UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

1. Physical Quantity – Fundamental & Derived Quantities

2. Unit – Fundamental & Derived Units
3. Characteristics of Standard Unit
4. fps, cgs, mks & SI System of Units
5. Definition of Fundamental SI units
6. Measurement of Length – Large Distances and Small Distances
7. Measurement of Mass and Measurement of Time
8. Accuracy, Precision of Instruments and Errors in Measurements
9. Systematic Errors and Random Errors
10. Absolute Error, Relative Error and Percentage Error
11. Combination of Errors in Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division
and Exponent.
12. Significant Figures, Scientific Notation and
Rounding off Uncertain Digits
13. Dimensions, Dimensional Formulae and Dimensional Equations
14. Dimensional Analysis – Applications- I, II & III and Demerits
Physical Quantity
A quantity which is measurable is called ‘physical quantity’.

Fundamental Quantity
A physical quantity which is the base and can not be derived from any
other quantity is called ‘fundamental quantity’.
Examples: Length, Mass, Time, etc.

Derived Quantity
A physical quantity which can be derived or expressed from base or
fundamental quantity / quantities is called ‘derived quantity’.

Examples: Speed, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum,

torque, energy, pressure, density, thermal conductivity,
resistance, magnetic moment, etc.

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Unit
Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with a
certain basic, arbitrarily chosen, internationally accepted reference
standard called unit.

Fundamental Units
The units of the fundamental or base quantities are called fundamental
or base units.

Examples: metre, kilogramme, second, etc.

Derived Units
The units of the derived quantities which can be expressed from the
base or fundamental quantities are called derived units.

Examples: metre/sec, kg/m3, kg m/s2, kg m2/s2, etc.

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Various System of Units
In earlier time, various systems like ‘fps’, ‘cgs’ and ‘mks’ system of units were
used for measurement. They were named so from the fundamental units in
their respective systems as given below:

Quantity Dimension System of units

fps cgs mks
Length L foot centi metre metre
Mass M pound gramme kilogramme
Time T second second second

Systeme Internationale d’ unites (SI Units)

The SI system with standard scheme of symbols, units and abbreviations was
developed and recommended by General Conference on Weights and
Measures in 1971 for international usage in scientific, technical, industrial and
commercial work.
This is the system of units which is at present accepted internationally.
SI system uses decimal system and therefore conversions within the system
are quite simple and convenient. Home Next Previous
Fundamental Units in SI system

Quantity Symbol SI unit Symbol

Length L metre m

Mass M kilogramme kg
Time T second s
Electric Current A ampere A
Main units Thermodynamic K kelvin K
Temperature

Light Intensity Cd candela cd

Amount of mole mole mol
substance

Plane angle dθ radian rad

Supplement
ary units Solid angle dΩ steradian sr

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Plane angle
Plane angle ‘dθ’ is the ratio of arc ‘ds’ to the radius ‘r’. Its SI unit is ‘radian’.

ds
r
ds
dθ dθ =
r r
O

Solid angle
Solid angle ‘dΩ’ is the ratio of the intercepted area ‘dA’ of the spherical
surface described at the apex ‘O’ as the centre, to the square of its radius ‘r’.
Its SI unit is ‘steradian’.

dA
r

r
dΩ dA
dΩ =
r2
O
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MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH
The order of distances varies from 10-14 m (radius of nucleus) to 1025 m
(radius of the Universe)
 
The distances ranging from 10-5 m to 102 m can be measured by direct
methods which involves comparison of the distance or length to be
measured with the chosen standard length.
 
 
Example:

i) A metre rod can be used to measure distance as small as 10-3 m.

ii) A vernier callipers can be used to measure as small as 10-4 m.
iii) A screw gauge is used to measure as small as 10-5 m.
 
For very small distances or very large distances indirect methods are used. 

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Measurement of Large Distances P

The following indirect methods may be used

to measure very large distances: θ

1.Parallax method
D D
• Let us consider a far away planet ‘P’ at a
distance ‘D’ from our two eyes.

• Suppose that the lines joining the planet to

the left eye (L) and the right eye (R) subtend
an angle θ (in radians).
L b R
• The angle θ is called ‘parallax angle’ or
‘parallactic angle’ and the distance LR = b is
called ‘basis’.
LR b
θ= =
• As the planet is far away, b/D << 1, and D D
therefore θ is very small.
b
D=
•Then, taking the distance LR = b as a θ
circular arc of radius D, we have
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Measurement of the size or angular diameter of an astronomical
object

 If ‘d’ is the diameter of the planet and ‘α’ is

d
the angular size of the planet (the angle
subtended by d at the Earth E), then

α = d/D

The angle α can be measured from the same

D D
location on the earth.
α
It is the angle between the two directions
when two diametrically opposite points of the
planet are viewed through the telescope.
E
Since D is known, the diameter d of the planet
can be determined from

d=αD

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 Range of Lengths
The size of the objects we come across in the Universe varies over a very
wide range.

These may vary from the size of the order of 10–14 m of the tiny nucleus of an
atom to the size of the order of 1026 m of the extent of the observable
Universe.

We also use certain special length units for short and large lengths which are
given below:

Unit Symbol Value Definition

1 fermi 1f 10–15 m
1 angstrom 1Å 10–10 m
1 Astronomical 1 AU 1.496 × 1011 m Average distance of the Sun from the Earth

Unit
1 light year 1 ly 9.46 × 1015 m The distance that light travels with speed of
3 × 108 m s–1 in 1 year
1 parsec 3.08 × 1016 m The distance at which average radius of
(3.26 ly) Earth’s orbit subtends an angle of 1 arc
second
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Methods of measuring mass
(i) By using a common balance.

(ii) Large masses in the Universe like planets, stars, etc.,

based on Newton’s law of gravitation can be measured by
using gravitational method.

(iii) For measurement of small masses of atomic/subatomic

particles etc., we make use of mass spectrograph in which

radius of the trajectory is proportional to the mass of a

charged particle moving in uniform electric and magnetic
field. 
Range of Masses

The masses of the objects, we come across in the

Universe, vary over a very wide range.

These may vary from tiny mass of the order of 10-30 kg of

an electron to the huge mass of about 1055 kg of the
known Universe.

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MEASUREMENT OF TIME 

We use an atomic standard of time, which is based on the periodic

vibrations produced in a cesium atom. This is the basis of the cesium
clock, sometimes called atomic clock, used in the national standards.

In the cesium atomic clock, the second is taken as the time needed for
9,192,631,770 vibrations of the radiation corresponding to the transition
between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of cesium-133 atom.

The vibrations of the cesium atom regulate the rate of this cesium atomic
clock just as the vibrations of a balance wheel regulate an ordinary
wristwatch or the vibrations of a small quartz crystal regulate a quartz
wristwatch.

A cesium atomic clock is used at the National Physical Laboratory

(NPL), New Delhi to maintain the Indian standard of time.

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ACCURACY, PRECISION OF INSTRUMENTS AND ERRORS IN
MEASUREMENT
Error:
The result of every measurement by any measuring instrument contains
some uncertainty. This uncertainty is called error.
 
Accuracy:
The accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how close the measured
value is to the true value of the quantity.
 
Precision:
Precision tells us to what resolution or limit the quantity is measured.
 
Example:
Suppose the true value of a certain length is near 2.874 cm.

In one experiment, using a measuring instrument of resolution 0.1 cm, the

measured value is found to be 2.7 cm, while in another experiment using a
measuring device of greater resolution, say 0.01 cm, the length is
determined to be 2.69 cm.

The first measurement has more accuracy (because it is closer to the true
value) but less precision (its resolution is only 0.1 cm), while the second
measurement is less accurate but more precise. Home Next Previous
In general, the errors in measurement can be broadly classified as

(I) Systematic errors and (II) Random errors

 
I. Systematic errors
The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one direction, either
positive or negative.
 
Some of the sources of systematic errors are:
 
(a) Instrumental errors:
The instrumental errors that arise from the errors due to imperfect design
or calibration of the measuring instrument, zero error in the instrument,
etc.

Example:
(i)The temperature graduations of a thermometer may be inadequately
calibrated (it may read 104 °C at the boiling point of water at STP whereas it
should read 100 °C);
(ii)In a vernier callipers the zero mark of vernier scale may not coincide with
the zero mark of the main scale;
(iii) An ordinary metre scale may be worn off at one end. Home Next Previous
(b) Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure:
To determine the temperature of a human body, a thermometer placed
under the armpit will always give a temperature lower than the actual
value of the body temperature.
 
(c) Personal errors:

The personal errors arise due to an individual’s bias, lack of proper

setting of the apparatus or individual’s carelessness in taking
observations without observing proper precautions, etc.
 
Example:

If you hold your head a bit too far to the right while reading the
position of a needle on the scale, you will introduce an error due to
parallax.
 
Systematic errors can be minimized by

(i) improving experimental techniques,

(ii) selecting better instruments and
(iii) removing personal bias as far as possible.  
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II. Random errors
The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are
random with respect to sign and size.

These can arise due to random and unpredictable fluctuations in

experimental conditions, personal errors by the observer taking readings,
etc.
 
Example:
When the same person repeats the same observation, it is very
likely that he may get different readings every time.
 

Least count error

Least count:
The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is
called its least count.

The least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the
instrument.
 
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Example:

(i) A Vernier callipers has the least count as 0.01 cm;

(ii) A spherometer may have a least count of 0.001 cm.

Using instruments of higher precision, improving experimental techniques,

etc., we can reduce the least count error.

Repeating the observations several times and taking the arithmetic mean of
all the observations, the mean value would be very close to the true value of
the measured quantity.
 
Note:
Least count error belongs to Random errors category but within a limited
size; it occurs with both systematic and random errors.
 

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Absolute Error, Relative Error and Percentage Error
Absolute error
The magnitude of the difference between the individual measurement
value and the true value of the quantity is called the absolute error of the
measurement.

This is denoted by |Δa|.

Note: In absence of any other method of knowing true value, we consider

arithmetic mean as the true value.

The errors in the individual measurement values from the true value are:

Δa1 = a1 - amean
Δa2 = a2 - amean
----------------
----------------
Δan = an - amean
The Δa calculated above may be positive or negative.

But absolute error |Δa| will always be positive.

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The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is taken as the final or mean
absolute error of the value of the physical quantity a.

It is represented by Δamean.

Thus,
Δamean = (|Δa1|+|Δa2 |+|Δa3|+...+ |Δan|)/n
n
= ∑ |Δai|/n
i=1

If we do a single measurement, the value we get may be in the range

amean ± Δamean

This implies that any measurement of the physical quantity a is

likely to lie between
(amean + Δamean) and (amean - Δamean)

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 Relative
error
The relative error is the ratio of the mean absolute error
Δamean to the mean value amean of the quantity measured.

Mean absolute error

Relative error =
True value or Arithmetic Mean
Δamean
Relative error =
amean

Percentage error
When the relative error is expressed in per cent, it is
called the percentage error (δa).

Mean absolute error

Percentage error = x 100%
True value or Arithmetic Mean

Δamean
Percentage error δa = x 100%
amean
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Combination of Errors
In an experiment involving several measurements, the errors in all the
measurements get combined.

Example:
Density is the ratio of the mass to the volume of the substance.
If there are errors in the measurement of mass and of the sizes or
dimensions, then there will be error in the density of the substance.

 (a) Error of a Sum:

Suppose two physical quantities A and B have measured values

A ± ΔA, B ± ΔB respectively, where ΔA and ΔB are their absolute errors.

Let Z=A+B
When two quantities
Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) + (B ± ΔB) are added, the
absolute error in
= (A + B) ± (ΔA + ΔB) the final result is the
sum of the
= Z ± (ΔA + ΔB) individual errors.

± ΔZ = ± (ΔA + ΔB) or ΔZ = (ΔA + ΔB)

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(b) Error of a Difference:

Suppose two physical quantities A and B have measured values

A ± ΔA, B ± ΔB respectively, where ΔA and ΔB are their absolute errors.

Let Z=A-B

Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) - (B ± ΔB)

= (A - B) ± ΔA ΔB
±

= Z ± (ΔA + ΔB) (since ± and are the

±
same)
± ΔZ = ± (ΔA + ΔB) When two quantities
are subtracted, the
or ΔZ = (ΔA + ΔB) absolute error in
the final result is the
sum of the
individual errors.

Rule:
When two quantities are added or subtracted, the absolute error in the
final result is the sum of the absolute errors in the individual quantities.
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(c) Error of a Product:

Suppose two physical quantities A and B have measured values

A ± ΔA, B ± ΔB respectively, where ΔA and ΔB are their absolute errors.

Let Z=AxB

Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) x (B ± ΔB)

Z ± ΔZ = AB ± A ΔB ± B ΔA ± ΔA ΔB
Dividing LHS by Z and RHS by AB we have,

ΔZ ΔB ΔA ΔA ΔB
1± = 1± ± ±
Z B A AB
ΔZ ΔB ΔA ΔA ΔB
± = ± ± is very small and hence negligible
Z B A AB
When two quantities are
ΔZ ΔA ΔB multiplied, the relative error in
or = + the final result is the sum of the
Z A B relative errors of the individual
quantities.
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(d) Error of a Quotient:

Suppose two physical quantities A and B have measured values

A ± ΔA, B ± ΔB respectively, where ΔA and ΔB are their absolute errors.
ΔB ΔA ΔA ΔB
Let Z = A Z ± ΔZ = A ± A x ± ± x
B B B B B B B
(A ± ΔA) Dividing LHS by Z and RHS by A / B and
Z ± ΔZ = simplifying we have,
(B ± ΔB)

(A ± ΔA) ΔZ ΔB ΔA
± = ± ±
Z ± ΔZ = Z B A
ΔB
B 1± ΔA ΔB
B is negligible
B2

(A ± ΔA) ΔB
-1 ΔZ ΔA ΔB
or = +
Z ± ΔZ = 1± Z A B
B B
When two quantities are
ΔA ΔB divided, the relative error in the
Z ± ΔZ = A ± 1
±
B B B final result is the sum of the
relative errors of the individual
(by Binomial Approximation) quantities. Home Next Previous
 (e) Error of an Exponent (Power):

Suppose a physical quantity A has measured values A ± ΔA where ΔA is its

absolute error.

Let Z = Ap where p is a constant.

Z = A x A x A x ………x A (p times)

Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) x (A ± ΔA) x (A ± ΔA) x ……. x (A ± ΔA) (p times)

ΔZ ΔA ΔA ΔA ΔA
= + + + ……… + (p times as per the
Z A A A A
product rule for errors)

ΔZ ΔA Note:
or =p If p is negative, |p| is taken because errors
Z A due to multiple quantities get added up.

Rule:
The relative error in a physical quantity raised to the power p is the
p times the relative error in the individual quantity.
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(f) Error of an Exponent (Power): ALITER

Suppose a physical quantity A has measured values A ± ΔA where ΔA is its

absolute error.

Let Z = Ap where p is a constant.

Applying log on both the sides, we have

log Z = |p| log A (Whether p is positive or negative

errors due to multiple quantities get
Differentiating, we have added up only)

ΔZ ΔA
= |p|
Z A

Ap x Bq
In general, if Z = , then  
C r

Note:
ΔZ ΔA ΔB ΔC
= p + q +r Cr is in Denominator, but the
Z A B C relative error is added up.
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SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

The reported result of measurement is a number that includes all digits in

the number that are known reliably plus the first digit that is uncertain.

The reliable digits plus the first uncertain digit are known as significant
digits or significant figures.

 
Example:

(i) The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is 2.36 s; the digits 2 and
3 are reliable and certain, while the digit 6 is uncertain. Thus, the measured
value has three significant figures.

(ii) The length of an object reported after measurement to be 287.5 cm has

four significant figures, the digits 2, 8, 7 are certain while the digit 5 is
uncertain.  

Note:
A choice of change of different units does not change the number of
significant digits or figures in a measurement.
Eg. The length 1.205 cm, 0.01205, 12.05 mm and 12050 μm all have four SF.
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Rules for determining the number of significant figures

(i) All the non-zero digits are significant.

(ii) All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant, no matter
where the decimal point is, if at all.

(iii) If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) on the right of decimal point but
to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant.

(iv) The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a number without a decimal point are
not significant.

(v) The trailing zero(s) in a number with a decimal point are significant.

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Scientific Notation

Any given number can be written in the form of a×10b in many ways;

for example 350 can be written as 3.5×102 or 35×101 or 350×100.

a×10b means "a times ten raised to the power of b", where the exponent b is
an integer, and the coefficient a is any real number called the significand or
mantissa (the term "mantissa" is different from "mantissa" in common
logarithm).

If the number is negative then a minus sign precedes a (as in ordinary

decimal notation).

In normalized scientific notation, the exponent b is chosen such that the

absolute value of a remains at least one but less than ten (1 ≤ |a| < 10).

For example, 350 is written as 3.5×102.

This form allows easy comparison of two numbers of the same sign in a, as
the exponent b gives the number's order of magnitude.

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Rules for Arithmetic Operations with Significant Figures
In arithmetic operations the final result should not have more
significant figures than the original data from which it was
obtained.

(1)Multiplication or division:

The final result should retain as many significant figures as are

there in the original number with the least significant figures.

(2) Addition or subtraction:

The final result should retain as many decimal places as are there
in the number with the least decimal places.

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Rounding off the Uncertain Digits
Rounding off a number means dropping of digits which are not
significant. The following rules are followed for rounding off the
number:

1.If the digits to be dropped are greater than five, then add one to the
preceding significant figure.

2. If the digit to be dropped is less than five then it is dropped without

bringing any change in the preceding significant figure.

3.If the digit to be dropped is five, then the preceding digit will be left
unchanged if the preceding digit is even and it will be increased by
one if it is odd.

4.In any involved or complex multi-step calculation, one should retain,

in intermediate steps, one digit more than the significant digits and
round off to proper significant figures at the end of the calculation.

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DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

The nature of a physical quantity is described by its dimensions.

All the physical quantities can be expressed in terms of the seven base or
fundamental quantities viz. mass, length, time, electric current,
thermodynamic temperature, intensity of light and amount of substance,
raised to some power.

The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers (or exponents) to which
the fundamental or base quantities are raised to represent that quantity.
 
Note:
Using the square brackets [ ] around a quantity means that we are dealing
with ‘the dimensions of’ the quantity. 

Example:

i)The dimensions of volume of an object are [L3]

ii)The dimensions of force are [MLT-2]
iii)The dimensions of energy are [ML2T-2]

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Dimensional Quantity
Dimensional quantity is a physical quantity which has dimensions.

For example: Speed, acceleration, momentum, torque, etc.

Dimensionless Quantity
Dimensionless quantity is a physical quantity which has no dimensions.

For example: Relative density, refractive index, strain, etc.

Dimensional Constant
Dimensional constant is a constant which has dimensions.

For example: Universal Gravitational constant, Planck’s constant, Hubble

constant, Stefan constant, Wien constant, Boltzmann constant, Universal
Gas constant, Faraday constant, etc.
Dimensionless Constant
Dimensionless constant is a constant which has no dimensions.

For example: 5, -.0.38, e, π, etc.

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DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS
The expression which shows how and which of the base quantities
represent the dimensions of a physical quantity is called the
dimensional formula of the given physical quantity.

Example:

(i)The dimensional formula of the volume is [M° L3 T°],

(ii)The dimensional formula of speed or velocity is [M° L T -1]
(iii) The dimensional formula of acceleration is [M° L T –2]

An equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its

dimensional formula is called the dimensional equation of the physical
quantity.  

Example:

(i) [V] = [M° L3 T°]

(ii) [v] = [M° L T-1]
(iii) [a] = [M° L T–2]

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Quantities having the same dimensional formulae 

1. Impulse and momentum

2. Work, energy, torque, moment of force
3. Angular momentum, Planck’s constant, rotational impulse
4. Stress, pressure, modulus of elasticity, energy density
5. Force constant, surface tension, surface energy
6. Angular velocity, frequency, velocity gradient
7. Gravitational potential, latent heat
8. Thermal capacity, entropy, universal gas constant and Boltzmann’s
const.
9. Force, thrust
10. Power, luminous flux
Dimensional formulae for physical quantities often used in Physics are
given at the end. (From Slide 63)

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DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS
APPLICATIONS
Dimensional analysis is a tool to find or check relations among physical
quantities by using their dimensions.

When magnitudes of two or more physical quantities are multiplied, their

units should be treated in the same manner as ordinary algebraic symbols.

We can cancel identical units in the numerator and denominator.

Similarly, physical quantities represented by symbols on both sides of a

mathematical equation must have the same dimensions.

Dimensional Analysis can be used-

1.To check the dimensional consistency of equations

(Principle of homogeneity of dimensions).

2. To convert units in one system into another system.

3. To derive the relation between physical quantities based on certain

reasonable assumptions.

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I. Checking the Dimensional Consistency of Equations
The principle of homogeneity of dimensions:

The magnitudes of physical quantities may be added together or

subtracted from one another only if they have the same dimensions.

For example, initial velocity can be added to or subtracted from final

velocity because they have same dimensional formula [M0LT-1] .

But, force and momentum can not be added because their dimensional
formulae are different and are [MLT-2] and [MLT-1] respectively.

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Example:

1. To check the dimensional consistency of v2 = u2 + 2as

The dimensions of the quantities involved in the equation are:

[u] = [M0LT-1]
[v] = [M0LT-1]
[a] = [M0LT-2]
[s] = [M0LT0]

Substituting the dimensions in the given equation,

[M0LT-1]2 = [M0LT-1]2 + [M0LT-2] [M0LT0] (Note that the constant 2 in the term
‘2as’ does not have dimensions)
[M0L2T-2] = [M0L2T-2] + [M0L2T-2]

Each term of the above equation is having same dimensions.

Therefore, the given equation is dimensionally correct or dimensionally
consistent.

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Note:
If an equation fails the consistency test, it is proved wrong;
But if it passes, it is not proved right.

Thus, a dimensionally correct equation need not be actually an

exact (correct) equation, but a dimensionally wrong (incorrect) or
inconsistent equation must be wrong.

Example: Equations v2 = u2 - 2as or v2 = u2 + ½as are dimensionally

consistent but are incorrect equations in mechanics.

Albert Einstein tried his famous mass-energy equation as

E = m / c2, E = m2 / c, E = m2 c, etc.

Finally he settled with E = m c2 using dimensions and then proved it

with the help of Calculus.

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2. To check the dimensional consistency of ½ mv2 = mgh
The dimensions of the quantities involved in the equation are:

[m] = [ML0T0]
[v] = [M0LT-1]
[g] = [M0LT-2]
[h] = [M0LT0]

Substituting the dimensions in the given equation,

[ML0T0] [M0LT-1]2 = [ML0T0] [M0LT-2] [M0LT0]

(Note that the constant ½ in the term
‘½ mv2 ’ does not have dimensions)
[ML2T-2] = [ML2T-2]

Each term of the above equation is having same dimensions.

Therefore, the given equation is dimensionally correct or dimensionally
consistent.

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II. Conversion of units in one system into another system
Units are derived from the dimensions and the dimensions are derived from
the actual formulae of physical quantities.

If the dimensions are known for a physical quantity, then it is easy to

express it in fps, cgs, mks, SI systems or any other arbitrary chosen system.

n1[M1aL1bT1c] = n2[M2aL2bT2c]

a b c
M1 L1 T1
n 2 = n1
M2 L2 T2

n1 and n2 are the magnitudes in the respective systems of units.

Smaller the unit bigger the magnitude of a physical quantity and vice versa.

For example, 1 m = 100 cm (m is the bigger unit and cm is the smaller one)
1 N = 105 dynes (Newton is bigger and dyne is smaller)

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Example:

1. To convert 1 joule in erg.

‘joule’ is unit of energy or work in SI system and ‘erg’ is the unit in cgs system.
The dimensional formula of energy or work is [ML2T-2].
The units from dimensions in SI and cgs systems are kg m2 s-2 and g cm2 s-2
respectively.
Let n1 joule = n2 erg

SI System cgs System

Magnitude n1 = 1 n2 = ?
Mass (M) 1 kg (=1000 g) 1g
Length (L) 1 m (= 100 cm) 1 cm
Time (T) 1s 1s
[MaLbTc] = [ML2T-2] Therefore, a=1, b=2, c=-2

a b c n2 = 1 (1000)1 (100)2 (1)-2

M1 L1 T1
n2 = n1
M2 L2 T2 n2 = 107
1 2 -2
1000 g 100 cm 1s 1 joule = 107 erg
n2 = 1
1g 1 cm 1s Home Next Previous
2. To convert 1 newton into a system where mass is measured in
mg, length in km and time in minute
‘newton or kg m s-2’ is unit of force in SI system and ‘mg km min-2’ is the unit
in the new system.
The dimensional formula of force is [MLT-2].
Let n1 newton = n2 mg km min-2
SI System New System
Magnitude n1 = 1 n2 = ?
Mass (M) 1 kg (=106 mg) 1 mg
Length (L) 1 m (= 1/1000 km) 1 km
Time (T) 1 s (= 1/60) 1s
[MaLbTc] = [MLT-2] Therefore, a=1, b=1, c=-2
a b c
M1 L1 T1 n2 = 1 (106 )1 (10-3)1 (60)2
n2 = n1
M2 L2 T2 n2 = 3.6 x 106
1 1 -2
106 mg 1/1000 km 1/60 s
n2 = 1 1 newton =3.6x106mg km min-2
1 mg 1 km 1s

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 III. Deducing Relation among the Physical Quantities
l
T =k
g The method of dimensions can sometimes be used to deduce relation
among the physical quantities.

For this we should know the dependence of the physical quantity on

other quantities (upto three physical quantities or linearly independent
variables) and consider it as a product type of the dependence.
Example:
1. Consider a simple pendulum, having a bob attached to a string that
oscillates under the action of the force of gravity. Suppose that the period
of oscillation of the simple pendulum depends on its length (l), mass of the
bob (m) and acceleration due to gravity (g). Derive the expression for its
time period using method of dimensions.

The dependence of time period T on the quantities l, g and m as a

product may be written as:

T = k l x my g z

where k is dimensionless constant and x, y and z are the exponents.

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The dimensions of the quantities involved in the equation are:

[m] = [ML0T0]
[l] = [M0LT0]
[g] = [M0LT-2]
[T] = [M0L0T]

By substituting dimensions on both sides of T = k l x my gz, we have

[M0L0T] = [M0LT0]x [ML0T0]y [M0LT-2]z

[M0L0T] = [M]y [L]x+z [T]-2z

On equating the dimensions on both sides, we have

y=0
x+z=0
–2z = 1

So that x = ½ , y = 0, z = -½
Then, T = k l½ g–½
l The value of k is 2π l
Or T = k and T = 2π
g g
determined from
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Demerits of Dimensional Analysis
The dimensional analysis can not be used in the following cases:

1.The value of constants in an equation can not be determined as the

constants do not have dimensions.

2.Only dimensional consistency and not the physical consistency can be

tested.

3.Dimensions can be found from the physical quantity, but physical

quantity can not be always guessed from dimensions because two or more
quantities may have same dimensions.

4.The equation containing the dependency on more than 3 quantities can

not be determined using only M, L and T.
(Note that if 4 independent quantities are involved, then 4 variables
and hence 4 simultaneous equations are required; hence there must
be 4 fundamental dimensions)

5. The equation containing exponential, trigonometric, logarithmic

functions, etc. can not be derived as they do not have dimensions.

6.The equations having the relations other than products / quotients can
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Dimensional formulae for some physical quantities

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 V
P.
V

dv
A
dx

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change in temperature
distance

S  Q / T

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 heat energy 
 
 area x time x temperature 4 
 

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potential difference
current

Q 1Q 2
o 
4Fd 2

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 4Fd 2
o 
m1m 2

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Home Next Previous
 ]

Acknowledgeme
1.
nt
Physics Part I for Class XI by NCERT

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