to a temperature above the lower followed by slow cooling
to temp below lower at that temp holding critical temp for a long time.
Structural change:
o No phase change takes place.
o Lamellar and free cementite coalesces into tiny spheroids due to surface tension
effect.
o Final structure consists of spheroids of carbide in a matrix of ferrite.

2. Write short notes stress relief annealing, recrystallisation annealing

STRESS RELIEF ANNEALING:
Purpose:
o Residual stresses are induced during like solidification of castings, forming ,,
machining, welding, grinding and phase transformation.
o Steel with residual stress fail stress corrosion cracking under corrosion
environment.
o These stresses entrance war page and dimensional instability in steels.
o To eliminate or reduce steel is subjected to stress relief annealing.
Methods:
o Steel heated uniformly below the lower critical temp and held at sufficient period of
time followed by uniform cooling.
o Magnitude of stress relieved depend on temp and holding time.
o Structural change:
o Steel is heated below lower critical temp.
o Only residual stress relieved.
o No microstructure changes.
Recrystallisation annealing:
Purpose:
o Cold working of steel increase the hardness and decreases ductility.
o Grains are deformed and residual stresses are induced.
o Necessary to soften the material to improve ductility for further cold working.
o Annealing process is employed for this is refused to as recrystallisation.

Method:
 o Heating the steel above recrystallisation temp holding at that temp particular time
period followed by cooling. Recrystallisation temp is not fixed it depends on
chemical composition, amount of deformation m holding time and the internal
grain size.
o Layer the degree of deformation or longer the holding time lowers the
recrystallistiaon temp.
o Structural change:
o After this treatment property changes by cold working are removed.
o Ductility increase hardness and strength decrease.
Structural change:
After this treatment property change by cold working are removed.

Before After

Application: manufacturing steel wires, sheets or strips.

3. Discuss the method of constructing isothermal diagrams. {APRIL/MAY 2011}

Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT)Curve

 TTT diagram is a plot of temperature versus the logarithm of time for a steel alloy of
definite composition. It is used to determine when transformations begin and end for an
isothermal heat treatment of a previously austenitized alloy TTT diagram indicates when
a specific transformation starts and ends and it also shows what percentage of
transformation of austenite at a particular temperature is achieved.
Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) Curve
 The TTT diagram for AISI 1080 steel (0.79%C, 0.76%Mn) austenitised at 900°C

 Isothermal transformation diagrams (also known as time-temperature-transformation

(TTT) diagrams) are plots of temperature versus time (usually on a logarithmic scale).
They are generated from percentage transformation-vs logarithm of time measurements,
and are useful for understanding the transformations of an alloy steel that is
cooled isothermally. An isothermal transformation diagram is only valid for one specific
composition of material, and only if the temperature is held constant during the
transformation, and strictly with rapid cooling to that temperature. Though usually used to
represent transformation kinetics for steels, they also can be used to describe the
kinetics of crystallization in ceramic or other materials. Time-temperature-precipitation
diagrams and time-temperature-embrittlement diagrams have also been used to
represent kinetic changes in steels.
Isothermal transformation (IT)
 Diagram or the C-curve is associated with mechanical properties, micro
constituents/microstructures, and heat treatments in carbon steels. Diffusional
transformations likeaustenite transforming to a cementite and ferrite mixture can
be explained using the sigmoidal curve; For example the beginning of pearlitic
transformation is represented by the pearlite start (Ps) curve. This transformation
is complete at Pf curve. Nucleation requires an incubation time. The rate of
nucleation increases and the rate of micro constituent growth decreases as the
temperature decreases from the liquidus temperature reaching a maximum at the
bay or nose of the curve. Thereafter, the decrease in diffusion rate due to low
temperature offsets the effect of increased driving force due to greater difference
in free energy. As a result of the transformation, the
microconstituents, Pearlite and Bainite, form; Pearlite forms at higher
temperatures and bainite at lower.
 Austenite is slightly undercooled when quenched below Eutectoid temperature.
When given more time, stable microconstituents can form: ferrite and cementite.
Coarse pearlite is produced when atoms diffuse rapidly after phases that form
pearlite nucleate. This transformation is complete at the pearlite finish time (P f).
 However, greater undercooling by rapid quenching results in formation of
martensite or bainite instead of pearlite. This is possible provided the cooling rate
is such that the cooling curve intersects the martensite start temperature or the
bainite start curve before intersecting the Ps curve. The martensite transformation
being a diffusionless shear transformation is represented by a straight line to
signify the martensite start temperature.
4. Explain the procedure of Jominy end quench test.(A/M 2009,2011,2013)
Hardenability:
The term hardenability refers to the ease with which hardness may be
attained. That is ,the ease with which a steel will transform to hardened structure on
quenching is called hardenability. The hardenability of a steel is define as that property
which determines the depth and distribution of hardness induced by quenching from the
austenitic condition.
Factors affecting hardenability:
1. The composition of the steel
2. The austenitic grain size.
3. The structure of the steel before quenching
4. The quenching medium and the method of quenching
Determining hardenability (jominy end quench test)
1. The most widely adopted method of determining hardenbility is the
jominy end –quench test method.
2. The Jominy end-quench test method is universally adopted because:
(i) It is relatively easy to perform
(ii) It is excellent reproducibility
(iii) It gives information useful to a designer as well as manufacturer.

Testing procedure:
o In this test, specimen dimensions and test conditions are standard.
o Specimen is of cylindrical shape of diameter 25.4mm (I inch) length of
approximately 102mm.(4 inch). it has a machined shoulder at one of cts end.
o Standard specimen is austenitized at a constant temperature for a fixed amount of
time & quickly transferred to quenching jig fixture.
o Water is allowed to flow from the bottom end though a pipe of internal dia 12.7mm
for about 20 minutes.
 o The distance between the bottom end of the specimen pipe is maintained as 12.7
mm.(1/2 inch)
o The pressure of water jet is adjusted such that the free height of water jet is 64mm
(2.5 inch).
o At this pressure water forms a complete umbrella over the bottom surface of the
specimen.
o Temp of water is required to maintain in between 21 to 27oC.
o Cooling rate of the specimen varies from bottom which is subjected to water
quenching to the top end is air cooled.
o The bottom end is subjected to full hardening when the top end undergoes
normalizing cycle.
o Thus the specimen is subjected to all possible rates of cooling throughout its
length.
o This cooling rate is independent of the composites of the specimen.

Interrupted quenching:-
Continuous rapid cooling (quenching) at room temp use to form martensite has
disadvanteage of setting up severe internal stress warping of the material and crack form
in steel less costlies to achieve desired hardness to reduces stress is an interrupted
quenching process.
 PART-C
1. Explain Case hardening
Classified as carburizing, nitriding, cyaniding, carbonitriding [N/D’15]

CARBURIZING:
o Introduce carbon into surface layer of low carbon steels in order to produce a hard
surface.
o Old and cheapest method
o Depth of case 0.5 to 2mm.
o Temp range 900-930oC.
o Solubility of carbon is more in austenite state than in ferrite state, fully austenite
state is required for carburizing.
o Achieved by heating steel above critical temp
o Diffusion of carbon is made by holding the heated steel in contact with
carbonaceous material which may be a solid a liquid or a gas.
Depend on carburizing medium, methods of carburizing
(i) Pack carburizing
(ii) Gas carburizing
(iii) Liquid carburizing

(i)Pack carburizing
o 900-950oC for 6 to 8 hours
o Cooled at room temperature
o Reactions takes place in the process

BaCo3 Bao + Co2 (dissociation of Co2)

Co2 + C 2Co (dissociation of Co2)
2Co + 3Fe Fe3C + Co2 (enrichment of steel)

Advantage:
o Economic and efficient
 o Suitable for massive parts
Disadvantages:
o Not suitable for thin carburized cases
o Does not provide close control or tolerance
o Increase time.
(ii)Gas carburizing:
o 900oC for 3 to 4 hours
o Heated in contact with hydrocarbon like methane, ethane or propane with carries
gases like N2, H2 &Co.
3Fe + Co + H2 Fe3C + H2O
3Fe + 2Co Fe3C + Co2
Advantages:
o Suitable for mass production
o Decrease Time tor operation
o Low labor cost
o Low floor size.
(iii)Liquid carburizing:
o It carried out in molten baths, containing 20 to 50% sodium cyanide, 40% sodium
carbonate and varying amounts of sodium or barium chloride.
o Mixture is melted with 815C and 900 C in molten bath for 5mins to 1 Hr.
BaCl2 +2NaCn Ba(Cn)2 + 2NaCl
Ba(Cn)2 +Fe FeC + Ba(Cn)2
Advantages:
o Uniform heat transfer
o Decrease time
o Rapid rate of penetration
Disadvantages:
o Cyanic salts are highly poisonous.
o Parts should be thoroughly wasted to avoid rasting
NITRIDING:
o Process of saturating the surface of steel with nitrogen.
o Ammonia gas on the surface of steel at temp 480oC to 650oC.
Process:
o Before nitriding component s hould be hafdenend , tempered , machining
operation like grinding.
o Only finishing grinding or lapping is done after nitriding.
o Nitriding is suitable for medium carbon steels , alloy steels containg Al,Mo,Sb
cantimony.
2NH3 + 3H2 2N + 3H2 (dissociation of ammonia)
After nitriding cooled to 200oC in a stream of ammonia.
Advantages :
o Hardest cases of RC70 are obtained.
o Increase surface hardness
o Increase wear resistance to steel
o Fatigue limit and corrosion resistant.
o No quenching
o Hardening defects are avoided by nitriding.
Disadvantages:
o Increase more time for gas carburizing
o Two distinct zone
o Outer zone (white layer it should be hard and brittle)
o Inner zone ( alloy nitride precipitation
o Ammonia cost is high
o Technical control is required
Application :
- Aircraft engine parts such as cams, cylinder,valve stems, shafts,piston rods,
crankpins & journals,aero crankshafts.
CYANIDING:
- Hardening process 9 surface of steel) is carbon and nitrogen.
- Depth is 0.1 to 0.2 mm.
- Cyanide components decompose release his cyan group.
- Cyan group contains carbon and nitrogen atoms, iron.
2NaCn + Co2 Na2Co3 + Co + 2N
3Fe + 2Co Fe3c + Co2
Fe + N FeN
Types of cyaniding:
o Pack cyaninding
o Liquid cyaniding
o Low temperature cyaniding
 o Medium temperature cyaniding
o High temperature cyaniding
Pack cyaniding :
o Powered mixture consists of charcoal and potassium ferro cyanide.
o 540 to 560 oC .(1.5 to 3hrs)
o Used to improve cutting properties of steel
Liquid cyaniding :
o Molten bath in which various cyanide compounds NacN, Ca (cN)2 are
dissolved.
Advantages :
o Increase surface hardness
o Increase resistance and fatique limit
Application :
o Suitable for gears, Pistons , Pins small shafts etc.
CARBONITRIDING :
o In cyaniding the surfaces are enriched with carbon and nitrogen using liquid baths.
o Carbonitriding the surfaces are enriched with carbon and nitrogen using gaseous
atmosphere.
o 850oC – 930oC (with gas mixture natural gas and ammonia)
o Process is lower than liquid cyaniding
o Nitrogen (steel surface) increase hardenability
o Permit 0:1 quench
o Hardness steel RC 65.
o Depth 0.5mm

2.Explain Vacuum Hardening and plasma Hardening

VACCUM HARDENING:
o Vacuum hardening heat treatment is carried out vacuum furnaces and it has many
advantages.
o No decarburization
 o No oxidation and hence bright surface
o Uniformity in temperature and hence low distortion.
o Temperature guided by defined thermocouple.
o Fully automation of heat treatment process.

PLASMA HARDENING:
o It is hardening surface method
o Increase economical, effective and promising technology in heat treatment.
o Austenite structure martensite structure.
o No quenching medium
o Negative terminal connect to tungsten electrode.
o Positive terminal work piece.
o Maintain 13mm distance between nozzle and work piece.
o 30 amps current torch plasma arc is produced.
o After arc is moved over the entire surface of the work piece.
o Remove all setup and measure the hardeners values
 UNIT – 3: FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS
PART: A

1. What are HSLA steels?[A/M’15]

HSLA steels are High- Strength Low – Alloy steels. HSLA steels are low carbon steels
containing small amounts of alloying elements.
2. What are the required properties of tool steel?[N/D’16]
 Good toughness
 Good wear resistance
 Very good machinability
3. What are Gun metals?
Gun metals are alloys of Copper , Tin and Zinc.
4. What are the applications of plain carbon steels?
 Plain carbon steels are used for mass – production products such as automobiles
and applicance.
 They also find applications in the production of ball bearings, base plates,
housings, chutes, structural members, etc.
5. What are the applications of high carbon steels?
Typical applications of plain high-carbon steels include cutting tools and dies, knives,
razors, hacksaw blades, springs, and high-strength wires, etc. these are the application
of high carbon steels.
6. What are the types of aluminium alloys?
The alloys of aluminium may be subdivided into two groups as:
 Heat –treatable aluminum alloys, and
 Non-heat treatable aluminum alloys.
7.List two factors that affect hardenability of steels.
- composition of steel
- austenite grain size
- structure of steel before quenching
- the quenching medium and the method of quenching.
8. What are bronzes? List some use of bronzes.[N/D’16]
Bronzes are alloys of copper and any other major alloying element but not zinc. ( eg
– Al, Be,Sn, etc.)
Uses of bronzes: jewellery, condenser tubes, marine applications, cigarette cases,
pump casting parts, etc.
9.What is the difference between white cast iron and gray cast iron ?
i) In white cast iron all the carbon is present in the combined form i.e , cementite and
there is no free carbon ( graphite) because of which the fractured surface appears white,
hence called white cast iron.
ii) gray cast iron consist of graphite in the form of flakes and appear gray hence called
gray cast iron.
10. What are the effect chromium and molybdenum in low alloy steel ?

37
 The effects of alloying elements are follows:
i) Chromium
- It forms chromium carbides with increase hardenability. It increase wear
resistance. It also increase corrosion and oxidation resistance.
ii) Molybdenum
- It increase hardenability. It forms carbide and increase wear resistance,
reduce decarburization. it increase high temperature creep resistance.
11. What is bearing alloy? [N/D’15]
Materials which are used for making bearings are known as bearing materials.
White metals, copper base alloys, aluminium base alloys are examples

PART: B
1) (i) Enumerate the composition and applictions of following alloys.
(1)Cupronickel [N/D’16]
(2) Bronze
(ii) State the effects of the following alloying elements in steel bearing alloy.
CUPRONICKEL
Cupronickel, any of an important group of alloys of copper and nickel; the alloy
containing 25 percent nickel is used by many countries for coins.
Applications:
Cupronickel is used in:

 tubes for light-duty condensors, feedwater heaters and evaporators used in power
stations and desalination plants
 pipes carrying seawater to fire mains, cooling water systems and ship sanitary
systems
 sheathing for wooden piles
 underwater fencing
 cabled tubes for hydraulic and pneumatic lines
 fasteners, crankshafts, hulls and other marine hardware used in boats
 silver-coloured circulation coins

BRASS
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc; the proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to
create a range of brasses with varying properties. In comparison, bronze is principally an
alloy of copper and tin.
Applications:
It was used to create more powerful and long-lasting weapons, tools, and farm
implements. Craftworkers also used it to make intricate castings—objects made by
pouring melted bronze into a mold.
EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN STEEL Alloying elements are added to effect
changes in the properties of steels. The basis of this section is to cover some of the

38
different alloying elements added to the basic system of iron and carbon, and what they
do to change the properties or effectiveness of steel.
MANGANESE
Manganese slightly increases the strength of ferrite, and also increases the hardness
penetration of steel in the quench by decreasing the critical quenching speed. This also
makes the steel more stable in the quench. Steels with manganese can be quenched in
oil rather than water, and therefore are less susceptible to cracking because of a
reduction in the shock of quenching. Manganese is present in most commercially made
steels.
CHROMIUM
As with manganese, chromium has a tendency to increase hardness penetration. This
element has many interesting effects on steel. When 5 percent chromium or more is
used in conjunction with manganese, the critical quenching speed is reduced to the point
that the steel becomes air hardening. Chromium can also increase the toughness of
steel, as well as the wear resistance. Probably one of the most well known effects of
chromium on steel is the tendency to resist staining and corrosion. Steels with 14 percent
or more chromium are referred to as stainless steels. A more accurate term would be
stain resistant. Stainless tool steels will in fact darken and rust, just not as readily as the
nonstainless varieties. Steels with chromium also have higher critical temperatures in
heat treatment.
SILICON

Silicon is used as a deoxidizer in the manufacture of steel. It slightly increases the

strength of ferrite, and when used in conjunction with other alloys can help increase the
toughness and hardness penetration of steel.
NICKEL
Nickel increases the strength of ferrite, therefore increasing the strength of the steel. It is
used in low alloy steels to increase toughness and hardenability. Nickel also tends to
help reduce distortion and cracking during the quenching phase of heat treatment.
MOLYBDENUM
Molybdenum increases the hardness penetration of steel, slows the critical quenching
speed, and increases high temperature tensile strength.
VANADIUM
Vanadium helps control grain growth during heat treatment. By inhibiting grain growth it
helps increase the toughness and strength of the steel.
TUNGSTEN
Used in small amounts, tungsten combines with the free carbides in steel during heat
treatment, to produce high wear resistance with little or no loss of toughness. High
amounts combined with chromium gives steel a property known as red hardness. This
means that the steel will not lose its working hardness at high temperatures. An example
of this would be tools designed to cut hard materials at high speeds, where the friction
between the tool and the material would generate high temperatures.

39
COPPER
The addition of copper in amounts of 0.2 to 0.5 percent primarily improves steels
resistance to atmospheric corrosion. It should be noted that with respect to knife steels,
copper has a detrimental effect to surface quality and to hot-working behavior due to
migration into the grain boundaries of the steel.

Bearing alloy:
The widely bearing materials are
1. White metals
2. Copper bare alloy
3. Aluminimum base alloys
4. Plastic materials and
5. Creamics
The selection of a particular bearing material depends upon types of loading running
speed and service conditions.
State the effects of following alloying elements:
(i) Chromium:
o Typical ranges in alloy steel 0.3-4
o Increases corrosion and oxidation resistance.
o Increases hardenability.
o Increase high temperature strenth.
o Resists abrasion and wear.
(ii) Molybdenum:
o Typical ranges in alloy steel 0.1-0.5
o Improves high temperature creep resistance.
o Reduces temper brittleness in Ni-Cr steels.
o Stabilizes carbides.
o Increases hardenability.
State objectives:
1. The properties of all steels are determined by the kind and amounts of phases
of which they are composed by the properties of the phases and by the way in
which these phases are distributed among one another.
2. Steel consists of two or more phases known as ferrite austenite carbides and
graphite.

2. Write short notes on: [A/M’15]

(i) High speed steel
(ii) HSLA steel
(iii) Marageing steel
(iv) Tool steel
High speed steel:
 First produced in 1900s. They are highly alloyed with vanadium, cobalt,
 molybdenum, tungsten and chromium added to increase hot hardness and wear
resistance.
 Can be hardened to various depths by appropriate heat treating up to cold
hardness in the range of HRC 63-65.
 The cobalt component gives the material a hot hardness value much greater than
carbon steels.
 The high toughness and good wear resistance make HSS suitable for all type of
cutting tools with complex shapes for relatively low to medium cutting speeds.
 The most widely used tool material today for taps, drills, reamers, gear tools, end
cutters, slitting, broaches, etc.
HSLA steel:
 High-strength low-alloy steel (HSLA) is a type of alloy steel that provides better
mechanical properties or greater resistance to corrosion than carbon steel.
 HSLA steels vary from other steels in that they are not made to meet a specific
chemical composition but rather to specific mechanical properties. They have a
carbon content between 0.05–0.25% to retain formability and weldability.
 Other alloying elements include up to 2.0% manganese and small quantities
of copper, nickel, niobium, nitrogen, vanadium,chromium, molybdenum, titanium, c
alcium, rare earth elements, or zirconium, Copper, titanium, vanadium, and
niobium are added for strengthening purposes.
 These elements are intended to alter the microstructure of carbon steels, which is
usually aferrite-pearlite aggregate, to produce a very fine dispersion of
alloy carbides in an almost pure ferrite matrix.
 This eliminates the toughness-reducing effect of a pearlitic volume fraction yet
maintains and increases the material's strength by refining the grain size, which in
the case of ferrite increases yield strength by 50% for every halving of the mean
grain diameter. Precipitation strengtheningplays a minor role, too.
 Their yield strengths can be anywhere between 250–590 megapascals (36,000–
86,000 psi). Because of their higher strength and toughness HSLA steels usually
require 25 to 30% more power to form, as compared to carbon steels.
Maraging steel:
 Maraging steels (a portmanteau of "martensitic" and "aging")
are steels (iron alloys) that are known for possessing superior strength and
toughness without losing malleability, although they cannot hold a good cutting
edge.
 Aging refers to the extended heat-treatment process. These steels are a special
class of low-carbon ultra-high-strength steels that derive their strength not from
carbon, but from precipitation of intermetallic compounds.
 The principal alloying element is 15 to 25 wt.% nickel. Secondary alloying
elements, which include cobalt, molybdenum, and titanium, are added to
produce intermetallic precipitates, Original development (by Bieber of Inco in the
 late 1950s) was carried out on 20 and 25 wt.% Ni steels to which small additions
of Al, Ti, and Nb were made; a rise in the price of cobalt in the late 1970s led to
the development of cobalt-free maraging steels.
 The common, non-stainless grades contain 17–19 wt.% nickel, 8–12 wt.% cobalt,
3–5 wt.% molybdenum, and 0.2–1.6 wt.% titanium. Addition of chromium
produces stainless grades resistant to corrosion.
 This also indirectly increases hardenability as they require less nickel: high-
chromium, high-nickel steels are generally austenitic and unable to transform
to martensite when heat treated, while lower-nickel steels can transform to
martensite.

Tool steel:
 Tool steel refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that are particularly well-
suited to be made into tools.
 Their suitability comes from their distinctive hardness, resistance to abrasion and
deformation and their ability to hold a cutting edge at elevated temperatures. As a
result tool steels are suited for their use in the shaping of other materials.
 With carbon content between 0.5% and 1.5%, tool steels are manufactured under
carefully controlled conditions to produce the required quality.
 The presence of carbides in their matrix plays the dominant role in the qualities of
tool steel. The four major alloying elements in tool steel that form carbides are:
tungsten, chromium, vanadium and molybdenum.
 The rate of dissolution of the different carbides into the austenite form of the iron
determines the high temperature performance of steel (slower is better, making for
a heat resistant steel).
 Proper heat treatment of these steels is important for adequate
performance. The manganese content is often kept low to minimize the possibility
of cracking during water quenching.
 There are six groups of tool steels: water-hardening, cold-work, shock-resisting,
high-speed, hot-work, and special purpose.
 The choice of group to select depends on, cost, working temperature, required
surface hardness, strength, shock resistance, and toughness requirements. The
more severe the service condition (higher temperature, abrasiveness,
corrosiveness, loading), the higher the alloy content and consequent amount of
carbides required for the tool steel.
 C26800, Yellow brass, is the single phase alpha brass with the lowest content
of copper. It is used where its deep drawing properties and lower cost give an
advantage. When welded, particles of beta phase may form, reducing ductility and
corrosion resistance.
 3.) Discuss different types of copper alloys and their properties and applications.
Copper and copper alloys are some of the most versatile engineering materials available.
The combination of physical properties such as strength, conductivity, corrosion
resistance, machinability and ductility make copper suitable for a wide range of
applications. These properties can be further enhanced with variations in composition
and manufacturing methods.
Copper is the oldest metal used by man, its use dates back to prehistoric times.
Copper has been mined for more than 10,000 years with a copper pendant found in
current day Iraq being dated to 8700BC.
Copper is found as native metal and in the minerals cuprite, malachite, azurite,
chalcopyrite and bornite. It is also often a by-product of silver production. Sulfides, oxides
and carbonates are the most important ores.
Copper and copper alloys are some of the most versatile engineering materials
available. The combination of physical properties such as strength, conductivity,
corrosion resistance, machinability and ductility make copper suitable for a wide range of
applications. These properties can be further enhanced with variations in composition
and manufacturing methods.

APPLICATIONS OF COPPER
Copper and copper alloys can be used in an extraordinary range of applications. Some
of these applications include:
 Power transmission lines
 Architectural applications
 Cooking utensils
 Spark plugs
 Electrical wiring, cables and busbars
 High conductivity wires
 Electrodes
 Heat exchangers and refrigeration tubing
 Plumbing
 Water-cooled copper crucibles.
The largest end use for copper is in the building industry. Within the building industry the
use of copper-based materials is broad. Construction industry related applications for
copper include:

 Roofing
 Cladding
 Rainwater systems
 Heating systems
 Water pipes and fittings
 Oil and gas lines
 Electrical wiring.
 TYPES OF COPPER ALLOYS
Commercially pure coppers are very soft and ductile, containing up to about 0.7%
total impurities. These materials are used for their electrical and thermal conductivity,
corrosion resistance, appearance and color, and ease of working. They have the highest
conductivity of the engineering metals and are very ductile and easy to braze, and
generally to weld. Typical applications include electrical wiring and fittings, busbars, heat
exchangers, roofs, wall cladding, tubes for water, air and process equipment.
High copper alloys contain small amounts of various alloying elements such as beryllium,
chromium, zirconium, tin, silver, sulphur or iron. These elements modify one or more of
the basic properties of copper, such as strength, creep resistance, machinability or
weldability. Most of the uses are similar to those given above for coppers, but the
conditions of application are more extreme.
Brasses are copper zinc alloys containing up to about 45% zinc, with possibly
small additions of lead for machinability, and tin for strength. Copper zinc alloys are
single phase up to about 37% zinc in the wrought condition. The single phase alloys
have excellent ductility, and are often used in the cold worked condition for better
strength. Alloys with more than about 37% zinc are dual phase, and have even higher
strength, but limited ductility at room temperature compared to the single phase alloys.
The dual phase brasses are usually cast or hot worked.
Typical uses for brasses are architecture, drawn & spun containers and
components, radiator cores and tanks, electrical terminals, plugs and lamp fittings, locks,
door handles, name plates, plumbers hardware, fasteners, cartridge cases, cylinder
liners for pumps.

Brasses are divided into two classes. These are:

 The alpha alloys, with less than 37% Zinc. These alloys are ductile and can be cold
worked.
 The alpha/beta or duplex alloys with 37-45% Zinc. These alloys have limited cold ductility
and are typically harder and stronger.
There are three main families of wrought alloy brasses:
 Copper-Zinc alloys
 Copper-Zinc-Lead alloys (Leaded brasses)
 Copper-Zinc-Tin alloys (Tin brasses)
Cast brass alloys can be broken into four main families:
 Copper-Tin-Zinc alloys (red, semi-red and yellow brasses)
 Manganese Bronze alloys (high strength yellow brasses) and Leader Manganese Bronze
alloys (leaded high strength yellow brasses)
 Copper-Zinc-Silicon alloys (Silicon brasses and bronzes)
 Cast Copper-Bismuth and Copper-Bismuth-Selenium alloys.
Bronzes are alloys of copper with tin, plus at least one of phosphorus, aluminum, silicon,
manganese and nickel. These alloys can achieve high strengths, combined with good
corrosion resistance. They are used for springs and fixtures, metal forming dies,
bearings, bushes, terminals, contacts and connectors, architectural fittings and features.
The use of cast bronze for statuary is well known.
Copper nickel are alloys of copper with nickel, with a small amount of iron and
sometimes other minor alloying additions such as chromium or tin. The alloys have
outstanding corrosion resistance in waters, and are used extensively in sea water
applications such as heat exchangers, condensers, pumps and piping systems,
sheathing for boat hulls.
Nickel silvers contain 55–65% copper alloyed with nickel and zinc, and sometimes an
addition of lead to promote machinability. These alloys get their misleading name from
their appearance, which is similar to pure silver, although they contain no addition of
silver. They are used for jewelry and name plates and as a base for silver plate (EPNS),
as springs, fasteners, coins, keys and camera parts.
PROPERTIES OF COPPER ALLOYS
Corrosion Resistance of Copper. All copper alloys resist corrosion by fresh water and
steam. In most rural, marine and industrial atmospheres copper alloys are also resistant
to corrosion. Copper is resistant to saline solutions, soils, non-oxidizing minerals, organic
acids and caustic solutions. Moist ammonia, halogens, sulfides, solutions containing
ammonia ions and oxidizing acids, like nitric acid, will attack copper. Copper alloys also
have poor resistance to inorganic acids. The corrosion resistance of copper alloys comes
from the formation of adherent films on the material surface. These films are relatively
impervious to corrosion therefore protecting the base metal from further attack.

4. With part of phase diagram and relevant sketches, explain the precipitation
hardening treatment of Al-Cu alloys. [M/J’16]
PRECIPITATION STRENGTHENING TREATMENT:
In designing alloys for strength an approach after taken is to develop an alloy with a
structure that consists of particles dispersed in a ductile matrix. Such a dispersion can be
obtained by choosing an alloy that is single phase at elevated temperatures but on
cooling will precipitate another phased in the matrix, when alloy is strengthened by this
thermal treatment, it is called precipitation strengthening or hardening.

Precipitation strengthening consists of three main steps.

1. Solution treatment
2. Quenching
3. Aging
SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT:
To take advantage of precipitation hardening reaction, it is necessary first to produce a
solid solution. The process by which this is accomplished is called solution heat treating
and its objective is to take into solid solution the maximum practical amounts of soluble
hardening elements in the alloy. The processes consist of soaking the alloy at a
temperature sufficiently high and for time long enough to achieve a nearly homogenous
solid solution.
QUENCHING:
Quenching is in many ways the most critical step in the sequence of heat treating
operations. The objective of quenching is to preserve the solid solution formed at the
solution heat treating temperature by rapidly cooling to some lower temperature usually
near room temperature.
In most cases, the solid solution formed during solution heat treatment must be
quenched rapidly enough to produce the supersaturated solution at room temperature
the optimum condition for precipitation hardening. Quenching rapidly cools the solution
and frees the atoms in solution. In more technical ters, the quenching cools the material
so fast that the atoms of the alloying elements do not have time to diffuse out of the
solution. Most frequently parts are quenched by immersion in cold water or in continuous
heat treating of sheet plate or extrusions in primary fabricating mills by progressive
flooding or high velocity spraying with water.

AGING OR AGE HARDENING:

Aging is the process where the solute particles diffuse out of solution and into clusters
that distort and strengthen the material. After solution and quenching, hardening is
achieved either at room temperature or with a precipitation heat treatment. In some
alloys, sufficient precipitation occurs is a few days at room temperature to yield stable
products with properties that are adequate for many applications.

These alloys sometimes are precipitation het treated to provide increased strength
and hardness in wrought or cast products other alloys with and hardness reaction at
room temperature are always precipitation heat treated before use precipitation heat
treatments generally are low temperature, long term processes and temperatures range
from 1115oC to 190oC times vary from 5 to 48 hours. The precipitation hardening
process for a copper aluminium alloy is shown graphically on the right is a phase
diagram which is very useful tool for understanding and controlling polyphone structures.
The phase present as the temperature and over all composition of the alloy are varied.

46
 PART-C
1. Write short notes on:
(i) Austenitic stainless steel (5)
(ii) Ferritic stainless steel (5)
(iii) Martensitic stainless steel (6)

(i)Austenitic Stainless Steel:

 Austenitic stainless steels are a class of alloys with a face-centered-cubic lattice
structure of austenite over the whole temperature range from room temperature
(and below) to the melting point.
 In ferritic steels there is a transformation from the body-centered-cubic lattice
structure of ferrite to the face-centered-cubic lattice structure of austenite.
 The temperature of this transformation depends upon the composition but is about
1340o F for a plain-carbon steel similar to the SA178 or SA210 grades.
 When 18% chromium and 8% nickel are added, the crystal structure of austenite
remains stable over all temperatures.
 The nickel-based alloys with 35-70% nickel and 20-30% chromium, while not
strictly steels (a steel must have at least 50% iron), do have the face-centered-
cubic lattice arrangement and are also called austenitic materials.
(ii) Ferritic stainless steel:
 Ferritic stainless steels have a "body-centred-cubic" (bcc) crystal structure, which
is the same as pure iron at room temperature.
 These steels contain less than 0.10% carbon and are magnetic. The fact that they
can’t be hardened via heat treatment and don’t weld to a high standard limits the
use of these metals somewhat, but they are still suitable for a wide range of
applications.
 The main alloying element is chromium, with contents typically between 11 and
17%, although higher a chromium content of about 29% is found in one
specialised grade.
 Carbon is kept low which results in these steels having limited strength. They are
not hardenable by heat treatment and have annealed yield strengths in the range
of 275 to 350 MPa.
(iii)Martensitic stainless steel:
 Martensitic stainless steels are similar to low alloy or carbon steels. They have a
structure similar to the ferritics with a 'body-centred tetragonal' (bct) crystal lattice.

 Due to the addition of carbon, they can be hardened and strengthened by heat
treatment, in a similar way to carbon steels. They are classed as a "hard" ferro-
magnetic group.
  The main alloying element is chromium, with a typical content of 12-15%. In the
annealed condition, they have tensile yield strengths of about 275 MPa and so
they are usually machined, cold formed, or cold worked in this condition.

 The strength obtained by heat treatment depends on the carbon content of the
alloy. Increasing the carbon content increases the strength and hardness potential
but decreases ductility and toughness.

 The higher carbon grades are capable of being heat treated to hardnesses of 60
HRC. Optimum corrosion resistance is attained in the heat-treated i.e. hardened
and tempered condition.

 Martensitic grades have been developed with nitrogen and nickel additions but
with lower carbon levels than the traditional grades. These steels have improved
toughness, weldability and corrosion resistance

2) What are the types of titanium alloy, their composition properties and
applications? [N/D’15]

Titanium and its alloys are new engineering materials that possess an extraordinary
combination of mechanical properties. Titanium alloys are extremely strong, room
temperature tensile strengths as high as 14000MPa are attainable yielding
remarkable specific strengths, highly ductile, easily forged and machined.

ALLOY NAME & MECHANICAL PROPERTIES APPLICATIONS

COMPOSITION
Commercially Pure- Tensile strength (MPa)-484 Jet engine shrouds, cases and
99.1%Ti Yield strength (MPa)-414 airframe skins, corrosion
Ductility (% elongation in 50 resistant equipment for marine
mm)-25 and chemical processing
industries
Alpha alloy 5% Tensile strength (MPa)-826 Gas turbine engine casings
Al,2.5% Sn, balance Ti Yield strength (MPa)-784 and rings, chal processing
Ductility (% elongation in 50 equipment requiring strength to
mm)-16 temperatures of 480 degree
Celsius
Near alpha alloy 8%Al, Tensile strength (MPa)-950 Forgings for jet engine
1%Mo, 1%V, balance Yield strength (MPa)-890 components (compressor
Ti Ductility (% elongation in 50 disks, plates and hubs)
mm)-15
Alpha Beta alloy 6%Al, Tensile strength (MPa)-947 High strength prosthetic
4%V, balance Ti Yield strength (MPa)-877 implants, chemical processing
Ductility (% elongation in 50 equipment, airframe structural
mm)-14 components.
Alpha Beta alloy Tensile strength (MPa)-1050 Rocket engine case airframe
6%Al,2% Sn, Yield strength (MPa)-985 applications and high strength
6%V,0.75%Cu, Ductility (% elongation in 50 airframe structures
balance Ti mm)-14
Alpha alloy 10%V, 2% Tensile strength (MPa)-1223 Aircraft tailpipe assemblies,
Fe, 3%Al, balance Ti Yield strength (MPa)-1150 missile fuel tanks and
Ductility (% elongation in 50 structural parts operating for
mm)-10 short times upto 593 degree
Celsius.
 UNIT- 4: NON-METALLIC MATERIALS
PART: A
1. Define FRP
FIBER – reinforced plastic or fiber – reinforced polymer is a composite material made of
a polymer matrix reinforced with fiber.
Generally, the fibers are fiber glasses, carbon or armed whereas the polymer is an epoxy
vinylester or polyester thermosetting plastics.
FRP are widely used in aerospace, automotive, marriage and construction field.

2. Give few important characteristic of polymer.

i) Polymers are light in weight
ii) They have high corrosion resistance
iii) Low density
iv) Low thermal and electrical properties.
v) Easy to fabricate
vi) Low cost.

3. What is hybrid composite?

 Hybrid composites are those composites which have a combination of two or
more reinforced fiber.
 The most common hybrid composites are carbon- armed reinforced epoxy ( which
combines strength and impact resistance) and glass- carbon reinforces epoxy (
which gives a strong materials at responsible prices)
 Hybrid composites are usually when a combination of properties of different types
of fibre wants to be achieved, or when a longitudinal as well as lateral mechanical
performance is required.

4. How are refractories classified?

 Fire clay refractories
 Silica refractories
 Basic refractories
 Special refractories

4. Define the term Degree of Polymerization? [N/D’16]

Degree of Polymerization is the number of repetitive units present in one molecule of a
polymer.

5. What are PEEK and PMMA? [N/D’15]

PEEK is a Linear crystalline Hetero chain Polymer. It is a High temperature Plastics,
Which is generally used for service of High temperatures.
PMMA also commonly known as Perspex is Produced by the addition Polymerization of
Methyl Methacrylate.
6. Name any four Commodity plastics and Engineering plastics?

Commodity plastice Engineering plastics

 Polyehtylene  Ethenic

 Polypropylene  Polyamides

 Polystyrene  Cellulosics

 Polyvinyl Chloride  Acetals

8. Distinguish between Thermo Plastics and Thermosetting Plastics? [A/M’15]

S.No Thermo Plastics Thermosetting Plastics

1 They are formed by addition They are formed by Condensation

Polymerization Polymerization

2 They can be Recycled again They cannot be Recycled again

9. What are engineering ceramics? [M/J’16]

Engineering ceramics, are also known as technical/ industrial ceramics or advanced
ceramics, are those ceramics that are specially used for engineering application or in
industries. It is mainly oxides, carbides, sulphides, and nitrides of metals.

10. What are the three stages in addition polymerization?

The addition polymerization occurs in three stages:
 Initiation,
 Propagation, and
 Termination
11. What is polymerisation? [M/J’16]
It is a process of forming a polymer by linking together of monomers.

12. State the advantages of fibre reinforced composites. [M/J’16]

 Low relative density
 Good resistance to corrosion
 Good fatigue resistance
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
 PART: B
1. Describe the molecular structure, properties and application of the following
polymers. [A/M’15]
(i) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (4)
(ii) Polystyrene (PS) (4)
(iii) Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (4)
(iv) Poly carbonate (4)

Polyvinyl chloride:
Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) has a chemistry and a physical structure that
makes it broadly unique in the polymer world. PVC (often referred to vinyls or vinyl
resins) is made commercially at several molecular weights, depending on the
intended applications: from Mw = 39000 g/mol, to Mw = 168000 g/mol. PVC
chemistry follows:

where n, i.e. degree of polymerization, ranges commercially from 625 to

2700. PVC has grown to be one of the major plastics of the world. It was the
largest group of thermoplastic materials; however, the vinyl resins have been
suppressed in volume by the olefin polymers. PVC is second in volume to
polypropylene among plastic materials. The volume of each individual categories
of polyethylene is smaller than PVC’s.
Polystyrene:
Polystyrene (PS) is a synthetic aromatic polymer made from
the monomer styrene. Polystyrene can be solid or foamed. General purpose
polystyrene is clear, hard, and rather brittle. It is an inexpensive resin per unit
weight. It is a rather poor barrier to oxygen and water vapor and has a relatively
low melting point. Polystyrene is one of the most widely used plastics, the scale of
its production being several billion kilograms per year. Polystyrene can be
naturally transparent, but can be colored with colorants. Uses include protective
packaging, containers (such as "clamshells"), lids, bottles, trays, tumblers, and
disposable cutlery.
Properties:
 Flow properties may be the most important properties of polystyrene
processes. There are two widely accepted industry methods for the
measurement of processing properties.
 These include the melt flow index and the solution viscosity. The melt flow
index is measured by ASTM method as a measure of the melt viscosity at
2000 C and a 5kg load.
 Polystyrenes are commercially produced with melt flow ranges of less than
1 to greater than 50, although the most widely available grades generally
have melt flows between 2.0 and 20g per 10min.
 Solution viscosity is another method for measuring the molecular structure
of the polystyrene. Solution viscosity can be measured as an 8% solution in
toluene and increases with increasing molecular weight.
 Crystal polystyrenes have very low impact strengths of less than 0.5ft-lb.
Commercially available impact polystyrene grades can be obtained with
values of 1.0 - 4.0 ft-lb. Generally, polystyrenes are not produced with
greater than 15% total rubber because of polymerization processing
constraints
 The glass transition temperature for unmodified polystyrene is 373 K, and
the glass transition temperatures for polybutadienes are 161-205 K, subject
to the cis, trans, and vinyl content.
Polyethylene terephthalate:
PET is an acronym for polyethylene terephthalate, which is a long-
chain polymer belonging to the generic family of polyesters. PET is formed from
the intermediates, terephthalic acid (TPA) and ethylene glycol (EG), which are
both derived from oil feedstock. There are other polyesters based on different
intermediates but all are formed by a polymerisation reaction between an acid and
an alcohol. PET, in its purest form, is an amorphous glass-like material. Under the
influence of direct modifying additives it develops crystallinity. Also, crystallinity
can be developed by heat treatment of the polymer melt.
The three major packaging applications of PET are as containers
(bottles, jars and tubs), semi-rigid sheet for thermoforming (trays and blisters) and
thin oriented films (bags and snack food wrappers).

Poly carbonate:
 Polycarbonate is a durable material. Although it has high impact-resistance, it
has low scratch-resistance. Therefore, a hard coating is applied to
polycarbonate eyewear lenses and polycarbonate exterior automotive components. The
characteristics of polycarbonate compare to those of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA,
acrylic), but polycarbonate is stronger and will hold up longer to extreme temperature.
Polycarbonate is highly transparent to visible light, with better light transmission than
many kinds of glass.
Polycarbonate has a glass transition temperature of about 147 °C (297 °F),
so it softens gradually above this point and flows above about 155 °C (311 °F). Tools
must be held at high temperatures, generally above 80 °C (176 °F) to make strain-free
and stress-free products. Low molecular mass grades are easier to mold than higher
grades, but their strength is lower as a result. The toughest grades have the highest
molecular mass, but are much more difficult to process.

2. Describe the molecular structure, properties and application of the

following polymeric materials. [N/D’15]
(i)Poly methyl methacrylate (PMMA) (4)
(ii)Poly tetra f1uoro ethylene (PTFE) (4)
(iii)Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (4)
(iv)Acryl nitride butadiene styrene. (4)

Poly methyl methacrylate:

General Poly(methacrylates) are polymers of the esters of methacrylic
acids. The most commonly used among them is poly(methyl methacrylate)
(PMMA).
Poly(methyl methacrylate) or poly (methyl 2‐methylpropenoate) is the
polymer of methyl methacrylate, with chemical formula C5H8O2)n. It is a clear,
colourless poly‐ mer available on the market in both pellet and sheet form under the
names Plexiglas, Acrylite, Perspex, Plazcryl, Acrylplast, Altuglas, Lucite etc. It is
commonly called acrylic glass or simply acrylic.
Another polymer, poly(methyl acrylate) (PMA) is a rubbery material,
similar to poly(methyl methacrylate), but softer than it, because its long polymer
chains are thinner and smoother and can more easily slide past each other.
Poly(methyl methacrylate) is produced by free‐radical polymerization of
methyl‐ methacrylate in mass (when it is in sheet form) or suspension polymerization
according to the following chart:

PMMA is a linear thermoplastic polymer. PMA has a lack of methyl groups

on the backbone carbon chain ‐ its long polymer chains are thinner and smoother
and can slide past each other more easily, so the material becomes softer.
PMMA has high mechanical strength, high Youngʹs modulus and low
elongation at break. It does not shatter on rupture. It is one of the hardest
thermoplastics and is also highly scratch resistant. It exhibits low moisture and water
absorbing capacity, due to which products made have good dimensional stability.
Both of these charac‐teristics increase as the temperature rises.
Application:
− Optics: Dust covers for hi‐fi equipment, sunglasses, watch glasses, lenses,
magnifying glasses;
− Vehicles: Rear lights, indicators, tachometer covers, warning triangles;
− Electrical engineering: Lamp covers, switch parts, dials, control buttons;
− Office equipment: Writing and drawing instruments, pens;
− Medicine: Packaging for tablets, pills, capsules, suppositories, urine containers,
sterilisable equipment;
− Others: Leaflet dispensers, shatter‐resistant glazing, shower cubicles, transparent
pipelines, illuminated signs, toys.
Poly tetra f1uoro ethylene:

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a
synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene that has numerous applications. The best
known brand name of PTFE-based formulas is Teflon by DuPont Co., which discovered
the compound.
PTFE is a fluorocarbon solid, as it is a high-molecular-weight compound
consisting wholly of carbon and fluorine. PTFE ishydrophobic: neither water nor water-
containing substances wet PTFE, as fluorocarbons demonstrate mitigated London
dispersion forces due to the high electronegativity of fluorine. PTFE has one of the
lowest coefficients of friction against any solid.
PTFE is used as a non-stick coating for pans and other cookware. It is very
non-reactive, partly because of the strength of carbon–fluorine bonds and so it is often
used in containers and pipework for reactive and corrosive chemicals. Where used as
a lubricant, PTFE reduces friction, wear and energy consumption of machinery. It is also
commonly used as a graft material in surgical interventions.
Properties:
 PTFE is a thermoplastic polymer, which is a white solid at room temperature, with
a density of about 2200 kg/m3.
 According to DuPont, its melting point is 600 K (327 °C; 620 °F). It maintains high
strength, toughness and self-lubrication at low temperatures down to 5 K
(−268.15 °C; −450.67 °F), and good flexibility at temperatures above 194 K
(−79 °C; −110 °F).
 PTFE gains its properties from the aggregate effect of carbon-fluorine bonds, as
do all fluorocarbons. The only chemicals known to affect these carbon-fluorine
bonds are reactive metals like alkali metals and at higher temperature also e.g.
aluminium and magnesium and fluorinating agents such as xenon
difluoride and cobalt(III) fluoride.
Applications:
 The major application of PTFE, consuming about 50% of production, is for wiring
in aerospace and computer applications (e.g. hookup wire, coaxial cables). This
application exploits the fact that PTFE has excellent dielectric properties.
 This is especially true at high radio frequencies, making it suitable for use as
an insulator in cables and connectorassemblies and as a material for printed
circuit boards used at microwave frequencies.
 Combined with its high melting temperature, this makes it the material of choice
as a high-performance substitute for the weaker and lower-melting-
point polyethylene commonly used in low-cost applications.
 In industrial applications, owing to its low friction, PTFE is used for applications
where sliding action of parts is needed: plain bearings, gears, slide plates, etc. In
these applications, it performs significantly better than nylon and acetal; it is
comparable to ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE).
 Although UHMWPE is more resistant to wear than PTFE, for these applications,
versions of PTFE with mineral oil or molybdenum disulfide embedded as
 additional lubricants in its matrix are being manufactured. Its extremely high
bulk resistivity makes it an ideal material for fabricating long-life electrets, useful
devices that are the electrostatic analogues of magnets.
Polyethylene terephthalate:
PET is an acronym for polyethylene terephthalate, which is a long-chain
polymer belonging to the generic family of polyesters. PET is formed from the
intermediates, terephthalic acid (TPA) and ethylene glycol (EG), which are both
derived from oil feedstock. There are other polyesters based on different
intermediates but all are formed by a polymerisation reaction between an acid and
an alcohol. PET, in its purest form, is an amorphous glass-like material. Under the
influence of direct modifying additives it develops crystallinity. Also, crystallinity
can be developed by heat treatment of the polymer melt.

The three major packaging applications of PET are as containers

(bottles, jars and tubs), semi-rigid sheet for thermoforming (trays and blisters) and
thin oriented films (bags and snack food wrappers).

Properties:
PET in its natural state is a colorless, semi-crystalline resin. Based on how it is
processed, PET can be semi-rigid to rigid, and it is very lightweight. It makes a good gas
and fair moisture barrier, as well as a good barrier to alcohol (requires additional "barrier"
treatment) and solvents. It is strong and impact-resistant. PET becomes white when
exposed to chloroform and also certain other chemicals such as toluene.
About 60% crystallization is the upper limit for commercial products, with the
exception of polyester fibers. Clear products can be produced by rapidly cooling molten
polymer below Tg glass transition temperature to form an amorphous solid. Like glass,
amorphous PET forms when its molecules are not given enough time to arrange
themselves in an orderly, crystalline fashion as the melt is cooled. At room temperature
the molecules are frozen in place, but, if enough heat energy is put back into them by
heating above Tg, they begin to move again, allowing crystals to nucleate and grow. This
procedure is known as solid-state crystallization.
When allowed to cool slowly, the molten polymer forms a more crystalline
material. This material has spherulites containing many small crystallites when
crystallized from an amorphous solid, rather than forming one large single crystal. Light
tends to scatter as it crosses the boundaries between crystallites and the amorphous
regions between them. This scattering means that crystalline PET is opaque and white in
most cases. .
Acryl nitride butadiene styrene:
 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) (chemical formula (C8H8)x·
(C4H6)y·(C3H3N)z) is a common thermoplastic polymer. Its glass
transition temperature is approximately 105 °C (221 °F). ABS is amorphous and
therefore has no true melting point.
 ABS is a terpolymer made by polymerizing styrene and acrylonitrile in the
presence of polybutadiene. The proportions can vary from 15 to 35% acrylonitrile,
5 to 30% butadiene and 40 to 60% styrene.
 The result is a long chain of polybutadiene criss-crossed with shorter chains of
poly(styrene-co-acrylonitrile).
 The nitrile groups from neighboring chains, being polar, attract each other and
bind the chains together, making ABS stronger than pure polystyrene. The styrene
gives the plastic a shiny, impervious surface.
 The polybutadiene, a rubbery substance, provides toughness even at
low temperatures. For the majority of applications, ABS can be used between −20
and 80 °C (−4 and 176 °F) as its mechanical properties vary with temperature.
 The properties are created by rubber toughening, where fine particles of
elastomer are distributed throughout the rigid matrix.
Properties:
 The most important mechanical properties of ABS are impact resistance and
toughness. A variety of modifications can be made to improve impact resistance,
 toughness, and heat resistance.
 The impact resistance can be amplified by increasing the proportions of
polybutadiene in relation to styrene and also acrylonitrile, although this causes
changes in other properties.
 Impact resistance does not fall off rapidly at lower temperatures. Stability under
load is excellent with limited loads.
 Thus, by changing the proportions of its components, ABS can be prepared in
different grades. Two major categories could be ABS for extrusion and ABS for
injection moulding, then high and medium impact resistance. Generally ABS
would have useful characteristics within a temperature range from −20 to 80 °C
(−4 to 176 °F).
Applications:
 ABS's light weight and ability to be injection moulded and extruded make it useful
in manufacturing products such as drain-waste-vent (DWV) pipe systems, musical
instruments (recorders, plastic clarinets, and piano movements), golf club heads
(because of its good shock absorbance), automotive trim components, automotive
bumper bars, medical devices for blood access, enclosures for electrical and
electronic assemblies, protective headgear, whitewater canoes, buffer edging for
furniture and joinery panels, luggage and protective carrying cases, small kitchen
appliances, and toys, including Lego and Kre-O bricks. Household and consumer
goods are the major applications of ABS. Keyboard keycaps are commonly made
out of ABS.
3. Explainthe following Engineering Ceramics:[A/M’15]
a) AL2O3 b) SiC c) Si3N4
AL2O3
Aluminium oxide Alumina:
 Otherwise known as emery.
 Made from minera bauxite.
Properties:
 Increase hardness and moderate strength.
 Withstand high voltage as well as temperature.
 Inexpensive and increase resistance to abrasion.
 Decrease density and increase electrical resisting
 Strong in compression
Application :
 Used in high temperature furnaces, because increase melting point.
 Used in grinding wheels because it has increase compressive strength
and wear resistance.
 Used in rocket nozzles, pump impellers, check valves and nozzles
subjected to erosion.
 Spark plugs, vacuum tubes and electronics micro circuits.
Silicon Carbide:

 Oldest ceramic material

 Used for abrasives for grinding wheels and emery papers.
Silicon are made from any one of the following four processes
a)Pressureless sintering
b)reaction bonding
c)hot pressing
d)chemical vapour deposition
 Pressure less sintering - powder form heated with inert gas at 2050 oc
 Reaction bonding – silicon powder react with carbonaceous gases at
high temperature.
 Hot pressuing – powder by uniaxial pressure at 2150 o c.( pressure 30
MPa)
properties :
 increase strength , stiffness and hardness
 increase thermal conductivity
 increase dimensional stability and polishability
 resistant to abrasion and wear
 increase chemical resistant.
Applications :
 Optical mirrors because of dimensional stability and polishabiling
 Used in nuclear reactor fuel elements.
 Used for mech seals, bearings and engine components.

Silicon Nitride:

Two main types of reaction bonding.

a) Silicon nitride and Pressure sintered silicon nitride it has 20% Porosity
 Advantage is low size charge during firing.
 Disadvantage is decrease strength and mechanical properties.
 Pressure sintered silicon nitride has 00% theoretical density.
Properties :
 Brittle and react with atmosphere.
 No loss of strength at temp 1000oC.
 Increase thermal shock resistance.
 Decrease thermal expansion
 Better toughness than Sic and Al2O3.
 Stiffer than steel.
Applications :
 Cutting tool materials
 Used in heat exchangers, furnace components and crucibles.
  Used in automobile industry.
 Used for gas turbine parts, resist thermal cycling.

4. i) Describe the difference between thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics.
(8)

Property Thermoplastics Thermosetting plastics

Action of heat Type They soften on heating and They set on heating and cannot
of bonding set on cooling every time be resoftened.
The polymer chains are held
The polymers chains are linked
between adjacent together by weak force called
by strong chemical bonds.
polymer chains Van der Waal's force of
(covalent bonds)
attraction.
Solubility Expansion They are soluble in organic They are insoluble in organic
due to solvents. solvents.
They expand very much on Their expansion is only marginal
Heating
heating. due to heat.
Type of They are formed by addition They are formed by
polymerisation polymerization condensation polymerization
Type of moulding They are processed by They are processed by
Scrap recovery injection moulding. compression moulding.
Scarp can be reused. Scarp cannot be reused.
Example Polythene, PVC, Nylon Bakelite, Plaskon

ii) What do you understand by polymerization? With the help of suitable examples,
compare and contrast the process of addition polymerization and condensation
polymerization. [M/J’16]
 Polymer means many monomers. Sometimes polymers are also known as
macromolecules or large-sized molecules. Usually, polymers are organic (but not
necessarily).
 A monomer is a molecule that is able to bond in long chains.
 A polymer can be made up of thousands of monomer. This linking up of monomers is
called polymerization.
 Polymerization is a process of reacting monomer molecules together in a chemical
reaction to form polymer chains or three-dimensional networks.

Name(s) Formula Monomer Properties Uses

Polyethylene –(CH2- ethylene film wrap,

soft, waxy solid
low density (LDPE) CH2)n– CH2=CH2 plastic bags
 electrical
Polyethylene –(CH2- ethylene
rigid, translucent solid insulation
high density (HDPE) CH2)n– CH2=CH2
bottles, toys

similar to
Polypropylene
–[CH2- propylene atactic: soft, elastic solid LDPE
(PP) different
CH(CH3)]n– CH2=CHCH3 isotactic: hard, strong solid carpet,
grades
upholstery

Poly(vinyl vinyl pipes,

–(CH2-
chloride) chloride strong rigid solid siding,
CHCl)n–
(PVC) CH2=CHCl flooring

iii) Difference between addition polymerization and condensation

polymerization
Addition polymerization Condensation polymerization
The addition polymerization means that The condensation polymerization, as a
two monomers react with each other and contrast, normally involves the generation
no other small molecules are generated. of small molecule products.
The best example is polymerization of
ethylene.
It requires two like molecules. It requires two unlike molecules.
Kinetic long linear chain reaction. Intermolecular reaction.
Very fast reaction 10-2 – 10-6sec Slow reaction takes hours and days to
complete.
No by total. By product it produced.
Polymer produced thermoplastic. Chemo setting plastic produced.
Example: PVC, Teflon, Poly ethylene. Example: Bakelite, Silicon, GRP,
Polystyrene.

PART-C
1. Write properties and applications for a) ZrO2 (b) SIALON
a) Zirconium oxide:
 Otherwise known as partially stabilized Zirconia.
 It is blended and sintered with other oxide such of magnesium oxide or
Calcium oxide to control crystal structure transformation.
 It has monoclinic crystal structure at room temperature.
 Tetra gonal structure at low temperature.
 Cubic structure at high temperature.
 Cooling curves cracking and it is difficult to fabricate pure Zirconia ceramic.
Properties :
 Better fracture toughness than ceramics
  Soften than ceramics.
 Increase tensile strength.
 Increase thermal insulators.
 Increase resistance to thermal shock , wear and corrosion.
Applications:
 Used in IC engines.
 Hot extrusion of metal , aerospace , coating etc.
b) Sialon: Si3 Al3 O3 N5
 It is formed by blending and sintering silicon nitride, alumina, silica and aluminium
nitride.
 Presence of Aluminium oxide in sialon increase hardness because of presence in
silicon nitride increase toughness.
Two commercial varieties of sialon.
a)low substitutional sialon b) high substitution sialon
properties :
o Increase strength and hardness.
o Increase resistance to corrosion , wear and thermal shocks.
o Used electrical insulator.
o Good tensile and compressive strength upto 1400Oc.
o Increase stability dimensional and increase coefficient of thermal
expansion.
Application :
 Used in cutting tool materials.
 Used for engine components and bearings.

2. Name the suitable alloys, polymers and ceramics for manufacturing the
following items.
(i) Bush (ii) Furnace heating element (iii) Lathe bed
(iv) Coins (v) Girders for airship (vi) Big end bearing
(vii)Knobs (viii) Windshields (ix)Conduit pipes
(xi)Touch screen (xi) Turbine blade
(xii)Furnace linings (xiii) Grinding(abrasive) wheels
(xiv)Coating on cutting inserts (xv) Cutting inserts for ferrous alloys

1. Bush - Polyamides
2. Furnaces heating element - Ferritic stainless steel
3. Lathe bed - Cast iron
4. Coins - Gliding metal or bronze
5. Girders for Airship - Aluminium/ austenitic stainless steel
6. Big end Bearing -Aluminium base bearing
7. Turbine Blade - Yalloy/ monel metal
8. Conduit Pipes -PVC
9. Knobs -Styrene acrylo-nitrile copolymer SAN
10. Windshields - Acrylic plastic
11. Touch Screens - Indium tin oxide ITO
12. Furnace lining -Refractories/ceramics
13. Grinding (abrasive) wheels - Abrasives/ceramics
14. Coating on cutting inserts - Diamond
15. cutting inserts for ferrous alloy - cemented carbides
 UNIT – 5:
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND DEFORMATION MECHANISMS
PART: A
1. Define the term elasticity and plasticity.
Elasticity: It is the property of a material by virtue of which it is able to retain its original
shape and size after the removal of the load.
Plasticity: It is the property of a material by virtue of which permanent deformation takes
place, whenever it is subjected to the action of external force.
2. What are the factor affecting mechanical properties?
The numbers of factor affect mechanical properties, the following factors are:
 Grain size
 Heat treatment
 Atmospheric exposure
 Low and high temperature
3. Classify the different hardness testing methods. [N/D’16]
1.Rockwell hardness test
2.Brinell hardness test
3.Vickers hardness test
4. What are the different types of fracture?
Ductile, Fatigue, Creep
5. Why impact specimen is notched?
The impact specimens are notched because the impact test also indicates the notch
sensitivity of material.
6. Define creep.
Creep is defined as the slow and progressive deformation of materials with time under a
constant stress at temperature approximately above 0.4 Tm.Where Tm is melting point of
metal in O K.
7. Define endurance limit in fatigue test.
The value of limiting stress below which a load may be applied repeatedly for an
indefinitely large of time is called as endurance limit for fatigue test.
8. Define toughness, modulus of toughness and ductility.
I) Toughness is the total amount of energy absorbed by a materials before its
failure.
II) Modulus of toughness is the total energy absorbed by the materials before
failure per unit volume. MOT = TOUGHNESS / VOLUME.
III) Ductility is the ability of a material to undergo plastic deformation under
tensile loading before fracture.
9.Distinguish between slip and twinning
It is defined as the shear transformation, which moves the atoms over a number of
interatomic distances relative to their initial position.
It is the plastic deformations which takes place along two planes due to set of forces
acting on a given metal.
10. Distinguish between elasticity and plasticity. [M/J’16]
Elasticity plasticity
Deformation disappears when Permenant deformation
external load is removed occurs.
Obeys hook’s law Does not obey hook’s law

11. What are the factors affecting creep?

Grain size Chemical reaction
Thermal stability Prior strain

PART: B

1. Explain the two modes of Plasticdeformation.Describe the working of universal

testing machine with suitable diagram. [N/D’16]

66
2. Write down the procedure for preparing Charpy and Izod specimens for impact
testing and also explain how testing is performed? (N/D2009)
Impact Test
Impact Testing, ASTM E23 and IS/ BS Standard
The impact test is a method for evaluating the toughness and notch sensitivity of
engineering materials. It is usually used to test the toughness of metals, but similar tests
are used for polymers, ceramics and composites. Metal industry sectors include Oil and
Gas, Aerospace, Power Generation, Automotive, and Nuclear.
The notched test specimen is broken by the impact of a heavy pendulum or hammer,
falling at a predetermined velocity through a fixed distance. The test measures the
energy absorbed by the fractured specimen.
Charpy Impact Test
A test specimen is machined to a 10mm x 10mm (full size) cross-section, with either a
―V‖ or ―U‖ notch. Sub-size specimens are used where the material thickness is restricted.
Specimens can be tested down to cryogenic temperatures.
Izod Impact Test
The test specimen is machined to a square or round section, with either one , two or
three notches. The specimen is clamped vertically on the anvil with the notch facing the
Hammer.
Keyhole Impact Test
The steel casting industry uses this type of specimen more frequently. The notch is
machined to look like a keyhole. It is tested in the same manner as the ―V‖ and ―U‖ notch.
Charpy Impact TestPRINCIPLEThe Charpy impact test is a dynamic test in which a test
piece U-notched or V-notched in the middle and supported at each end, is broken by a
single blow of a freely swinging pendulum (Fig.1). The energy absorbed is measured.
This absorbed energy is a measure of the impact strength of material.

PRINCIPLE
The Izod impact test is a dynamic test in which a test piece V-notched test piece, gripped
vertically, is broken by a single blow of a freely swinging pendulum (Fig.4). The blow is
struck on the same face as the notch and at the fixed height above it. The energy
absorbed is measured. This absorbed energy is a measure of the impact strength of
material.
3. Explain the mechanism of plastic deformation by slip and twinning with neat
sketch. [N/D’15]
Two modes of plastic deformation may occur.
They are slip and twinning.
Slip:
Slip is defined as a shear deformation that moves atoms b y mass inter atomic
distance in one crystal plane over the atoms of another crystal plane.The combination of
a slip plane and slip direction is known as slip system.
This slip system for FCC lattice.
Mechanism of slip:

The mechanism of slip is actually due to the movement or dislocation in the crystal
lattice.
 The slip mode of deformation is the common mode in many crystals at
elevated temperatures.
 By examination of the surfaces of a deformed crystal under microscope
shows of parallel lines which corresponded to steps on the surfaces. They
are called as slip lines.
 The mechanism of slip requires the growth and movement of dislocation
line.
 Therefore the energy required for this movement of dislocation line is given
by the relation.
Where , E – Young’s modulus
L – length of dislocation line
G- Shear modulus
B- Unit slip vector
The energy required will be minimum when b vector and g are having the lowest
valve.
 It means that the dislocation having the shortest slip vector is the easiest
dislocation to generate and expand for plastic deformation by slip.
 Critical resolved shear stress for slip:

The stress at which slip starts in a crystal depends on the relative orientations of the
stress axis with respect to the slip plane and the slip direction.The resolved shear stress,
which is in the actual stress operating on the slip system resulting from the application of
simple tensile stress.
F – externally applied forces perpendicular to the cross sectional area.
A – Area of single crystal sample.
This resolved shear stress should reach a critical valve called as cross for a
plastic deformation to start.

The important concept here is that the fundamental deformation mechanism is a

shearing action based on the projection applied force onto the slip system.
F – applied force along the crystal area
A – area of the crystal
Ø – angle between normal to slip plane and F
- Angel between normal to the slip direction and F
A value of z to produce slip by dislocation motion is called as CRSS and is
given by
A. Mechanical twins:
 As a result of mechanical deformation of crystals, twins may occur
and these twins that occur during mechanical deformation are called
mechanical twin.
B. Annealing Twins:
 The twins that are produced by annealing are called as annealing
twins. Most of FCC metals form annealing twins.
Mechanism of Twinning :
In twinnig process, the movement of atoms is only a fraction of inter atomic
distance. The circles indicating the arrangement of atoms. The line AB and CD
represents the places of symmetry , from where the twinng starts and ends respectively.
These planes are known as twinning planes.

Where
AB and the right of the twinning plane CD remain undisturbed. Where as in the twinned
region each atom moves by a distance proportional to its distance from the twinning
plane AB.The dark circular indicated the new position of the atoms.
The twinning occurs due to the growth and movement of dislocation in the crystal lattice.
Definition of twinning:
 Twinning is that process by which a portion of the crystal takes up an
orientation which makes that portion a mirror image of the parent crystal.
 Twinning is the plastic deformation which takes place alone two planes due
to a set of forces acting on a given metal.
 The two planes are usually parallel to each other and are called the twin
planes. Here each atom moves only a fraction of an inter atomatic relative
to its neighbor. The deformation of the crystal lattice caused by twinning.
Twinning planes:
 The planes where the twinning almost takes place is known as
twinning plane. These plane are also called as special planes.
 In most plastic deformation, twinning is relatively insignificant but it
may have considerable influence on the total amount of deformation
that occurs.
Types of twinning:
There are two types of twins
a) Mechanical twins b) Annealing Twins
Difference between slip and twinning:
Slip :

 Slip is associated with line defect.

 Stress required to slip is less than in twinning.
 Slip is move common in BCC and FCC metals.
 The slipped portion has the same orientation.
 Slip lines disappear after polishing the surfaces.
 Slip takes several seconds to form.
 During formation of slip level sound not heard.
 The atomic movements are over large atomic distance.
Twinning :
 Twinning is higher than slip when stress produced.
 Twinning is more common is HCP.
 The twinning portion is s mirror image of original lattice.
 Twin remain even after polishing the surface.
 Twin can form in a few micro seconds.
 During twin formation, a loud sound called twin cry can by heared.
4. Explain the testing procedure for determining the following properties.
(i) Rockwell hardness test (8) [M/J’16]
(ii) Brinell hardness number (4)
(iii) Vickers hardness test (4)

Rockwell Hardness Test

The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a
diamond cone or hardened steel ball indenter. The indenter is forced into the test
material under a preliminary minor load F0 (Fig. 1A) usually 10 kgf. When equilibrium
has been reached, an indicating device, which follows the movements of the indenter
and so responds to changes in depth of penetration of the indenter is set to a datum
position. While the preliminary minor load is still applied an additional major load is
applied with resulting increase in penetration (Fig. 1B). When equilibrium has again been
reach, the additional major load is removed but the preliminary minor load is still
maintained. Removal of the additional major load allows a partial recovery, so reducing
the depth of penetration (Fig. 1C). The permanent increase in depth of penetration,
resulting from the application and removal of the additional major load is used to
calculate the Rockwell hardness number.
HR = E – e
F0 = preliminary minor load in kgf
F1 = additional major load in kgf
F = total load in kgf
e = permanent increase in depth of penetration due to major load F1 measured in units
of 0.002 mm
E = a constant depending on form of indenter: 100 units for diamond indenter, 130 units
for steel ball indenter HR = Rockwell hardness number
D = diameter of steel ball
The Brinell Hardness Test
The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm
diameter hardened steel or carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kg. For softer
materials the load can be reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg to avoid excessive indentation.
The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds in the case of iron and steel and for
at least 30 seconds in the case of other metals. The diameter of the indentation left in the
test material is measured with a low powered microscope. The Brinell harness number is
calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface area of the indentation.
 The diameter of the impression is the average of two readings at right angles and the
use of a Brinell hardness number table can simplify the determination of the Brinell
hardness. A well structured Brinell hardness number reveals the test conditions, and
looks like this, ―75 HB 10/500/30‖ which means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was
obtained using a 10mm diameter hardened steel with a 500 kilogram load applied for
a period of 30 seconds. On tests of extremely hard metals a tungsten carbide ball is
substituted for the steel ball. Compared to the other hardness test methods, the
Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest indentation, so the test averages the
hardness over a wider amount of material, which will more accurately account for
multiple grain structures and any irregularities in the uniformity of the material. This
method is the best for achieving the bulk or macro-hardness of a material, particularly
those materials with heterogeneous structures.

Vickers Hardness Test

The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a
diamond indenter, in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle of
136 degrees between opposite faces subjected to a load of 1 to 100 kgf. The full load
is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds. The two diagonals of the indentation left in
the surface of the material after removal of the load are measured using a
microscope and their average calculated. The area of the sloping surface of the
indentation is calculated. The Vickers hardness is the quotient obtained by dividing
the kgf load by the square mm area of indentation.

F= Load in kgf
d = Arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1 and d2 in mm
HV = Vickers hardness

When the mean diagonal of the indentation has been determined the Vickers
hardness may be calculated from the formula, but is more convenient to use
conversion tables. The Vickers hardness should be reported like 800 HV/10, which
means a Vickers hardness of 800, was obtained using a 10 kgf force. Several
different loading settings give practically identical hardness numbers on uniform
material, which is much better than the arbitrary changing of scale with the other
hardness testing methods. The advantages of the Vickers hardness test are that
extremely accurate readings can be taken, and just one type of indenter is used for all
types of metals and surface treatments. Although thoroughly adaptable and very
precise for testing the softest and hardest of materials, under varying loads, the
Vickers machine is a floor standing unit that is more expensive than the Brinell or
Rockwell machines.

There is now a trend towards reporting Vickers hardness in SI units (Mpa or Gpa)
particularly in academic papers. Unfortunately, this can cause confusion. Vickers
hardness (e.g. HV/30) value should normally be expressed as a number only (without the
units kgf/mm2). Rigorous application of SI is a problem. Most Vickers hardness testing
machines use forces of 1, 2, 5, 10, 30, 50 and 100 kgf and tables for calculating HV. SI
would involve reporting force in newtons (compare 700 HV/30 to HV/294 N = 6.87 Gpa)
which is practically meaningless and messy to engineers and technicians. To convert a
Vickers hardness number the force applied needs converting from kgf to newtons and
the area needs converting form mm2to m2 to give results in pascals using the formula
above.
To convert HV to Mpa multiply by 9.807
To convert HV to Gpa multiply by 0.009807

PART-C

1.i) Sketch and describe the fatigue test.

Fatigue test:

The failure test of a material under repeatedly applied stress is called fatigue. Machine
parts such as shaft, axles, pinion teeth etc are subjected to varying stresses, the loading
may be either the same type of stress or change from tensile to compressive varying
stresses can be classified into the following four types.
 1. Stress varying between two limits of equal valve, but opposite sign.
2. Stress between two unequal valves but opposite sign.
3. Stress between zero and a definite valve.
4. Stress between two limits of un equal valves but of same sign.
The specimen is loaded in pure bending are rotated with the help of a motor. In this case,
with each rotation all the points on the circuimference of the specimen will alternate
between tension and compression. Each resolution will have several of stresses and the
speed to revolution of the motor will indicate the frequency of this reversal.
White doing the test, a number of test pieces are made from the same material.
The first test pieces are made from is loaded on the machine and motor is started.
Generally this load should not be less than that which can create a stress equal to ¾ of
the tensile stress of the specimen. The speed of the shaft should be constant. After a
number of cycles, it will be found that a crack will appear on the surface of the specimen
in the form of a ring.
This will keep increasing until the specimen breaks. The second test piece is
loaded and is tested with a decreased load. In the same way the test pieces are tested
with the load being decrease each time. After some tests, a limit is reached where the
stress is not enough to break the specimen even after 10x106 . This safe stress ie the
stress which does not cause the piece to break is called the endurance limit or fatique
limit.
Fatigue limit:

The fatigue limit test result are than plotted on a graph called s-n graph. This has
the stress on the y axis and the number of cycles on the x axis.
There are two types of fatigue that is normally found by means of using this
apparatus.
1. Low cycle fatigue 2. High cycle fatigue
Low cycle fatigue:
The specimen is subjected to very high loads which results in plastic and elastic
deformation that finally results in failure of the specimen on repeated loading.
High cycle fatigue:
The specimen is subjected to low loads which results in elastic deformation. The
failure of specimen happens when number of cycles is greater than 10 5 cycles in
logarithmic scale.
Differentiate between ductile fracture and brittle fracture.

A fracture is considered as a brittle one when it takes place with the minimum of plastic
deformation and Very rapid crack propagation.It consists of destroying the inter atomic
bonds with normal stresses.

o In crystalline materialism the fracture takes place normal to specific

crystallographic planes called cleavage planes.
o Brittle fracture also occurs along the grain boundaries in poly crystalline
materials.

Ductile fracture:

79
 o A ductile fracture can be defined as a fracture which is the result of intense
localized plastic deformation of metal at the tip of the crack.
o At elevated temperatures all fractures tend to become ductile because slip
can occur more easily.
o Ductile fracture is a less serious problem and compared to brittle fracture it
is slow and occurs with the temperature of large amount of energy.

ii).Draw creep curve and explain the different stages of creep damage. [N/D’16]`

Creep is the slow and progressive deformation of a materials with time under a constant
stress at a temperature approximately above 0.4 Tm.
Creep curve:
The creep is tested for a material by subjected the specimen at constant tensite stress at
constant temperature and measuring the extent of strain or deformation with respect to
time.
The three stages of elongation are
1. Primary (or) Transient creep
2. Secondary (or) Steady state creep
3. Tertiary (or) accelerated creep

Primary creep:
 In this stage, strain hardening effect occurs and the deformation is
slow at a decreasing rate for low melting temperature metal, primary
creep is the predominant creep process.
Secondary creep:
 In this stage, the creep is constant and the creep rate is constant.
This is due to an equilibrium between the strain hardening effect and
the annealing effect. Hence there is a balance between the strain
hardening effect and the annealing effect which results steady state
creep.
Tertiary creep:
 In this the final stage of creep before fracture creep occurs rapidly due to
decrease in cross sectional area and necking of the specimen occurs, the true stress
increase rapidly.

 During this stage, there is a progressive damage to the inter crystalline region by
the formation of voids and severe oxidation of the metal. The material is unable to
harden and finally fractures.
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