Forum Geometricorum

Volume 19 (2019) 45–52.

FORUM GE
OM
ISSN 1534-11 78

Division of an Angle into Equal Parts

and Construction of Regular Polygons
by Multi-Fold Origami

Jorge C. Lucero

Abstract. This article analyses geometric constructions by origami when

up to n simultaneous folds may be done at each step. It shows that
any arbitrary angle can be m-sected if the largest prime factor of m is
p ≤ n + 2. Also, the regular m-gon can be constructed if the largest
prime factor of φ(m) is q ≤ n + 2, where φ is Euler’s totient function.

1. Introduction
Two classic construction problems of plane geometry are the division of an
arbitrary angle into equal parts and t he construction of regular polygons
[14]. It is well known that the use of straight edge and compass allows
for the bisection of angles and the constructions of regular m-gons if m =
2a p1 p2 · · · pk , where a, k ≥ 0 and each pi is a distinct odd prime of the form
pi = 2bi + 1. It is also known that origami extends the constructions by
allowing for the trisection of angles and the constructions of regular m-gons
if m = 2a1 3a2 p1 p2 · · · pk , where a1 , a2 , k ≥ 0 and each pi is a distinct prime
of the form pi = 2bi,1 3bi,2 + 1 > 3 [1].
Standard origami constructions are performed by a sequence of elemen-
tary single-fold operations, one at a time. Each elementary operation solves
a set of specific incidences constraints between given points and lines and
their folded images [1, 2, 8]. A total of eight elementary operations may be
defined and stated as in Table 1 [12]. The operations can solve arbitrary
cubic equations [3, 7], and therefore they can be applied to related construc-
tion problems such as the duplication of the cube [15] and those mentioned
above [3, 4, 5].
The range of origami constructions may be extended further by using
multi-fold operations, in which up to n simultaneous folds may be performed
at each step [2], instead of single folds. In the case of n = 2, the set of possible
elementary operations increases to 209 or more (the exact number has still
not been determined). It has been shown that 2-fold origami allows for the
geometric solution of arbitrary septic equations [9], quintisection of an angle
[10] and construction of the regular hendecagon [13].

Publication Date: February 4, 2019. Communicating Editor: Paul Yiu.

46 J. C. Lucero

Table 1. Single-fold operations [12]. O denotes the medium in which

folds are performed; e.g., a sheet of paper, fabric, plastic, metal or any
other foldable material.

# Operation
1 Given two distinct points P and Q, fold O to place P onto Q.
2 Given two distinct lines r and s, fold O to align r and s.
3 Fold along a given a line r.
4 Given two distinct points P and Q, fold O along a line passing through
P and Q.
5 Given a line r and a point P , fold O along a line passing through P
to reflect r onto itself.
6 Given a line r, a point P not on r and a point Q, fold O along a line
passing through Q to place P onto r.
7 Given two lines r and s, a point P not on r and a point Q not on s,
where r and s are distinct or P and Q are distinct, fold O to place P
onto r, and Q onto s.
8 Given two lines r and s, and a point P not on r, fold O to place P
onto r, and to reflect s onto itself.

Thus, the purpose of this article is to analyze the general case of n-fold
origami with arbitrary n ≥ 1 and determine what angle divisions and regular
polygons can be obtained.

2. Single- and multi-fold origami

An n-fold elementary operation is the resolution of a minimal set of inci-
dence constraints between given points, lines, and their folded images, that
defines a finite number of sets of n fold lines [2]. For the case of n = 1, all
possible elementary operations are those listed in Table 1. An example of
operation for n = 2 is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Any number of ni -fold operations, i = 1, 2, . . . , k, may be gather together

and considered as a unique n-fold operation, with n = ki=1 ni . Thus, we
define n-fold origami as the construction tool consisting of all the k-fold
elementary operations, with 1 ≤ k ≤ n.
The medium on which all folds are performed is assumed to be an infinite
Euclidean plane. Points are referred by their Cartesian xy-coordinates or
by identifying them as complex numbers, as convenient. A point or complex
number is said to be n-fold constructible iff it can be constructed starting
from numbers 0 and 1 and applying a sequence of n-fold operations. It has
been shown that the set of constructible numbers in C by single-fold origami
is the smallest subfield of C that is closed under square roots, cube roots
and complex conjugation [1]. An immediate corollary is that the field Q of
rational numbers is n-fold constructible, for any n ≥ 1.
The present analysis is based on the following version of a previous theo-
rem by Alperin and Lang [2].
Division of an angle and construction of regular polygons by multi-fold origami 47


s δ
γ
P r
Q

Figure 1. A two-fold operation [13]. Given two points P and Q and

three lines , r, s, simultaneously fold along a line γ to place P onto r,
and along a line δ to place Q onto s and to align  and γ.

Theorem 1. The real roots of any mth-degree polynomial with n-fold con-
structible coefficients are n-fold constructible if m ≤ n + 2.
Proof. The real roots of any mth-degree polynomial may be obtained by
Lill ’s method [11, 7, 17]. It consists of defining first a right-angle path from
and origin O to a terminus T , where the lengths and directions of the path’s
segments are given by the non-zero coefficients of the polynomial. Next, a
second right-angle path with m segments between O and T is constructed by
folding, and this construction demands the execution of m − 2 simultaneous
folds, if m ≥ 3, or a single fold, if m ≤ 3. The first intersection (from O)
between both paths is the sought solution.
Details of the method may be found in the cited references. An example
for solving x5 − a = 0 is shown in Fig. 2. 

It must be noted that the roots of 5th- and 7th-degree polynomials may be
obtained by 2-fold origami, instead of the 3- and 5-fold origami, respectively,
predicted by the above theorem [16, 9]. Therefore, Theorem 1 only posses
a sufficient condition on the number of simultaneous folds required.

3. Angle section
Let us consider first the case of division into any prime number of parts.
Lemma 2. Any angle may be divided into p equal parts by n-fold origami
if p is a prime and p ≤ n + 2.
Proof. Let  be a line forming an angle θ with the x-axis on the plane. Then,
point P (cos θ, 0) may be constructed as shown in Fig. 3.
Consider next the multiple angle identity
cos(pα) = Tp (cos α) (1)
48 J. C. Lucero

T q
C
χ2
χ3

Q
D O χ1 B

p
A

T
O

Figure 2. Geometrical solution of x5 − a = 0 by 3-fold origami. Set

perpendicular segments OQ and QT with respective lengths 1 and a,
line p parallel to QT at a distance of 1, and line q parallel to OQ at a
distance of a. Next, construct Lill’s path OA, AB, BC, CD, DT by
performing three simultaneous folds: fold χ1 places point O onto line p,
fold χ2 is perpendicular to χ1 and passes through the intersection of χ1
with the direction line of OQ (point B), and fold χ3 is perpendicular to
χ2 , passes through the intersection of χ2 with the direction line of QT
(point C), and places point T onto line q. Point A is at the intersection
√
of χ1 with the direction line of QT , and the length of QA is 5 a.

where Tp is the pth Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind, defined by

T0 (x) = 1, (2)
T1 (x) = x, (3)
Tp+1 (x) = 2xTp (x) − Tp−1 (x). (4)

Letting θ = pα, then Eq. (1) is a pth-degree polynomial equation on

x = cos(θ/p) with integer (constructible) coefficients. According to Theorem
1, the equation may be solved by p − 2-fold origami, if p ≥ 3, or single-fold
origami, if p ≤ 3. Then, a line  forming an angle θ/p may be constructed
from cos(θ/p) by reversing the procedure in Fig. 3. 

The lemma is easily extended to the general case of division into an arbi-
trary number of parts.

Theorem 3. Any angle may be divided into m ≥ 2 equal parts by n-fold

origami if the largest prime factor p of m satisfies p ≤ n + 2.

Proof. Let m = p1 p2 · · · pk , where each pi is a prime and pi ≤ n + 2. Then,

the theorem is proved by induction over k and applying Lemma 2. 
Division of an angle and construction of regular polygons by multi-fold origami 49
y

χ2 

Q
χ1

θ x
O P Q

Figure 3. Construction for Lemma 2. Given points O(0, 0), Q(1, 0), and
line  forming an angle θ with OQ: (1) fold along a line (χ1 ) to place 
onto OQ, and next (2) fold along a perpendicular (χ2 ) to OQ passing
through Q . The intersection of OQ and χ2 is P = (cos θ, 0).

Again, we remark that the above theorem only posses a sufficient condi-
tion on the number of multiple folds required. For m = 5, it predicts n = 3;
however, a solution using only 2-fold origami has been published [10].
Example 1. Any angle may be divided into 11 equal parts by 9-fold origami.

4. Regular polygons
The analysis follows similar steps to previous treatments on geometric
constructions by single-fold origami and other tools [6, 18, 19].
Consider an m-gon (m ≥ 3) circumscribed in a circle with radius 1 and
centered at the origin in the complex plane. Its vertices are given by the
mth-roots of unity, which are the solutions of z m − 1 = 0.
Let us recall that an mth root of unity is primitive if it is not a kth
root of unity for k < m. The primitive mth roots are solutions of the mth
cyclotomic polynomial
  
2iπk/m
Φm (z) = z−e . (5)
1≤k≤m
gcd(k,m)=1

This polynomial has degree φ(m), where φ is Euler’s totient function; i.e.,
φ(m) is the number of positive integers k ≤ m that are coprime to m. A
property of any mth primitive root ξm is that all the m distinct roots may be
k , for k = 0, 1, . . . , m − 1. This property provides a convenient
obtained as ξm
way to construct the regular m-gon.
Lemma 4. The regular m-gon is n-fold constructible if a primitive mth root
of unity is n-fold constructible.
50 J. C. Lucero
y

Q

χ
P

θ
θ
x
O Q

Figure 4. Given O = (0, 0), Q = (1, 0) and P = (cos θ, sin θ), a fold
along line χ passing through O and Q places Q on Q = (cos 2θ, sin 2θ).

Proof. Let ξm = eiθ be a primitive mth root of unity. Then, ξm

k = eikθ and

therefore all roots may be constructed from ξm by applying rotations of an

angle θ around the origin. The rotations may be performed by single-fold
origami, as shown in Fig. 4. Once all the roots have been constructed,
segments connecting consecutive roots may be created by single folds. 
Next, we state a sufficient condition for the n-fold constructability of a
number α ∈ C.
Lemma 5. A number α ∈ C is n-fold constructible if there is a field tower
Q = F0 ⊆ F 1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Fk−1 ⊆ Fk ⊂ C, such that α ∈ Fk and [Fj : Fj−1 ] ∈
{2, 3, . . . , n + 2}for each j = 1, 2, . . . , k.
Proof. The theorem is proved by induction over k. If k = 0, then α ∈
F0 = Q is constructible by single-fold origami [1], and therefore is n-fold
constructible for any n ≥ 1.
Next, assume that Fk−1 is n-fold constructible. Let α ∈ Fk , then α is
a root of a minimal polynomial p with coefficients in Fk−1 , and its degree
divides [Fk : Fk−1 ]. If α is real, then it may be constructed by n-fold
origami (Theorem 1). If not, then its complex conjugate ᾱ is also a root
of p. The real and imaginary parts of α, (α) = (α + ᾱ)/2 and (α) =
(α− ᾱ)/2, respectively, are in Fk and therefore they are real roots of minimal
polynomials p and p with coefficients in Fk−1 . Again, the degrees of both
p and p divide [Fk : Fk−1 ] and hence (α) and (α) are n-fold origami
constructible. 
Using the above lemmas, we finally obtain a sufficient condition for the
constructability of the regular m-gon.
Theorem 6. The regular m-gon is n-fold constructible if the largest prime
factor p of φ(m) satisfies p ≤ n + 2.
Division of an angle and construction of regular polygons by multi-fold origami 51

Proof. Let φ(m) = p1 p2 · · · pk , where each pi is a prime and pi ≤ n + 2, and

ξm be a primitive mth root of unity. The Galois group Γ of the extension
Q(ξm ) : Q is abelian and has order φ(m) [18]. Therefore, it has a series
of normal subgroups 1 = Γ0 ⊆ Γ1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Γr = Γ where each factor
Γj+1 /|Γj is abelian and has order pi for some 1 ≤ i ≤ k. By the Galois
correspondence, there is a field tower Q(ξm ) = K0 ⊇ K1 ⊇ · · · ⊇ Kr = Q
such that [Kj : Kj+1 ] = pi . Thus, by Lemma 5, ξm is n-fold constructible,
and by Lemma 4, the m-gon is n-fold constructible. 
Example 2. The totient of 199 is φ(199) = 2 · 32 · 11. Therefore, the regular
199-gon may be constructed by 9-fold origami.

5. Final comments
Gleason [6] noted that any regular m-gon may be constructed if, in ad-
dition to straight edge and compass, a tool to p-sect any angle is available
for every prime factor p of φ(m). The above results match his conclusion: if
n-fold origami can p-sect any angle for every prime factor p of φ(m), then,
by Lemma 2, the largest prime factor is pmax ≤ n + 2. By Theorem 6, the
m-gon can be construted.

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Jorge C. Lucero: Dept. Computer Science, University of Brasília, Brazil

E-mail address: [email protected]