SONOCHEMISTRY

ELSEVIER Ultrasonics Sonochemistry3 (1996) $253-$260

The uses of ultrasound in food technology

T . J . M a s o n *, L. P a n i w n y k , J . P . L o r i m e r
Sonochemistry Centre, School of Natural and Environmental Studies, Coventry University, Coventry CV1 5FB, UK
Received22 January 1996

Abstract

The same physical and mechanical effects which have been utilised in sonochemistry, i.e. strong shear forces, particle
fragmentation, increased mass and heat transfer, nucleation of seeding, have been applied to food processing. Examples are
quoted from various applications where power ultrasound has been used to influence the development of living cells, improve
sterilisation and effect enzyme activity. Typically ultrasound can be used as a processing aid in extraction, crystallisation, freezing,
emulsification, filtration and drying.

Keywords: Ultrasound; Food; Sonochemistry

1. Introduction More recently the interest of food technologists has

turned to the use of power ultrasound in processing.
The use of ultrasound within the food industry has
been a subject of research and development for many
years and, as is the case in other areas, the sound ranges 2. Low frequency power ultrasound
employed can be divided basically into high frequency,
low energy, diagnostic ultrasound in the MHz range and In this case the mechanical and chemical effects of
low frequency, high energy, power ultrasound in the kHz cavitation are important and applications are very wide
range. Up to a few years ago the majority of applications ranging. Herein a selection of these topics will be
and developments involved non-invasive analysis with reviewed as identified in Table 1.
particular reference to food quality assessment, e.g. by
monitoring the attenuation of an ultrasound pulse it has 2.1. Effect on living cells: stimulation of activity
proved possible to determine the degree of homogenis-
ation of fat within milk [ 1]. The degree of emulsification There are a number of examples of the use of ultra-
in such materials can also be estimated by the measure- sound to increase the production of food products
ment of ultrasound velocity in conjunction with attenua- through the enhancement of efficiency of whole cells
tion [2]. It is possible to determine factors such as the
degree of 'creaming' (or 'settling') of a sample, i.e. the Table 1
movement of solid particles/fat droplets to the surface Power ultrasound in food technology
(or to the base) [3]. Such information gives details, for
example, of the long term stability of fruit juices and Effect on living cells Stimulation of activity
Sonochemical destruction
the stability of emulsions such as mayonnaise. The Effect on enzymes Stimulation of activity
combination of velocity and attenuation measurements Controlled denaturing
shows promise as a method for the analysis of edible Effect of 'jet' impact on surface Improved impregnation
fats and oils [4] and for the determination of the extent Improved extraction
of crystallisation and melting in dispersed emulsion Miscellaneous applications Meat processing
Crystallization and freezing
droplets [5]. Emulsification
Filtration and drying
Rice grain treatment
* Corresponding author. Fax: +44-1203-838173.

1350-4177/96/$15.00Copyright© 1996ElsevierScienceB.V. All rights reserved

PII S1350-4177(96)00034-X
s 254 T.J. Mason et al./Ultrasonics Sonochemistrv 3 (1996) $253-$260

without disrupting the cell walls. A simple example of nation, initial growth rate and reduced ripening times it
this is in the use of low power ultrasonic activation of is also a rival to chemical treatments and could lead to
a liquid nutrient media to enhance the rate of growth clean 'organic' farming.
of algal cells. Essentially this results in an increase in
the production of protein (up to three-fold) and repre- 2.2. Effect on living cells': sonochemical destruction
sents a real possibility for the production of food
materials from unusual sources for human or animal One of the major long-established industrial applica-
consumption [6]. tions of power ultrasound is for cleaning and it has
The production of yoghurt is an important process in proved to be an extremely efficient technology.
the food industry. Recent investigations have shown Ultrasound is particularly useful in surface decontami-
that the use of ultrasound as a processing aid can lead nation where the inrush of fluid which accompanies
to a total reduction in production time of up to 40% cavitational collapse near a surface is non-symmetric.
[7]. A very important finding in this work was that This powerful jet will dislodge dirt and bacteria from
sonication reduced the normal dependence of the process surfaces. The particular advantage of ultrasonic cleaning
on the origin of milk. Further, it appeared to improve in this context is that it can reach crevices that are not
both the consistency and the texture of the product. easily reached by conventional cleaning methods.
A remarkable influence of ultrasound on fish egg Indeed, a general patent has been applied for pertaining
hatching has been reported [8]. The eggs were exposed to the use of ultrasound as a method of pasteurisation,
to ultrasound of frequency 1 MHz for 35 min, three sterilisation and decontamination of instruments and
times a day and this led to a reduction in hatch time surfaces used within the medical, surgical, dental and
for loach from 72 to 60 h. This, in itself, is of consider- food processing industries [13]. One recent example of
able potential industrial importance for fish-farming but surface cleaning in food technology is the use of a
there were two other benefits of ultrasonic treatment. It combination of a bactericide and ultrasound to decon-
was found that the ultrasound increased the fraction of taminate hatchery eggs [14]. In hatcheries the eggs are
the eggs which hatched and further that, once hatched, normally laid 'clean' but a number (some 10%) have
the fish had a higher survival rate. surface contamination having been laid outside of the
Ultrasonically stimulated seed germination offers the nest. Dirty eggs are normally removed from the hatchery
possibility of increased productivity for large scale farm because the egg shells are porous and contamination
crops and in more general horticulture. Agricultural will penetrate to the inside and kill the developing
crop yields are dependent on the quality of the plant embryo. The result of this is that these eggs explode
variety and on the percentage seed germination and after about 10 days. Ultrasonically assisted cleaning
growth. There are several reports in the literature which produces decontamination of 'clean' eggs which is more
suggest that ultrasonic treatment of seeds before sowing efficient than the currently used spraying or gassing
is an effective method of improving crop yield. Normally technique and, more significantly, a decontamination of
this involves treatment of the seeds suspended in water the 'dirty' eggs which allows them to be used in the
which assists in the breaking of dormancy. In this way hatchery.
substantial reductions in the germination times of bean High power ultrasound alone is known to damage or
[9] and rice [10] have been achieved. Another report disrupt biological cell walls which will result in the
suggests that a 10 min aqueous ultrasonic treatment of destruction of living cells. Unfortunately very high inten-
lotus seeds at 0.7 W cm -2 produced a 30% improvement sities are required if ultrasound alone is to be used for
in germination [ 11 ]. complete sterilisation. However, as in the above exam-
More recent Russian studies have applied sonication ple, ultrasound can be employed in conjunction with
under dry conditions which may be carried out up to another technique (e.g., a bactericide) for the destruction
several months before actual sowing [12]. The subse- of micro-organisms. It can also be used to enhance the
quent handling and packaging of the seeds is perfectly sterilisation provided by heat treatment. The first report
conventional with no special precautions required. The on the synergy between ultrasound and heat as a mecha-
treatment unit itself uses ultrasonic equipment operating nism for killing bacteria was published in 1987 by
at 20 kHz with a vibrational amplitude of between 1 Ordonez [15] and was concerned with the vegetative
and 40 ~tm and is able to handle up to 600 kg h - 1 with bacterium Staphylococcus aureus. This report was fol-
the possibility of installation in a continuous packing lowed by a further paper from the same group in 1989
line. Amongst several examples, ultrasonic treatment [16] which showed the benefits of thermosonication (a
has been found to lead to a three-fold enhancement in term now given to the combined application of heat and
sunflower seed germination in soil and a 10 day reduc- ultrasound) of Bacillus subtilis spores. When ultrasound
tion in the ripening time of tomatoes. was applied at moderate temperatures, below those used
The general prospects for this type of technology are in pasteurisation, to brain/heart infusion contaminated
very good. Apart from offering improvements in germi- with Salmonella typhimurium a reduction of contamina-
 T.J. Mason et aL/Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 3 (1996) $253-$260 $255

tion of 99% was observed [17]. Reductions in contami- surface. However, an increase in the activity of
nation were also observed in the similar treatment of s-amylase (on porous polystyrene) was produced on
skimmed milk. The enhancement to the efficiency of the irradiation with 7 MHz ultrasound [19]. This is a very
process induced by sonication decreased as temperature significant result since at this high frequency cavitation
increased. The treatment produced a substantial cannot occur and so, in this case, the increased activity
improvement in time using a small scale reactor operat- is thought to be associated with greater microstreaming
ing at 2 0 k H z and 150 W. Subsequent (but as yet of reagents to the surface.
unpublished) work has shown that the effect also extends It has been known for many years that ultrasound
to the inactivation of food enzymes. can be employed as a method of inhibiting enzyme
These findings are very significant to the food and activity. Nearly 60 years ago Chambers reported that
other industries which operate processes to sterilise or pure pepsin was inactivated by sonication probably as
pasteurise fluids with heat. It can be envisaged that a result of cavitation [20]. Peroxidase, which is found
process times and/or temperatures could be reduced to in most raw and unblanched fruit and vegetables, is
achieve the same lethality values. particularly associated with the development of off-
flavours and brown pigments. The effect of ultrasound
2.3. Effect on enzymes (20 kHz) on peroxidase:sigma-P8000 dissolved in 0.1 M
potassium phosphate at 20°C buffer pH 7 has been
One of the original uses of power ultrasound in reported (Fig. 1 ) [21 ]. The original activity of peroxidase
biochemistry was to break down biological cell walls to was progressively reduced by 90% as ultrasound was
liberate the contents (indeed many ultrasonic horn sys- applied over a 3 h period.
tems were first marketed as cell disruptors).
Subsequently it has been shown that the same power 2.4. Ultrasonically assisted extraction processes
ultrasound can be used to produce a positive effect on
enzyme activity, although if the intensity is too high the The classical techniques for the solvent extraction of
enzymes can be denatured. materials from vegetable sources are based upon the
A fruitful area of research has been the sonochemical correct choice of solvent coupled with the use of heat
activation of immobilised enzymes where ultrasound and/or agitation. The extraction of organic compounds
appears to be particularly useful in increasing the trans- contained within the body of plants and seeds by a
port of substrate to the enzyme. Using cz-chymotrypsin solvent is significantly improved by the use of power
(on agarose gel) and casein as substrate a two-fold ultrasound. The mechanical effects of ultrasound pro-
increase in activity was observed at 20 kHz [18]. Here vide a greater penetration of solvent into cellular materi-
the origin of the enhancement was thought to be associ- als and improves mass transfer. There is an additional
ated with increased penetration of the casein into the benefit for the use of power ultrasound in extractive
support gel induced by cavitational effects close to the processes which results from the disruption of biological

50

P
8
r 40
o
x
i
d
a
s
30
e

A
~ 2o
i
v
i
t 10
Y

30 60 90 120 150 180

Sonication time of solutions (min)
I No pre-treatment --Pre-treated with ultrasound I
Fig. 1. Peroxidaseactivity reduced by sonication.
$256 72J, Mason et aL /Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 3 (1996) $253 $260

Clio
/

HOCH2~/0 0
/

HO~/"~OH
0H

COMMERCIAL PROCESS: reflux (80°C) 2h in aqueous ethanol

SONOCHEMICAL P R O C E S S : 4o°C for lh in same solvent
Fig. 2. Isolation of helicid from dried seed.

cell walls to facilitate the release of contents. This has [27]. The effectiveness of ultrasonic extraction is greater
been shown in a study of the rate of ultrasonic extraction than normal thermal extraction and the time taken is
of sugar from sugar beet [22]. Combined with this effect reduced, the majority of material is extracted in the first
is enhanced mass transfer, due to the effects of micro- 10 min of sonication.
streaming which results in a more efficient method for An increase in the yield of the enzyme rennin from
sugar extraction. Ultrasonically assisted extraction can calf stomachs has been achieved using ultrasound [28].
also be applied to the production of medicinal com- Rennin is an important material used in the production
pounds such as helicid, berberine hydrochloride and of cheese from milk and, surprisingly, the activity of the
bergenin from Chinese plants (Fig. 2) [23]. In some ultrasonic extract was found to be slightly increased
cases sonication increased the efficiency of extraction at compared with normal methodology.
lower temperatures producing a purer product in a
shorter time. Thus helicid, which is normally extracted
2.5. Ultrasound in the processing of meat products
by refluxing in ethanol, can be obtained in a 50% higher
yield in half the extraction time at room temperature
Closely linked with extraction is the methodology
using ultrasound. Once again efficient cell disruption
employed for the production of processed meats.
and effective mass transfer are cited as the major factors
Generally this involves tumbling the meat particles with
leading to this enhancement.
an aqueous liquor containing salt. Ultrasound assists
Protein extraction from defatted soya beans was
the process by disrupting the meat myofibrils which
studied by Wang [24,25]. A continuous process was
releases a sticky exudate and this binds the meat together
developed where sonication of the slurry by a 550 W
and leads to an increase in the strength of the reformed
probe operating at a 20 kHz frequency resulted in an
product. The binding strength, water holding capacity,
efficient extraction which exceeded any previously avail-
product colour and yields were examined after treatment
able technology. This was scaled up to pilot plant for
either with salt tumbling, sonication or both. Samples
the extraction of soya bean protein [26].
which received both salt treatment and sonication were
The extraction of tea solids from leaves is commer-
superior in all qualities [29]. Similar results were
cially important because it is the starting point for the
obtained from a study of the effect of sonication on
production of instant tea. Instant tea is a powder derived
cured roiled ham [30].
from pure tea infusion from which water has been
A traditional method of tenderisation of meat is by
removed by spray drying. The use of ultrasound
mechanical pounding which makes poorer quality meat
improves extraction at 60°C by nearly 20% (Table 2)
more palatable. Sonication of steak has also been found
to be useful in the tenderisation process. In a pilot study
Table 2
Ultrasonic extraction of tea solids
involving sirloin steak the connective tissues were clearly
seen to be reduced when the meat had been subjected
Extraction conditions Solids extracted (% by mass) to treatment at room temperature at 40 kHz using
2 W cm -2 for 2 h [3l].
Heat at 100°C 38
Heat at 60°C 28
Sonicate at 60°C 33 2.6. Ultrasonically assisted crystallisation and freezing
Sonicate at 600C then raise to 100°C 40

Treat mixture for 10 rain, 20 kHz horn, filter and evaporate to Power ultrasound has proved to be extremely useful
dryness. Tea leaf concentration 5 g in 100 g water. in crystallisation processes. It serves a number of roles
 T.J. Mason et al./Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 3 (1996) $253 $260 $257

in the initiation of seeding and subsequent crystal forma-

tion and growth. It also has a secondary property which 10-
is beneficial in such processing applications namely that
\
the cleaning action of the cavitation effectively stops the
e
encrustation of crystals on cooling elements and thereby
m V
ensures continuous efficient heat transfer. Normal cooling
P
It has been reported that ultrasound can be used to 0
\ . . . . .

clarify wines through the precipitation of potassium C

with ultrasound
bi-tartrate [32]. The treatment reduces the precipitation \
\
time from 4-10 days to 1.5 2 h. The texture of food -10 \

products will be affected by the size of undissolved sugar

crystals dispersed in the material. Size will also affect Time ~,
the rate of dissolution of sugar in food preparation. For Fig. 3. Ultrasound in food freezing.
these reasons the control of sugar crystallite size is
important. Normal crystallisation of sugar from concen-
trated sucrose solutions leads to large uneven sized has been investigated [21]. Sonication generates ice
crystals which can be broken down by subsequent crystals of a significantly reduced size with a more even
sonication [33]. This does not however offer a realistic distribution through the solid. This gives rise to a
alternative to conventional practise. The alternative lollipop which is much harder than the conventional
method of subjecting the strong mother liquor, typically product which makes it less customer friendly in that it
70 80% sucrose, to sonication during cooling does not is far less easy to bite. A true advantage however seems
appear to have been reported. Nevertheless, should to be that it adheres much more strongly to its support-
sonically induced crystallisation become a viable possi- ing wooden stick.
bility then scale-up equipment has been designed. A US
patent describes a unit which was operated successfully 2. 7. Ultrasonic emulsification
some years ago in the production of a crystalline drug
[34]. In this design the ultrasound, introduced through One of the earliest uses of power ultrasound in
an array of horns at the base of the vessel, serves two processing was in emulsification. If a bubble collapses
purposes. Firstly, the saturated liquid is ultrasonically near the phase boundary of two immiscible liquids the
seeded as it enters the bottom. The small seeds rise with resultant shock wave can provide a very efficient mixing
the liquid flow and continue to grow and then become of the layers. Stable emulsions generated with ultrasound
large enough to start to sink under the influence of have been used in the textile, cosmetic, pharmaceutical
gravity. Large crystals are then fragmented as they and food industries. Such emulsions are often more
approach the ultrasonic sources and rise again providing stable than those produced conventionally and often
large numbers of fragments which themselves act as require little, if any, surfactant. Emulsions with smaller
seeds. droplet sizes within a narrow size distribution are
One very important area related to crystallisation in obtained, when compared to other methods.
the food industry is the formation of ice crystals during A type of mechanical transducer which is used mainly
the freezing of water. The quality of 'fresh' thawed for homogenisation and emulsification is the 'liquid
foods preserved through freezing can be somewhat whistle' (Fig. 4) [36]. As its name implies this is a device
disappointing in terms of texture. This is particularly for converting fluid motion into sound rather than the
true of soft fruits such as strawberries. The problem more conventional whistle which operates on gas
arises because the small ice crystals which are formed motion. If a liquid is forced rapidly from a jet across a
initially inside of the cellular material of the food clamped thin metal blade the blade is caused to vibrate
continue to grow. As these crystals increase in size they with a frequency dependent on the flow rate. The flow
break some of the cell walls leading to a partial destruc- is adjusted to obtain ultrasonic frequencies and under
tion of the structure of the material. There is a consider- these circumstances the liquid undergoes cavitation as
able 'dwell time' between the initiation of crystallisation it passes across the blade. When a mixture of immiscible
(usually at about - 3 °C) and complete freezing at which liquids is forced across the blade of the liquid whistle
point the temperature of the whole item can fall (Fig. 3). the resulting cavitational mixing produces extremely
Under the influence of ultrasound a much more rapid efficient homogenisation. Liquid whistle devices differ
and even seeding occurs and this leads to a much shorter markedly from the more common sources of ultrasound
dwell time. In addition, since there are a greater number (baths and probes) in that they derive their power from
of seeds the final size of the ice crystals is smaller and the medium (by mechanical flow across the blade) rather
cell damage is reduced [35]. In a somewhat related field than by the transfer of energy from an external source
the effect of ultrasound on the production of ice lollipops to the medium.
$258 T.J. Mason et al./Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 3 (1996) $253 $260

homogenised
mixture out

heterogene stainless steel

q[ block
liquid in

thin metal
blade
Fig. 4. Liquid whistle homogeniser.

In 1960 a series of experiments was undertaken to isolate the solid from its mother liquors. Ultrasonic
compare four methods then in c o m m o n usage for the filtration of particulate matter from a liquid is now
emulsification of mineral oil, peanut oil and safflower arousing some interest since the rate of flow through a
oil [37]. The results proved that a homogeniser, which filter can be increased substantially on application of
operated via a liquid whistle, was superior to three other ultrasound.
types of apparatus, namely a colloidal mill and two Conventionally membranes of various sorts have been
types of sonicator, one of which employed a quartz employed ranging from the simple filter pad through
crystal and the other a barium titanate transducer. semi-permeable osmotic type membranes to those which
The hydrolysis of wool wax and the subsequent are used on a size-exclusion principle for the purification
refining of wool wax alcohols provides an excellent of polymeric materials. Unfortunately the conventional
example of the use of a laboratory liquid whistle reactor methodologies often lead to 'clogged' filters and, as a
[38]. Generally it is with liquid-liquid reactions involv- consequence, there will always be the need to replace
ing phase transfer catalysts that the full benefit of filters on a regular basis. There are two specific effects
ultrasonic homogenisers becomes evident. Sonication of ultrasonic irradiation which can be harnessed to
produces homogenisation, i.e. very fine emulsions, which improve the filtration technique: (i) sonication will cause
greatly increase the reactive interfacial area and allows agglomeration of fine particles (i.e. more rapid filtra-
faster reaction at lower temperatures. The products tion), yet (ii) will supply sufficient vibrational energy to
obtained using this technique were in higher yield than the system to keep the particles partly suspended and
obtained using a conventional hydrolysis and, perhaps therefore leave more free 'channels' for solvent elution.
of even more importance, the alcohols were cleaner and The combined influence of these effects has been
less coloured. This indicates that the ultrasonic method successfully employed to enhance vacuum filtration of
leads to less decomposition (Fig. 5). industrial mixtures such as coal slurry, which is a
An obvious benefit of the liquid whistle for emulsifi- particularly time consuming and difficult process [39].
cation is that it can be used for flow processing and can With the application of ultrasound to filtration, known
be installed 'on-line'. In this way volumes up to 12 000 as 'acoustic filtration', the moisture content of slurry
1/h can be processed as is the case in the manufacture containing 50% water can be rapidly reduced to 25%,
of such items as fruit juices, tomato ketchup and whereas conventional filtration achieves a limit of only
mayonnaise. 40% (Table 3). Since coal slurry is combustible at 30%
moisture content, the potential for this process is clearly
2.8. Ultrasonically assisted filtration and drying

The requirement to remove suspensions of solids from Table 3

Improved belt filtration using ultrasound
liquids is c o m m o n to m a n y industries including chemi-
cal, engineering as well as food. This separation can be Material Initial moisture Moisture % after Moisture % after
either for the production of solids-free liquid or to content (%) normalbelt filter acoustic belt filter

Coal slurry 50 40 25
WOO1 w a x esters
hot aqueous ethanol
], wool wax alcohols + sodium soaps
Paper pulp > 80 70 60
NaOH / aliquat Peat > 90 80 48
Starch slurry 85 55 44
Fig. 5. Sonochemical hydrolysis of wool wax esters.
 T.J. Mason et al./Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 3 (1996) $253-$260 $259

Table 4 Table 5
Sonically improved throughput of rotary drying unit Effect of sonication on the gel time of rice

Material for Initial Target final Increased throughput Type of rice Normal gel Gel time Acoustic
drying water % moisture % due to ultrasound time at 80°C after sonication power

Orange crystals 3.5 1.8 375 White rice 15 rain Very fast 0.35 W/ml
Grated cheese 16.8 5.9 40 Brown rice 25 rain 5 min 0.7 W/ml
Gelatin beads 12.9 3.7 83.3
Rice grains 27.6 14.5 122.2 50 g rice in 100 ml water, pre-sonicated 10 rain at room temperature.

Sound frequency 10.9 kHz at 169 dB.

comparative results in terms of increased throughput
due to the application of sonics is shown in Table 4.
enormous when applied to a continuous belt drying Ultrasound can be employed to increase the rate of
process. An improvement on the acoustic method has heat transfer between a solid heated surface and a liquid,
been developed in which an electrical potential is applied a process of critical importance in drying [42]. The
across the slurry mixture while acoustic filtration is ultrasound can either be introduced to the liquid itself
performed [40]. The filter itself is made the cathode or by vibrating the solid heated surface. It is thought
while the anode, on the top of the slurry, functions as that cavitation aids in the disruption of the boundary
a source of attraction for the predominantly negatively layer and as the temperature of the liquid increases the
charged particulate material. The additional mobility cavitation threshold is reduced. Heat transfer is
introduced by the electric charge 'electro-acoustic filtra- increased by approximately 30 60%.
tion' increases the efficiency of drying of 50% coal slurry
by a further 10%. When applied to fruit extracts and 2.9. Effect of sonication on rice grains
drinks this technique has been used to increase the apple
juice extracted from pulp. Where conventional belt When particles of material in a liquid suspension are
vacuum filtration achieves a reduction in moisture subjected to sonication a number of physical and
content from an initial value of 85% to 50% electro- mechanical effects can result. Large particles are subject
acoustic technology achieved 38% a result with obvious to surface erosion (via cavitational collapse in the sur-
commercial significance. rounding liquid) or particle size reduction (due to fission
Acoustic drying is of potentially great commercial through interparticle collision or the collapse of cavita-
importance. Ultrasonically enhanced drying can be car- tion bubbles formed on the surface). In chemistry these
ried out at lower temperatures than conventional meth- effects have been harnessed to produce active catalysts
odology which reduces the probability of oxidation or from poor starting materials. Thus 3 gm nickel which is
degradation in the material. Additionally unlike high a poor catalyst in hydrogenation can be made quite
velocity gas drying the material is not blown about or efficient by sonication in ethanol before being used in
damaged. In 1964 Soloff reported a study of acoustic the hydrogenation of oct-l-ene [43]. The reason for this
drying of a number of materials using a rotary drier increase in activity is undoubtedly the removal of the
with a sonic source of 169 dB at 10.9 kHz [41]. The passivating outer oxide layer [44]. Recent studies on the

(a) (b)
(a) as supplied
(b) 5 minute sonication
(c) 10 minutes sonication
50g rice in lOOmt water, 20kHz, 0.4 W/ml

(c)
Fig. 6. Effect of sonication on white rice.
$260 72J. Mason et al./Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 3 (1996) $253-$260

effect of sonication on suspended powders have shown [7] Information provided by Undatim Ultrasonics, Louvain-la-
that the particles can be forced into such violent collision Neuve, Belgium (1993).
[8] R. Xie, Z. Zhang, D. Zhang, J. Cheng and X. Xia, Proc. ICAI4
that, in the case of metals, fusion can occur [45,46]. In Congr., IP-3 (1992).
some cases the colliding powders undergo chemical [9] A.E. Crawford, Ultrasonic Engineering (Butterworths, London,
reaction. Thus when copper and sulphur are sonicated 1955).
together in hexane for 1 h, 65% CuzS is generated [47]. [10] D. Esminger, Ultrasonics (Marcel Decker, New York, 1973).
If the particles subjected to sonication are rice grains [11] J. Nagy and M.K. Tatar, Novenytermeles 33 (1984) 437.
[12] O.V. Abramov, personal communication, 1994.
in water then some destruction of the surface 'shell' and [13] R.M.G. Boucher, US Patent 4,211,744 (1980).
grain fragmentation would be anticipated. Both of these [14] P. Slapp, Production Line Cleaning, Diss., British patent 95
effects would result in a faster release of starch during 00587 2.
cooking leading to a shorter period to form a gel. We [15] J.A. Ordonez, J. Dairy Res. 54 (1987) 61.
have investigated the effect of low power ultrasound on [16] J.A. Ordonez, B. Sanz, J. Burgos and M.L. Garcia, J. Appl. Bacte-
riol. 67 (1989) 619.
white and brown rice in terms of both surface effects [17] D.M. Wrigley and N.G. Llorca, J. Food. Protect. 56 (1992) 678.
(by optical microscopy) and reduced cooking time [18] Y. Ishimori, I. Karube and S. Suzuki, J. Molec. Catal. 12
(through gel formation at 80°C) [48]. In the case of (1981) 253.
white rice the surface abrasion is seen where the inner [19] E. Rosenfeld and P. Schmidt, Arch. Acoust. 9 (1984) 105.
starch is revealed as lighter coloured parts of the grain [20] L.A. Chambers, J. Biol. Chem. 117 (1937) 639.
[21] M. Wiltshire, Presented at Sonochemistry Symp., R.S.C. Annu.
(Fig. 6b). This is followed by fragmentation after 10 Congr., Manchester, UK (1992).
min treatment (Fig. 6c). These results are confirmed by [22] P.K. Chendke and H.S. Fogler, Ultrasonics 31 (1975).
the reduced gel times observed (Table 5). Similar trends [23] Y. Zhao, C. Bao and T.J. Mason, Ultrasonics, Int. '91 Conf. Proc.
were observed with brown rice although in this case the (Butterworths, London, 1991).
harder shell reduced the effects of sonication. [24] L.C. Wang, J. Food. Sci. 40 (1975) 549.
[25] L.C. Wang, J. Agric. Food. Chem. 29 (1981) 177.
[26] K.J. Moulton and L.C. Wang, J. Food. Sci. 47 (1982) 1127.
[27] T.J. Mason and Y. Zhao, Ultrasonics 32 (1994) 375.
[28] J.F. Zayas, J. Dairy Sci. 69 (1986) 1767.
3. Conclusion [29] R.J. Vimini, J.D. Kemp and J.D. Fox, J. Food Sci. 48 (1983) 1572.
[30] J.B. Reynolds, D.B. Anderson, G.R. Schmidt, D.M. Theno and
D.G. Siegel, J. Food Sci. 43 (1978) 866.
The use of ultrasound in processing creates novel and [31] T. Roberts, Nutr. Food Sci. 130 (1991) 17.
interesting methodologies which are often complemen- [32] N. Spirov, N. Goravon, D. Mitev and V. Lesichkov, Khranit
tary to classical techniques. It has proved particularly Prom. 22 (1973) 30; Chem. Abstr. 79 (1973) 51798e.
useful in sterilisation, extraction, freezing and filtration [33] T. Roberts and M.J. James, Leatherhead Food Research Associa-
tion (UK) Research Report, 544 (1992).
providing reduced processing times and increased effi-
[34] Midler, US patent 3,510,266 (1970).
ciency. Current studies have identified a number of other [35] E. Acton and G.J. Morris, World patent WO 92/20420.
areas including the stimulation of living cells and [36] Branson, Fairview Estate, Clayton Road, Hayes, Middlesex UB3
enzymes, improved processing of reformed meat and 1AN, UK.
grain treatment. There is wide scope for further research [37] R.E. Singiser and H.M. Beal, J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. (Sci. Edn.)
49 (1960) 482.
into the use of ultrasound in food processing both from
[38] R.S. Davidson, A. Safdar, J.D. Spencer and B. Robinson, Ultra-
an industrial and academic viewpoint. sonics 25 (1987) 35.
[39] N. Senapati, in: Ultrasound in Chemical Processing, Advances in
Sonochemistry 2, ed. T.J. Mason (JAI Press, London, 1991 ).
[40] H. Muralidhara, B. Parekh and N. Senapati, US patent
4,561,953 (1985).
References [41] R.S. Soloff, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 36 (1964) 961.
[42] D. Ensminger, Drying Tech. 6 (1988) 473.
[1] C.A. Miles, D. Shore and K.R. Langley, Ultrasonics 28 (1990) [43] P.W. Cains, L.J. McCausland, D.M. Bates and T.J. Mason, Ultra-
394. son. Sonochem. 1 (1994) $45.
[2] C. Javanaud, N.R. Gladwell, S.J. Gouldby, D.J. Hibberd, A. [44] T.J. Mason, J.P. Lorimer, L. Paniwnyk, P.W. Wright and A.R.
Thomas and M.M. Robins, Ultrasonics 29 (1991) 331. Harris, J. Catal. 147 (1994) 1.
[3] C.S. Gartside and M.M. Robins, in: Sonochemistry, the Uses of [45] K.S. Suslick and D.J. Casadonte, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 109
Ultrasound in Chemistry, ed. T.J. Mason (Royal Society of (1987) 3459.
Chemistry, 1990) p. 27. [46] M.W. Grimstaff, A.A. Cichowlas, S.-B. Choe and K.S. Suslick,
[4] D.J. McClements and M.J.W. Povey, Ultrasonics 30 (1992) 383. Ultrasonics 30 (1992) 168.
[5] D.J. McClements, M.J.W. Povey and E. Dickinson, Ultrasonics [47] N.K. Goh, A. Teah and L.S. Chia, Ultrason. Sonochem. 1
31 (1993) 433. (1994) $43.
[6] Bioprocessing Technology, Technical Insights Inc., 11 August [48] L. Paniwnyk, Ph.D. thesis, Division of Chemistry, Coventry Uni-
1989 (ISSN 0885-5625). versity, UK (1993).