Skeletal Systeeeeeeeehhhhhm Hyman: I. Notochord

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SKELETAL

 SYSTEEEEEEEEHHHHHM  
HYMAN  
 
 
 
ENDOSKELETON  
 
AXIAL  
o Skull  
o Visceral  skeleton  +  gill  arches  
o Vertebral  column  
o Ribs  +  sternum  
APPENDICULAR  
o Pectoral  girdle  
o Pelvic  girdle  
o Skeleton  of  the  appendages  
 
I. NOTOCHORD  
 
• a.k.a  chorda  dorsalis  
• support  
• stiffened  rod  extending  longitudinally  
• formed  from  roof  of  archenteron  
 
PARTS  OF  NOTOCHORD  (outermost  to  innermost  layers):  
 
Notochordal  epithelium  –  superficial  cells  of  notochord  with  nuclei  aligned  near  
surface  
Juctional  complexes  –  joins  notochordal  cells  
  Basement  membrane  –  first  layer  of  notochordal  sheath  
Fibrous  sheath  –  surrounds  basement  membrane;  collagen  fibers  
  Elastic  externa  –  thinner  layer;  elastin  fibers  
Outer  connective  tissue  sheath  –  joins  notochord  to  surrounding  tissues;  alternating  
strata  of  flattened  fibroblasts  and  collagen  fibers  
 
II. SKELETOGENOUS  REGIONS  
 
Sooo  basically  MESENCHYME  à  ENDOSKELETON  
 
Breakdown  of  SOMITES  (medial  sides  of  epimeres)  à  SCLEROTOME  
mesenchyme  à  VERTBRAL  COLUMN  (VERTEBRA)  +  RIBS  
 
MYOTOMES  à  certain  other  SKELETOGENOUS  REGIONS  
 
 
 
 
Separations  of  Myotomes:  
 
TRANSVERSE  PARTITION  =  MYOSEPTUM  
 
MYOTOME  /  MYOSEPTUM  /  MYOTOME  
 
LONGITUDINAL  SEPTA  
(REGIONS  OF  SKELETAL  FORMATION):  
 
MYOTOME  DIVISIONS  =  HORIZONTAL  SKELETOGENOUS  SEPTUM  
 
DORSAL  (EPAXIAL)  HALF  OF  MYOTOME  /  HORIZONTAL  SKELETOGENOUS  SEPTUM  /  VENTRAL  
(HYPAXIAL)  HALF  OF  MYOTOME  
 
*HSS  extends  from  notochord  to  level  of  lateral  line  
 
NOTOCHORDAL  DIVISIONS  =  DORSAL  +  VENTRAL  SKELETOGENOUS  
SEPTA  
 
DORSAL  SS  =  perichordal  mesenchyme  +  neural  tube  continuing  to  median  
dorsal  line  
VENTRAL  SS  =  perichordal  mesenchyme  +  neural  tube  continuing  to  median  
ventral  line  (tail);  split  into  two  VENTROLATERAL  SEPTA  (trunk)  
 
    *VENTROLATERAL  SEPTA  à  out  wall  of  coelom  
 
**INTERSECTIONS  OF  MYOSEPTUM  WITH  HSS,  DSS,  VSS,  PCM  =  where  
VERTEBRAE  arise  
 
III. ANATOMY  +  EMBRYONIC  ORIGIN  OF  VERTEBRAE  +  RIBS  
 
VERTEBRAL  COLUMN  =  longitudinal  series  of  bones  –  the  VERTEBRAE  
 
PARTS  OF  VERTEBRA:  
 
CENTRUM  –  central  cylindrical  mass,  surrounds/replaces/incorporates  the  
notochord  
 
  SHAPES  OF  CENTRA  
 
  Amphicoelous  –  both  ends  concave;  shark  
  Procoelous  –  anterior  concave,  posterior  convex;  turtle  
Opisthocoelous  –  posterior  concave,  anterior  convex;    
Heterocoelous  –  saddle-­‐shaped;  chicken  
Amphiplatyan  –  both  ends  flat;  mammals  
 
VARIATION  OF  CENTRA  
 
Aspondyly  –  no  centrum  
Monospondyly  –  1  centrum  per  vertebra;  mammals,  turtles,  birds  (amniote  
trunk)  
Diplospondyly  –  2  centrum;  turtles,  birds  (amniote  tail)  
 
DORSAL  NEURAL  ARCH  –  houses  spinal  cord  
VENTRAL  HEMAL  ARCH  –  houses  blood  vessels  (tail)  
 
  ARCH  COMPONENTS  
 
  Two  largest  pairs  of  elements  (anterior):  
Basidorsals  –  produce  the  neural  arch  
Basiventrals  –  produce  the  hemal  arch  
*neural  +  hemal  arch  à  cranial  and  dominant  parts  of  vertebra  
Intercalary  elements  (posterior)  –  maybe  present  between  neural  and  
hemal  arches  
      Interdorsals  
      Interventrals  
 
NEURAL  +  HEMAL  SPINES  –  prolonged  neural  +  hemal  arches  
APOPHYSES  –  projecting  processes;  for  articulation  with  adjoining  
vertebrae/ribs;  for  muscle  attachement  
 
TYPES  OF  APOPHYSES  
 
Zygapophyses  –  between  successive  vertebrae  
  Prezygapophyses  –  anterior  
  Postzygapophyses  –  posterior  
Basapophyses  –  basal  stumps;  ventral  projections  of  centrum,  possible  
remains  of  hemal  arch/rib  attachement  
Diapophyses  –  lateral  projections;  attachment  of  upper  head  of  ribs  
(tuberculum)  
Parapophyses  –  lateral  projections;  attachment  of  lower  head  of  ribs  
(capitulum)  
Pleurapophyses  –  lateral  projections  =  rib  attachment  +  fused  rib  
Hypapophyses  –  midventral  projections  
 
IV. VERTEBRAL  COLUMN  OF  DOGFISH  
 
Vertebra  =  clear,  relatively  soft  cartilage  
 
VERTEBRA  /  THICK  LAYER  OF  VOLUNTARY  MUSCLES  /  SKIN  
 
Thick  layer  of  voluntary  muscles  =  MYOTOMES  
 
MYOTOMES  =  appear  in  whorls  (zigzag  in  form)  
  EPAXIAL  (dorsal)  –  thick  masse  
  HYPAXIAL  (ventral)  –  think  layer  with  cavity—COELOM  
COELOM  –  lined  by  smooth  membrane—PLEUROPERITONEUM;  
encloses  the  viscera,  some  suspended  by  membrane—DORSAL  
MESENTERY  
 
CENTRUM:  
  dorsal  =  NEURAL  ARCH  –  encloses  cavity—NEURAL  CANAL  
  NEURAL  CANAL  –  houses  SPINAL  CORD  
  NEURAL  SPINE  –  terminal  point  of  neural  arch  
  ventral  =  HEMAL  ARCH  (tail)  encloses  cavity—HEMAL  CANAL  
  HEMAL  CANAL  –  houses  CAUDAL  ARTERY  +  VEIN  
  HEMAL  SPINE  –  terminal  point  of  hemal  arch  
 
BASAPOPHYSES  –  basal  stumps;  apparent  homologues  of  HEMAL  ARCH  (trunk)  
 
V. VERTBRAL  COLUMN  OF  REPTILES  AND  AMNIOTES  
 
CHEVRON  BONES  =  present  intercentrum  in  tail  contributing  to  elements  of  
ventral  arch  
 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  ATLAS  +  AXIS  =  modified  for  support  +  movement  of  skull  
 
ATLAS  =  no  centrum  à  ODONTOID  PROCESS  =  FUSED  1st  and  2nd  CENTRUM  
 
VI. VERTEBRAL  COLUMN  OF  BIRDS  
 
Reduction  of  vertebral  flexibility,  except  in  the  neck  =  reduces  intervertebral  
movement  during  flight  =  reduces  frictional  loss  of  energy  
 
SYNSACRUM  =  most  striking  feature;  fusion  of  numerous  vertebrae  (all  lumbar  +  
sacrals  +  first  few  caudals  +  ribs)  with  pelvic  girdle,  bears  weight  in  posterior  
part  of  body  
 
40  –  60+  VERTEBRA  
 
UNPAIRED  OCCIPITAL  CONDYLE  +  SADDLE-­‐SHAPED  CENTRUM  =  180°  
ROTATION  of  the  head  in  either  direction  
 
UNCINATE  PROCESS  =  bridges  between  adjacent  ribs  for  additional  strength  of  
rib  cage  
 
VII. VERTEBRAL  COLUMN  OF  MAMMALS  
 
PROMINENT  FIVE  REGIONS:  
   
CERVICAL  
  THORACIC  
LUMBAR  
SACRAL  
CAUDAL  
A. CERVICAL  VERTEBRAE  
 
7  
first  two:  ATLAS  AXIS  
 
    ATLAS  
Ring-­‐shaped  bone  with  wide  wing-­‐like  lateral  projections  
LATERAL  PROJECTIONS  =  represent  the  ribs;  perforated  by  
vertebrarterial  canal  
VERTEBRARTERIAL  CANAL  =  DISTINGUISHING  FEATUUURE;  where  
vertebrarterial  artery  passes  through  
NO  ZYGAPOPHYSES  
 
    AXIS  
Has  large  and  elongated  neural  arch  with  forward-­‐projecting  neural  
spine  
POSTZYGAPOPHYSES  ONLY  
ODONTOID  PROCESS  =  articulates  with  ring  of  atlas  
 
    OTHER  CERVICAL  VERTEBRAE  
      Generally  similar  in  form  
With  well-­‐developed  neural  arches  and  spines  +  post  and  
prezygapophyses  
PREZYGAPOPHYSES  =  dorsal  orientation  of  articular  surface  
POSTZYGAPOHYSES  =  ventral  orientation  of  articular  surface  
 
B. THORACIC  VERTEBRAE  
 
13  in  CATS  
 
COSTAL  FACETS  =  rib  articulation  
 
ANTERIOR  THORACIC  VERTEBRAE  =  very  tall  neural  spines  +  short  centra  +  
small  post  and  prezygapophyses  +  short  stout  transverse  processes  
LAST  THORACIC  VERTEBRAE  =  different;  reduced  neural  spines  and  
transverse  processes  +  more  prominent  zygapophyses  +  single  rib  facet  +  
extra  process  of  prezygapophyses  =  METAPOPHYSIS  (mammillary  process)    
 
C. LUMBAR  VERTEBRAE  
 
4-­‐7  
 
large  stout  with  prominent  neural  spines  +  long  anteriorly  directed  
transverse  processes  
processes  include  rib  rudiments  =  PLEURAPOPHYSES  
prominent  metapophyses  +  extra  process  of  postzygapophyses  =  
ANAPOPHYSIS  (accessory  process)  
 
 
 
D. SACRUM  
 
3  in  CATS  
 
fused  vertebrae  articulating  with  ILIA  
 
FIRST  SACRAL  VERTEBRA  =  greatest  part  of  pelvic  girdle  support  +  large  
lateral  expansions  
 
E. CAUDAL  VERTEBRAE  
 
Diminishing  neural  arches  +  transverse  processes  +  zygapophyses  
 
LAST  CAUDAL  VERTEBRAE  =  only  centra  
 
CHEVRON  BONES  
 
F. *RIBS  
 
mammalian  rib  =  BONY  VERTEBAL  RIB  +  CARTILAGINOUS  STERNAL  RIB  
NECK  =  narrowest  part  of  rib  
SHAFT  =  remainder  of  rib  
ANGLE  =  point  of  greatest  curvature  of  shaft  
TRUE  RIBS  =  with  independent  attachment  to  sternum  
FALSE  RIBS  =  join  the  preceding  ribs/unattached  
FLOATING  RIBS  =  unattached  false  ribs  
 
    CATS  
9  true  ribs  
4  false  ribs  
1  (from  4  false  ribs)  floating  rib  
 

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