Biology – Form 5
Page 1 Ms. R.

Buttigieg

Form 5 Biology Notes

The annual this year will include all topics covered during the three years of the course so it is
suggested that you start revision and allow at least one hour each day for biology course work or
revision. I also recommend starting to work out previous SEC past papers.

Materials you’ll be needing for this year:

Copy of the SEC syllabus for the year __________ (see www.freewebs.com/gozobiochem)

SEC past papers for the years _______________ (both May and September papers)

Two (2) A4 notebooks for coursework and Homework

Practical file with 5 dividers (You should have this from previous years)

Topics to be covered during this year:

1. Co-ordination involving hormones and nervous control

2. D A: the blueprint of life
3. Reproduction
4. Management of Resources

Paper A or B?

The examination will consist of two written papers and an assessment of practical work.
The examination will be structured as follows:

Paper I (55% of the total marks) consists of a written paper (40% of the total marks) and a practical
component (15% of the total marks) and is to be taken by all candidates registered for the examination.
The written paper of a two hour duration will consist of a number of compulsory short and longer structured
questions testing the candidates’ breadth of knowledge and understanding of the whole subject content as
well as a range of skills. Questions may involve the analysis and interpretation of photographs, diagrams,
graphs and data as well as the working out of simple mathematical calculations. Questions testing the
application of biological principles to everyday situations will be included in this paper.

There will be two versions of Paper II: Paper II A or Paper II B, each of a two-hour duration. Questions in
Paper II A will be more difficult than those in Paper I. Questions in Paper II B will be easier than those in
Paper I. In the September supplementary session only Paper I and Paper II B will be offered. Candidates will
be required to indicate on the registration form which option in Paper II (A or B) they wish to sit for. No
change in the choice of paper will be allowed after the registration period.

Paper II A (45% of the total marks) will be divided into two sections and questions may be set on any part of
the syllabus.
Section A will consist of two compulsory structured questions which will involve the design, planning, and
analysis of simple experiments, or the critical evaluation of an investigation or the interpretation of a passage
relating to an area of applied biology, or they may test the candidates’ experience of practical skills.
Section B will consist of five structured essay-type questions of which candidates will be required to answer
three. Questions will be set to test the candidates’ knowledge and understanding of biological topics.

Paper IIB (45% of the total marks) will consist of eight structured essay-type questions of which candidates
will be required to answer four.
Biology – Form 5
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1 Co-ordination of body functions

See GCSE Biology Chapter 19 – Co-ordination – pg. 163 - 173

Co-ordination is making our organs and systems work together. This is controlled by the
nervous and endocrine systems which also makes use of hormones.

In general, the ENDOCRINE SYSTEM is in charge of body processes that happen slowly, such
as cell growth. Faster processes like breathing and body movement are monitored by the
nervous system.

The NERVOUS SYSTEM is controlled by the brain, which sends nervous impulses to the rest of
the body while the endocrine system involves coordination, which is brought about by the
release of chemicals called hormones from the endocrine glands. Hormones are carried by the
blood.

But even though the nervous system and endocrine system are separate systems, they often
work together to help the body function properly. TWO (2) co-ordinating systems are
required:
(i) one involving a slow but sustained action that usually has long-term effects on the body,
(ii) one that is quick and achieves immediate, short-term control over specific body parts.

Co-ordination and the ervous System:

Biology – Form 5
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Organisation of the Nervous System

Nervous System

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

CNS PNS

brain spinal cord cranial nerves spinal nerves

from the brain from spinal cord

The PNS is subdivided into:

• The autonomic nervous

system (involuntary control
A diagram of internal organs, blood
showing the CNS: vessels, smooth and cardiac
1. Brain
muscles), consisting of the
2. Central nervous
sympathetic NS and
system (brain and
spinal cord) parasympathetic NS
3. Spinal cord • The somatic nervous
system (voluntary control of
skin, bones, joints, and
skeletal muscle).

The CNS receives impulses from the organs, muscles and other body parts. It also sends
electrical impulses (carrying information) along nerves to muscles, organs and other body
parts.

Nervous System

CNS PNS

sense organs effectors involuntary voluntary

receptors control control
Biology – Form 5
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( www.skoool.co.uk )

Cells called receptors are located in our

sense organs, which are the eyes, ears, nose,
tongue, and skin. Receptors detect changes
in our surroundings. These changes are
called STIMULI.

STIMULUS – any change inside an organism or its environment, which leads to a response
RESPO SE – any action carried out by an organism when a stimulus is received.
RECEPTORS - cells that detect stimuli and send messages to the brain
EFFECTORS – glands, muscles etc., which carry out the instructions, they receive from the brain.

Nerve impulses going from the sense organs to the CNS are called SE SORY IMPULSES.

Nerve impulses going from the CNS to the effectors are called MOTOR IMPULSES.

erve cells/ eurones

The basic unit of impulse transmission is the neurone/nerve cell. There are different kinds of
neurones namely:

1. sensory neurone – carry impulses from the receptors to the CNS

Also called afferent neurone
2. relay neurone (intermediate neurones) connect one neurone to another. Found in the CNS.
Also called multipolar, connector, connecting or intermediate neurone
3. motor neurone – carry impulses from the CNS to the effectors.
Also called efferent neurones

See GCSE Biology Chapter 19, pg. 164

Figure 19.2 – The human nervous system
Figure 19.3 – Nerve cells a, b, c You must be capable of drawing them
Figure 19.3 - Nerve fibres grouped into a nerve

All neurones have the same basic structure. eurones are specialised cells. They are
specialised to carry impulses from one region to another. A single nerve may contain
both sensory and motor neurones.
Biology – Form 5
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Impulses are electrical in nature.

All nerve impulses are similar, the brain can
distinguish between them since information
from eyes, ears, arms etc. go to different parts
of the brain.

ervous transmission consists of

various structures:

Part Function
Cell body Contains the nucleus (located in the CNS)
Dendron Thin fibre which carries impulses towards the cell body
Axon Thin fibre which carries impulses away from the cell body
Myelin sheath Layer of fatty cells wrapped around the axon and dendron. Provides
insulation to prevent loss of electrical energy.
Dendrites Finely branched endings, connecting the neurones to other cells
Sensory nerve Usually receptive to stimuli, and therefore acts as a receptor
ending
Motor nerve ending Transmits impulses to an effector e.g. a muscle
Synapse Junction between two neurones (See figure 19.5 pg. 165 GCSE Biology)
Nerve fibre Name used for any long length of a neurone, axon or dendron

The synapse (make sure you can draw a diagram of it)

Here an impulse crosses from one neurone to another. In a synapse, nerve

endings of one neurone are in close contact with dendrites of another
neurone.
An electrical impulse cannot cross a synapse. When an impulse reaches
a synapse, a chemical transmitter (neurotransmitter – acetylcholine) is
produced at the end of the nerve fibre of the first neurone. This
transmitter diffuses rapidly across the gap between the two neighbouring
fibres, and triggers off an impulse in the dendrites of the second neurone.

The reflex arc

Reflex actions are rapid, automatic responses to stimuli. We don’t have any control over
them and most of the time we’re not even aware they’re taking place. Examples are the
blinking of our eyes or a knee jerk. The nervous pathway taken for such reflexes is called
reflex arc and takes place in the spinal cord. Reflex actions are called involuntary as we
can’t control them.
Biology – Form 5
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The Reflex ARC (see GCSE Biology chapter 19 – The Reflex Arc, pg. 165, 166)

The 3 types of neurones are arranged in circuits and networks, the simplest of which is the reflex arc.

In a simple reflex arc, such as the knee jerk, a stimulus is detected by a receptor cell, which
synapses with a sensory neurone. The sensory neurone carries the impulse from site of the stimulus
to the central nervous system (the brain or spinal cord), where it synapses with an interneurone. The
interneurone synapses with a motor neurone, which carries the nerve impulse out to an effector,
such as a muscle, which responds by contracting.

A reflex arc can also be represented by a simple flow diagram:

Biology – Form 5
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Examples of Reflex Actions

Reflex Stimulus Receptor Response by Purpose

effector
Knee jerk Pressure on Stretch receptor Upper thigh Helps keep the
tendon below in muscle muscle contracts, balance when
kneecap stretches so straightening walking
thigh muscle knee
Blinking Object Retina Eyelid muscles Protects eye
approaching eye contract
Salivation Sight or smell of Retina or Salivary glands Preparation for
food olfactory cells in produce saliva digestion
nose
Pupil Increased Retina Circular muscle Improves eye
brightness of light in iris contracts to vision
narrow pupil
Withdrawal of Damage to skin Pain and heat Arm muscles Protects against
hand of finger e.g. receptors in skin contract to further damage
when burnt remove hand

HW 1 – Co-ordination and the nervous system – A4 notebook

a. How is the nervous system divided? Explain in a short paragraph.

b. Define the following:
i. Receptors
ii. Sensory impulses
iii. Effectors
iv. Motor impulses
v. Nerve
c. Draw a large labelled diagram of:
i. A sensory neurone
ii. A motor neurone
iii. A relay neurone
d. What is the nature of electrical impulses?

HW 2 – Co-ordination and the nervous system – A4 notebook

Work out GCSE Biology pg. 167 numbers 1- 4

Biology – Form 5
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Voluntary Actions

You can decide to close a door or to sit down so we say that such actions are under our conscious or
voluntary control. They start in the brain, then motor impulses travel from the brain to the spinal
cord, through the spinal nerves to the appropriate effectors.

Reflex and voluntary Actions

Reflex action Voluntary action

1. Involves spinal cord only Always controlled by the brain
2. The same stimulus always produces the same Response varies according to circumstances
response
3. Very fast; may involve as few as 3 neurones Slower; may involve thousands of neurones
4. Memory not involved Memory essential in deciding nature of response
5. Automatic and unconscious Deliberate and always requires conscious
thought

HW 3 – Co-ordination and the nervous system – A4 notebook

a. Draw a large labelled diagram of a transverse section through the spinal cord. On your
diagram show the reflex arc taken by a named action. (e.g. withdrawal of the hand)
b. What is a synapse?
c. What is a reflex action?
d. In table form distinguish between reflex action and voluntary action.

The Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal chord form the central nervous system. The brain is enclosed in the
cranium, which is part of the skull, for protection.

Electric impulses are carried from the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

The Brain

The brain is the most important organ in the whole body. It is made up of millions of nerve cells.
Different areas of the brain are responsible for different parts of its work, though the neurons (nerve
cells) of the areas are in constant communication with one another. The largest part of the brain is
called the cerebrum.
Biology – Form 5
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Cerebrum – cerebral hemispheres

This consists of two sides, the right and left cerebral hemispheres joined by the corpus collasum.

The left side sends and receives information to/from the right side of the body, and vice versa.

The hemispheres are covered by a thin layer of grey matter known as the cerebral cortex,
which is made of numerous nerve cells and cell bodies that form the grey matter. This part is
greatly folded to increase the surface area.

Functions: -

Receives various impulses from different sense organs, sorts them out and sets off an
appropriate response

Enables us to learn as the cerebrum can store information.

Involved with intelligence, which includes the ability to apply past experiences to new
situations.

Function of the motor, sensory and association areas in the brain

Cerebrum sections:
Primary motor area Primary sensory area
Motor areas - send motor impulses to Sensory
different parts of the body association area
- each section is concerned with Visual
a particular body part association area
Sensory area - receives impulses from the
sense organs or receptors
- each section is concerned with
Auditory
a particular body part association area

Association area - receives impulses from various parts of the brain

- recognizes information, associates it with past information and sets out
appropriate responses to the motor areas. It is the area which stores information.
Biology – Form 5
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Medulla

This is the part that attaches to the spinal chord. It controls automatic actions like our heartbeat,
breathing and blood pressure. These happen without us thinking about them (reflex actions)

Cerebellum

The Cerebellum controls our sense of balance and muscular actions. It allows us to make precise
movements such as walking running or riding a bike. It receives impulses from various organs, sorts
them out and then sets off an appropriate response.

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus contains control centers, which help to keep the body temperature and the
concentration of blood constant.
(adapated from www.bioclix.org)

HW 4 – Co-ordination and the nervous system – A4 notebook

a. ame parts A to G

b. Explain why the grey matter is grey and the white matter is white.
Biology – Form 5
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The Spinal Cord

This consists of thousands of nervous cells and is protected by the vertebral column. There are two
important sections that can be readily observed in cross (transverse) section:

The inner grey matter – made of a group of nerve cell bodies except those of the sensory
neurones, which gather in the dorsal root ganglion.

The outer white matter - consists of nerve fibres (white due to the fatty insulating sheath
around the nerve fibres) Dorsal root

Grey matter
Ganglion containing cell
bodies of sensory
neurones

Cerebro-spinal fluid Ventral root

Dura mater Central canal
White matter

The spinal cord is protected by 2 membranes:

the pia mater – this closely surrounds the spinal cord

the dura mater – the tough layer outside it.

Cerebrospinal fluid can be found between them. This is secreted by the brain, and serves to:

supply the brain and spinal tissue with nutrients e.g. glucose,

removes wastes

acts as a shock absorber

The spinal cord is mainly concerned with:

reflex actions below the neck

conducting sensory impulses from the body parts to the brain

conducting motor impulses from the brain to the body parts
Biology – Form 5
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Co-ordination and The Endocrine System (make sure you can draw fig. 19.14 pg. 170 GCSE)

The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete chemical messages we call
HORMONES. These signals are passed through the blood to arrive at a target organ, which has
cells possessing the appropriate receptor.

Hormones

A hormone is a specific messenger molecule synthesized (built) and secreted by a group of

specialized cells called an endocrine gland.

There are 2 types of glands in the body:

a. Exocrine glands – glands that secrete their products through ducts e.g. sweat
glands or salivary glands
b. Endocrine glands – glands that secret hormones not into ducts but directly into the
bloodstream. As a result these are called ductless glands.

Hormones then travel elsewhere in the body transferring information and instructions to
target organs, upon which they act. Each hormone’s shape is specific and can be recognized
by the corresponding target cells. The binding sites on the target cells are called hormone
receptors.

Most hormones produce their effects rather slowly, which bring about long-term effects in
the body, e.g. growth and sexual development. One exception is adrenaline.

When a hormone has produced the desired effect, further secretion of the hormone is
switched off by negative feedback. This usually happens by the secretion of another
hormone usually having an antagonistic effect. Much hormonal regulation thus depends on
feedback loops to maintain balance and homeostasis.

Although many different hormones circulate throughout the bloodstream, each one affects
only the cells that are genetically programmed to receive and respond to its message. When
they have carried out their function, they are broken in the liver and later excreted.

(see the Table - HORMO%ES A%D THEIR EFFECTS - on the following page)
Biology – Form 5
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Feedback control in Hormone Secretion (see GCSE Biology pg. 172 – Homeostasis and feedback)

REMEMBER: Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal body environment.

Control of blood glucose level

Regulation of body temperature

Control of blood concentration

The role of I SULI and GLUCAGO in blood-glucose level control - negative feedback

egative feedback – increase in the level of the factor under control triggers off a response which
causes that factor to decrease.

The heating system in your home is a simple negative feedback circuit. When the furnace produces
enough heat to elevate temperature above the set point of the thermostat, the thermostat is triggered
and shuts off the furnace (heat is feeding back negatively on the source of heat). When temperature
drops back below the set point, negative feedback is gone, and the furnace comes back on.

Insulin and glucagon are

hormones secreted by islet
cells within the pancreas.
They are both secreted in
response to blood sugar
levels, but in opposite
fashion!

If glucose levels rise above normal, the

islet cells respond by secreting insulin.
This reduces the level of glucose in the
blood.

If glucose levels fall, the islet cells in

the pancreas stop secreting insulin and
secrete glucagon. This raises the level
of glucose in the blood.
Biology – Form 5
Page 14 Ms. R. Buttigieg

Comparing ervous and hormonal control

ervous Hormonal
Form of transmission Electrical By means of chemicals, called
hormones
Route (path) of transmission Along nerve fibres In the bloodstream
Relative speed of transmission Very fast Slow
Termination (end) of transmission When impulse reaches When hormone molecules are
effector destroyed in the liver

HW 1 – Co-ordination and the endocrine system – A4 notebook

a. Draw a labelled diagram to show the position of the endocrine system.

b. Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands.
c. What are hormones?
d. In table form give three (3) differences between nervous and hormonal control.
e. Define homeostasis
f. With the aid of a flow diagram explain how blood sugar level is controlled in the body.
g. What is negative feedback?

HW 2 – Co-ordination and the endocrine system – A4 notebook

a. Copy and complete the following table

Hormone Where is it produced Effects on the body

Insulin
Testosterone
Progesterone
Oestrogen
Adrenaline
Antidiuretic hormone
Adrenaline
Growth hormone
Thyroxin
Biology – Form 5
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b. Copy and label the diagram below: (make a same size drawing, you only need to include
the hormone secreting glands in the drawing)
Biology – Form 5
Page 16 Ms. R. Buttigieg

HW 3 – Co-ordination and the endocrine system – A4 notebook

Junior Lyceum Annual 2001