British Practice in the Design and

Specification of Cement-Stabilized
Bases and Suhbases for Roads
D. J. MACLEAN and W. A. LEWIS, Road Research Laboratory, Department of
Scientific and Industrial Research, United Kingdom

CurrentBritishpractice in the design and specification of soil-

cement for use in the base or subbase for roads is described.
The composition of the material, the structural design of roads
incorporating soil-cement, and the methods used to control the
quality of the material in practice are covered. A current
specification for soil-cement is appended.
The suitability of a soil for stabilization is based on re-
quirements similar to those in the United States: good grading,
low plasticity of the fines, and freedom from deleterious chem-
ical constituents. The pedological classification of a soil pro-
file is used to estimate the depth of soil unsuitable for stabili-
zation because of organic content; measurements of the pH of
a soil-cement paste 1 hour after mixing are used as a check
on the presence of deleterious organic matter.
Soil-cement is usually required to have a strength and state
of compaction higher than certain specified values. The con-
tractor selects the necessary cement content. Procedure in-
volves carrying out tests to determine unconfined 7-day com-
pressive strength of cylindrical or cubical specimens of soil-
cement mixtures containing different cement contents. The
specimens are usually prepared at a moisture content and dry
density as close as possible to what is obtained in practice. If
the specimens have a significantly different dry density, a cor-
rection is applied to the strength.
Tests to assess the effects of water and frost on a cement-
stabilized soil are made only when the soil has certain charac-
teristics: expansive clay minerals in cohesive soils and porous
particles in granular soils.
Soil-cement has been widely used since 1945 for the con-
struction of housing estate roads and low-traffic rural roads.
These roads usually comprised a 6-in. thickness of stabilized
soil with a minimum 7-day compressive strength of 250 psi,
with a double surface dressing or thin pre-mixed bituminous
carpet.
Cement-stabilized materials have also been used for the
construction of main roads, in particular as the subbase of
concrete and bituminous-surfaced roads. The most recent
specification requires that the stabilized soil should have a min-
imum unconfined 7-day compressive strength of either 400 psi
for cylindrical specimens or 500 psi for cubical specimens.

Paper sponsored by Coilllilittee on Soil-Portland Cement Stabilization .

56
 57

The quality control of soil-cement during construction is

based largely on tests to check the strength and state of com-
pactionof the laid material. If the compaction state of the laid
material differs significantly from that of the test specimens,
corrections are made to obtain a more reliable strength indi-
cation.

•THE SYSTEMATIC use of soil-cement as a road base material in Great Britain dates
from 1939, when the Road Research Laboratory followed up a study of American ex-
perience by carrying out a program of laboratory tests and small-scale field trials on
soil-cement mixtures.
From the outset, it was decided to depart from American practice by using the un-
confined compressive strength instead of the results of two American durability tests
for evaluating the composition of soil-cement mixtures. This probably arose partly
from doubts of the relevance of the results of the American tests to the performance
of soil-cement as a road base material in the less severe climate of Great Britain and
partly from a desire to adapt the equipment and test procedure used for the testing of
concrete.
Strength as a criterion for the quality of soil-cement has provided a valuable basis
for obtaining a better understanding of the properties and factors that can affect soil-
cement performance in practice, and has helped to insure production at more uniform
standards with consequent improvement in performance.
With increasing knowledge of factors affecting soil-cement strength, it became ap-
parent that small differences in moisture content and state of compaction from the spec-
ified requirements could have as great an effect on the properties of the soil-cement as
a significant error in cement content. This led to the view that specifications for soil-
cement should require that strength and state of compaction exceed specified values
and that the contractor should select a cement content which would consistently meet
the strength requirement. This may represent a significant difference from the usual
American practice.
Soil stabilization work in Great Britain is usually carried out either by direct labor
under the control of the road authority or by a contractor working to the road authori-
ty's specification. In both approaches, however, decisions have to be made as to the
suitability of a particular soil for stabilization, the moisture content and the state of
compaction, and the required cement content for minimum strength.

COMPOSITION OF CEMENT-STABILIZED SOILS

The basic procedure followed in design of the composition of cement-stabilized soils
broadly comprises four stages:
1. Laboratory tests of the physical and chemical properties of the soils are made
to select soils suitable for stabilization with portland cement.
2. Laboratory tests, and sometimes full-scale trials, are made to determine the
moisture content and state of compaction that can be consistently achieved with the
cement-stabilized soil under average practical conditions.
3. Laboratory tests are made to determine the cement content which, for the se-
lected moisture content and state of compaction, will enable the cement-stabilized soil
to achieve a specified compressive strength.
4. The durability of the compacted cement-stabilized soil is tested by determining
its resistance to the action of frost and of soaking in water.
It is not always essential to carry out all four stages and, with the necessary ex-
perience, stages 1 and 4 are often omitted.

SELECTION OF SOILS SUITABLE FOR STABILIZATION

The selection of soils suitable for stabilization is based on the following:
58

1. The particle-size distribution and plasticity properties must be such that the
soil can be stabilized with an economical amount of cement and successfully processed
with available mixing and compaction plant.
2. The soils have to be sufficiently free from undesirable chemical constituents
that can either prevent the hardening of the cement-stabilized soil or cause a loss of
durability through the subsequent disruption of the cement bonds.

Soil Type
Laboratory research and practical experience show that the amount of cement re-
quired for stabilization may become excessive with two groups of soil: (a) with cer-
tain granular soils, the material may be so single-sized that a considerable amount
of cement is required to fill the relatively large volume of voids before any significant
gain in strength is obtained (Fig. 1), and (b) with certain cohesive soils the inherent
strength of the soil crumbs may be so low as to require a high cement content to pro-
vide a sufficiently strong matrix to achieve adequate stabilization (Fig. 2).
To eliminate single-sized granular soils it has been suggested that for British con-
ditions the material should have a uniformity coefficient of not less than 10 (the co-
efficient of uniformity is the ratio of the particle size for which 60 percent of the ma•
terial is finer to the particle size for which 10 percent is finer). This limitation will
of course depend on the availability of other road-making materials, and in areas where
single-sized sands predominate it may be possible economically to justify the use of
high proportions of portland cement for stabilization.
Cohesive soils are unsuitable for stabilization if their liquid limit exceeds 45 per-
cent and their plastic limit exceeds 20 percent. The difficulty of successfully stabi-
lizing cohesive soils arises from the inability of many types of mixing plant to break
down the soil into sufficiently small aggregations so that a satisfactory micro-distribu-
tion of cement can be achieved. Experiments have been made at the Road Research
Laboratory (1) to determine the effect of the degree of pulverization on the unconfined
compressive- strength of a cement-stabilized clay soil. Some results of these experi-
ments (Fig. 3) show that to obtain an adequate strength with a reasonable cement con-
tent the degree of pulverization has to be such that the majority of the aggregations
are finer than 3/ia in. There is a British Standard test (2) for determining the degree
of pulverization, defined as the ratio of the weight of aggregations finer than ~16 in.
to the total weight of the soil, expressed as a percentage. A degree of pulverization
of at least 80 percent is often required for successful cohesive soil stabilization. In-
vestigations of mixer performance shows that this degree of pulverization can be ob-
tained with cohesive soils only by using single-pass mix-in-place plant. Stationary

.--
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CEMENT CONTENT - per cent
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CEMENT CONTENT - per cent
18 11

Figure l. Relation between unconfined Figure 2. Relation between unconfined

compressive strength and cement content compressive s.trength and cement content
for a stabilized uniformly-graded sand. for a stabilized heavy clay.
 59

E
<T

~
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......
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...... 0 O percent ¥,6 -in oqqreqotions
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• IOper cent ~6 -in oqqr eqo t io ns
~ • 30 per cen t~6 - i n
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V> • 50 per cent~1> - i n
oqqreqot io ns
70percent~6 -in oqqre qo t io n1
UJ
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::::i
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0
....I

5 10 15 20 25
CEMENT CONTENT - per cent

Figure 3. Relation between unconfined compressive strength of stabilized clay and

3
cement content for various percentages of / 16-in. aggregations.

plant is suitable for mixing only granular soils with low cohesivity (3). Figure 4
shows results obtained with a pan-type mixer. With a sandy gravel a nd sand, both of
low cohesivity, it was possible using a 1- to 2-min mixing time to produce a soil-
cement mixture having strengths approaching those produced by an efficient labora-
tory-type mixer. With the cohesive clayey gravel and silty clay soils, only about
50 percent of the strength of the laboratory-mixed material was obtained in 1 to 2 min.
When stationary plant is to be used for mixing, therefore, a further limitation has to
be imposed on the permitted types of soil to be stabilized; that is, this type plant can
only be used satisfactorily with non-plastic materials or granular materials containing
less than about 10 percent plastic fines. The suggested limits of grading for single-
pass mix-in-place and stationary plant work are shown in Figure 5.

Organic Matter
The presence of organic matter in the
surface layers of soil often renders them
unsuitable for stabilization with cement.
In Great Britain organic matter can ex-
tend down to a depth of as much as 5 ft.
The presence of a deep surface layer of
organic soil may make it impracticable
to use the mix-in-place method or to use
the site as a borrow pit for materials,
and a simple means of recognizing this
situation is required. It has been found
that the pedological classification of soil
profiles used .in agriculture meets this
particular requirement (4) . Over most
of the country only five twes of profile MIXING
4
TIM E -m i nut~i
b
have to be considered: (a) the calcareous
and (b) the high base status brown earth, Figure 4. Results of mixing tests on
for which no difficulty arises from the stabilized soils produced by a pan-type
concrete mixer.
presence of organic matter right up to the
60
LOG. SETTLING VELOCITY- cm/src B.S. SIEVES
Qo o
1.0
0 0 ,..,0 0
1P,
0
lc\i
0\!!0~o"'"''°IQ!!!"fO,...•.,·
1.:. "' - - r"'-U"IC")
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100 '"" II
II
I 1 111 11 ' I 00

l1J 90 Il l
90
1
... i'-..Finc Limits
C)
~ 80 ::: Fin~ 11:..;Ui l 80
~ 70 Singl• - paH 70
u Mix- in - p lac• plant , ~ (Stationery plont)
60
Q:
l1J
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50
,, I
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so
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- -
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-
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CoarK Limits
30
20
::i
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0
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I Fol stab lliiollon work) 10
I 111 11
(rl 11 11
I I ll l lo'1
I 1-llTllTI 0
00001 0·001 0·01 0·1 10 100
PARTICLE SIZE - millimttru
Fint ~dium
Cloy Silt Grav.I

Figure 5. L:imits of recommended grading for single-pass mix-in-place and stationary

plant soil stabilization.

surface of the ground; (c) gley profiles, for which soils are suitable for soil stabiliza-
tion usually below a depth of 15 in.; and (d) the low base status brown earth and (e) the
podzol profiles, for which the soils are suitable for stabilization only at depths ex-
ceeding 2 to 5 ft. The whole of Great Britain is in the process of being mapped on a
pedological basis, so that it is sometimes possible to identify the type of pedological
profile directly from maps. Where this is not possible it is relatively simple to rec-
ognize the type of profile by visual examination in trial pits, and the two types of brown
earth profile can be distinguished by a pH test on the soil.
Furthermore, a simple diagnostic test can be used to detect the presence in soils
of organic matter that can prevent the normal hardening of portland cement (4). This
test consists of making up a soil-cement paste using 10 percent portland cement and
determining the pH value of the paste 1 hour after the addition of the water. A pH
value below 12. 1 indicates the presence in the soil of organic matter capable of pre-
venting or hindering the proper hardening of the cement (Fig. 6). A higher value than
12. 1 does not necessarily insure satisfactory hardening of stabilized soil; therefore,
the test is used as a rejection test for unsuitable soils.
The determination of the calcium absorption capacity of soils has also been inves-
tigated as a diagnostic test for the presence of organic matter. This test has been
of value in detecting organic matter in clean sands, a minimum calcium absorption
value of 75 mg per 100 g of dry soil being the appropriate criterion. However, the
test was found to be unsuitable for use with clay soils because of the ability of the clay
fraction to absorb calcium in addition to the organic matter.

Sulfates
It is not uncommon for calcium sulfate, and more occasionally magnesium sulfate,
to occur naturally in British soils. Research carried out at the Road Research Labora-
tory has shown that when such soils are stabilized with portland cement the resulting
material may lack durability, particularly if subjected to an increase in moisture con-
tent after the material has hardened (5). It appears that disintegration of the stabilized
soil may be brought about by a reaction between clay and sulfate ions in the presence
of lime and excess water. There is some evidence to suggest that this reaction can
result in the formation of ettringite (calcium sulfo-aluminate); this mineral occupies a
greater volume than the reactants from which it is formed; an expansion which destroys
 61
c
sr
~1000 .---------.-----r-------.--.------.--------,
I
:c
I- • •
~
~ 800 1-------t-----+-----+--t----~------1

!n
......
~
lna: b00 1-------1-------+-----+-----------~•.___---1
a..
~

8
0 400 1------1------t----+-~---=-.............-- ----1
......
z
;:;:::
~
~ 200
~
0
•
,.... I

0 10·5
"'· 11·0 11·5 12·0 12 ·5 IJ·O
pH AFTER 60 MINUTES

Figure 6. Relation between unconfined compressive strength and pH value for 10:1 soil-
cement mixtures.

the bonds in the cement-stabilized soil can result. The extent of the reaction depends
on the amount of clay in the soil, and it has been shown that the rate of disintegration
increases with increase in proportion of clay in the stabilized soil (Fig. 7). It appears
that a soil is unsuitable for stabilization with cement if it contains a very small pro-
portion of sulfate ions, although it is not possible to put a value on this proportion
from available knowledge. Determination of the sulfate content of soil is carried out
according to test No. 8 of British Standard 1377: 1961 (6). The sulfate is extracted
from the soil with hydrochloric acid, and the sulfate is- then precipitated from the
solute as barium sulfate by the addition of barium chloride solution.

MOISTURE CONTENT AND COMPACTION STATE OF STABILIZED SOIL

After establishing the soil as suitable for stabilization, investigations are then made
to determine the proportion of cement that will achieve a given compressive strength
in practice. This involves making up specimens of soil-cement using different pro-
portions of cement and determining their strength usually at 7 days but sometimes at
28 days. The test specimens have to be prepared at a moisture content and state of
compaction as close as possible to those obtained in average practice. The next
stage is to decide on the particular values of moisture content and state of compaction
to use in these tests.

Moisture Content
The primary consideration affecting moisture content selection is that it should per-
mit high states of compaction to be achieved in practice. Extensive investigations
have been made at the Road Research Laboratory into the performance of plant for
compacting soils (7, 8, 9, 10) . These investigations have shown that with many types
of granular soil a reliable guide to the moisture content to be used in practice is the
optimum moisture content obtained with the British Standard compaction test using
62

0 per cent clay

25 per cen t day

I
1----~_;::i......,.=~===~SO pc<cenl
clay

75 porcenl clay

OO 0 ,5 t·O 1·5 2-0

CALCIUM SULPHATE CO NC ENTR ATI ON - pe r ce nt ( as 503)

*(Resistance to irnmenion..Slr!!llqth of specim en s cured fo r 7 day s, socked for7 days x 100 per cent )
S t tenql~ o f •pecl men< cuted for 14 da ys

Figure 7. Effect of calcium sulfate on strength of cement -st abilized clay-sand mixtures .

heavy compaction (equivalent to the modified AASHO test). There are, however, some
types of sandy soil for which laboratory compaction tests do not accurately reflect the
compaction characteristics in practice; in such cases full-scale trials are required
to determine the appropriate moisture content for the stabilized soil.
In the case of cohesive soils the test specimens are often made up at a moisture
content 2 percent below the plastic limit of the freshly-mixed soil-cement; this mois-
ture content not only permits high states of compaction to be obtained in practice, but
also insures a low water absorption capacity in the hardened soil-cement. This latter
point is regarded as being important, since failures in cemented bases have occurred
in cases where the material was compacted at too low a moisture content.

State of Compaction
Specimens are prepared at a dry density as close as possible to that likely to be ob-
tained in practice. It is assumed that a well-compacted stabilized soil will have a dry
density equivalent to an air content of 5 percent. The appropriate dry density can then
be determined from the specific gravity of the soil particles and the cement and the
moisture content of the soil-cement. The required weight of the soil-cement mixture
is compacted in a constant volume mold.
An alternative method of preparing test specimens of stabilized soil is to compact
the material to refusal using an electric vibrating hammer in a manner similar to that
used for making concrete test specimens. Dry density is usually slightly higher than
can be consistently produced by the compaction plant normally used for soil stabiliza-
tion work.
If the specimens have a d.ry density significantly different from the design value,
a correction can be applied to the result of the strength test to allow for the effect of
dry density on the strength of the stabilized soil. The importance of making this cor-
rection cannot be overstressed as failure to achieve the design state of compaction in
practice can have a profound effect on the strength and dui-ability of the material.
Evide nce (3) of the importance of obtaining a high s tate of compaction in cement-
stabilized material was obtained in an investigation carried out with a range of soils
and crushed stone (Fig. 8). A linear relation was obtained between the unconfined
compressive strength of the cement-stabilized material and its dry density when the
test results were plotted on logarithmic scales (Fig. 9). The relation between
 -
LOG. SETTLING VELOCITY- cm/sec B. S. SIEVES

0
1...0
0
1.r.
0
I.;.
9
11""1
9
IN I-
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Cure Material s.G. tut ~ • /J
Opt . mois Max. dry ,/" J t I /'
90 I I cont(aj,) dtnsityilb/a. ~""' J 2 ,.__ ~ ) ,,-"' / //
Silty clay 2·71 22 101 I I I/ I n / v, ,,~ /IL IJ
80 2 we1~~ngl°ded 2 . bq 10 121 I .... r / IJ ILL L ~8}~1.1' / I

Uniformly-graded 2 . 1:,1:, 14 102 I / ~- 7 ·- J

7
5 f;7" J ~ J-
70
4
fine sand
Sandy gravel 2·bb 8 125 J ,,~ ~ ( 4) J J ~
~ J /' I I I I

l5 5 Cru•hed quartzite 2. b b 7~ 12 8 di - /
11
~ / /
< 60 gravel j ·~I' ~
j / ,,
/ / I/
IL
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z b Crushed porphery 2 · 79 6Yz
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142 (J 6 J I / ; 191
w C ,_, 1· J J 'I
U
ei::
50 7 ru~-. omutone
(2-111 max. OIZ<) 2 · 71 4~2 148 / II
JJ
I / / 1.,-'
~ 8 Cr11•~ed limcston<
( 1-1n max.01zc ) 2 . 71 6 140
1
, ) / 1,1 //.,,- I/ /
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g slag er j / ~ / ) 1./ '17J
~ JO '--"""""' V ,;rl i.. ," ~
~ - / ) '/!,/ /'I/
v.. 20 , L/rJ...J:..-" ~v

·:1 111111111 t 1111 1 1 ~- 11 111 11 1 1 111111111

0 ·0001 0·001 0 ·01 0 ·1 1 10 100
PAP.TIC LE SIZE - millimetres
Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse
Clay Silt Sand Gravel

Figure 8. Materials used in study of effect of dry density on unconfined compressive

strength .
m
""
64

Well -qraded sand

Silty clay / 8% cement
10% cement
4-in x2-in diam. cylinders 6-in cubes
1000 ~

-;
0

~
~
CT'
0
c.
c
!:!"
~00

200

100
L ©

•
Moisture content Slope
per cent
14 · 1
11 · ~
8
8
0

••
Moisture con1ent Slope
per cent
7' 2
8· I
q
8

:r:
• 19 · ~ 7 q I 8

t--
\.'}
so
zw 90 100 110 110 120 130 140
a:
t;;
w
>
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w
a: Porphyry 'l16 ;n to dust As-duq qravel
"- 2% cement 4% cement
~
8 soo b-in cubes 6-in cubes

~
0
w
z
u. 200
z
0
u
z

I (1
::::> 100

ooo>o»'o" Slope
so percent
22
4 9
6· 4
II
q • IJ

•"
12
7· 7 II
20
110 120 130 140 110 120 130 14 0
DRY DENSITY- lb,kuft(loq scale)

Figure 9. Relations on logarithmic scales between 7-day unconfined compressive strength

and dry density for stabilized materials at various moisture contents.

strength and density was

S = KDn
in which S = compressive strength;
D = dry density; and
n and K = constants
The slope of the relation n was found to depend on the type of material and its mois-
ture content, the effect of the cement content being very small. Table 1 shows that
the value of n ranged between 5 and 22 with an average of about 10. Considering the
average value of n = 10, this means in effect that a change in dry density of only 1 per-
cent will produce a change in the strength of the stabilized materials of 10 percent.
This effect is now widely recognized in Great Britain and it has had a considerable
influence on both the design and control of cement-stabilized bases.

DETERMINATION OF CEMENT CONTENT TO MEET A SPECIFIED STRENGTH

The tests for determining the strength of stabilized soils are those described in
British Standard 1924:1957 (2). These tests require the use of cylindrical specimens
having a height-diameter ratio of 2:1. Soils are divided into three groups: fine-
grained, medium-grained and coarse-grained. The lengths of specimens for these
 65

three soil groups are 4, 8 and 12 in., respectively. Experience has shown that the
12-in. specimens are too cumbersome and heavy to handle; it seems probable that the
next revision of the standard specification will require 6-in. cubical specimens instead
of 12-in. long cylindrical specimens for coarse-grained soils.
The specimens are cured at constant moisture content; this is usually achieved by
coating the surface with paraffin.
Strength determination is usually made
at 7 days; the relation is then determined TABLE 1
between the 7-day strength of the sta- VALUES OF CONST ANT n IN THE
bilized soil and the cement content, from RELATION S = KDn FOR MA TE RIALS
which the design cement content is de- STABILIZED WITH
termined. Allowance is made, in the PORTLAND CEMENT
specification for the stabilized soil, for
the higher strength achieved with cubical Cement Moisture
specimens as compared with cylindrical Material Content Content n
specimens with a height/ diameter ratio (%) (%)
of 2:1.
Check tests are made in accordance Silty clay 10 14.7 8
with B ritish Standard specification No. 12 17.2 8
( 11), and particula r attention is paid to 19. 5 7
the results of mortar cube tests. In this Well-graded sand 8 7.2 9
way allowance can be made for any dif- 8.1 8
ference in the properties of the cement 9.1 8
used in the laboratory tests and the ac- Uniformly-graded
tual stabilization work. fine sand 4 14 8
7 14 8
DURABILITY OF CEMENT- 10 14 8
ST ABILIZED SOILS Sandy gravel 4 3.1 22
4.2 13
Experience suggests that cement- 4.8 12
stabilized soil made strictly in accord- 5.5 11
ance with specifications is a durable Crushed quartzite
road base material with considerable gravel (1 %-in.
water and frost resistance. In cases max.) 4 3.7 13
where the material has lacked durabili- 5.4 12
ty, there has usually been evidence 7.2 11
either that the material was inadequately 8.7 10
compacted during construction or that it Crushed porphyry
was mixed at too low a moisture content. (:Y15-in. max .) 2 3.6 15
Laboratory tests made to examine the 4.9 11
effects of water and frost on cement- 6.4 9
stabilized soils confirm that materials 7.7 7
made to specification are highly durable; Crushed lime-
the addition of even small amounts of ce- stone (2-in. max.) 2 3.3 12
ment to a frost-susceptible material re- 4.0 9
duces the heave to negligible p r opo r - 4.9 6
tions (Fig. 10). The r efo re, durability 5.5 5
tests are made only when it is suspected Crushed limestone
that the stabilized soil may be affected (1-in. max.) 2 3.0 17
by either water or frost as a result of 4.3 11
some special soil characteristics. There 5.8 7
are two characteristics which haVF~ to be 7.0 5
considered with British soils: the pres- Blastfurnace s lag
ence of expansive clay minerals in co- (1 %-in. max.) 2 4. 1 16
hesive soils and weak porous particles 5.3 12
in granular soils. With stabilized co- 5.7 11
hesive soils, the swelling of small ag- 6.4 8
gregations of clay on an increase in
66

moisture content may disrupt the bonds

holding the aggregations together and re-
sult in considerable softening of the ma- Dry density= 134 lb/cu ft
terial (Fig. 11). With stabilized gran- 0
•
Unstobilized
With lperc:entcement
ular soils having porous particles, dis- A With Zpercentcement
• With 5 per cent ceml!:nt
ruption of the material can result by the
action of frost forming ice lenses from
water drawn through the relatively per-
meable porous material (Fig. 12). In
such cases, tests are useful for deter-
mining whether a stabilized material 0 00 200 300 400
TIME-hours
having adequate durability can possibly
be produced by increasing cement con- Figure lO. Effect of cement content on
tent. frost heave for natural gravel samples
In B. S. 1924: 1957 there is a test for stabilized with ordinary portland cement.
determining the effect of soaking sta-
bilized soils in water. The unconfined
compressive strength of a number of
cylindrical specimens of stabilized soil
is determined at 14 days. Half the
specimens are cured at a constant mois- 10 per cent cement
- Cured 14 days unsoohd
ture content for this period. The re- --- Cured 7 days,sooked7days
maining specimens are cured at a con-
stant moisture content for 7 days and
then immersed in water for 7 days. The
average strength of the immersed spec-
imens is expressed as a percentage of ~

that of the specimens maintained at a

8>: ~O,J--+-~~~----!~~~~-r-~~---
--~-
:::::r-----i
constant moisture content. Stabilized 0 ~ --
soils which are known to be durable ~
rarely suffer a loss in strength of more z
0
u
than 10 percent when subjected to this ~
immersion test. 0 ,_____,2~
0,_.~~--~2s~~~~~lo
=--~~~~37
5~

In the frost test (B. S. 1924: 1957), the INITIAL MOISTURE CONTENT-percent

reduction in the unconfined compressive Figure ll. Effect of initial moisture

strength of cylindrical specimens sub- content on loss in strength of cement-
jected to repeated cycles of freezing and stabilized cohesive soil due to immersion
thawing is expressed as a percentage of in water.
the strength of specimens of the same
age but which have been maintained to
constant temperature and moisture con-
tent. All specimens are cured at con-
stant temperature for 7 days. Then half
the specimens are subjected to 14 cycles • Oolitic limestone stabilized with 2 percent cement
of freezing for 16 hours at -5 C and of 0 Natural qrovel stabilized with 2 percent cement
thawing for 8 hours at 25 C. Freezing
conditions are applied only to the top
face of the specimen and the bottom face
is immersed to a depth of % in. in water
at a temperature of 8 C. The test has
been criticized on the grounds that there
is insufficient control of the temperature
conditions during the freezing period and TIME-hours

the test needs further development.

Figure l2. Comparison of frost heave of a
Another frost test makes use of com-
porous limestone and a non-porous gravel,
pacted samples 6 in. high and 4 in. in both stabilized with ordinary portland
diameter. Nine such specimens can be cement.
 67

accommodated in the apparatus shown in Figure 13. The specimens stand together on
porous ceramic trays in contact with water maintained at a temperature of 4 C. The
space between the samples is packed with a coarse dry sand leaving only the upper
surfaces exposed to a refrigeration temperature of -17 C. The top of each specimen
reaches an equilibrium temperature of -6 C to -10 C, and the zero isotherm remains
at a point approximately halfway down the sample. The temperature conditions speci-
fied remain constant for about 14 days. Any heave that occurs in the materials is
measured daily by push rods in contact with waxed-hardboard caps which cover the top
faces of the samples. The frost susceptibility of the stabilized materials is assessed
in terms of the amount of heave that occurs after 250 hours of freezing. A heave of
more than 1/2 in. is regarded as an indication of inadequate resistance to severe frost
conditions. This criterion is only tentative, and laboratory research is being carried
out to investigate its validity.

Arranqcmcnt 1or Rl q•d brass bar

[illinq the water bath

H eater controller

Cabin et Cork laqqinq

Removable specimen
container

Specimen carrier

Porous stone slab

SECTIONAL ELEVATION

E.l.M:L
Showing
acc.ommodation
ror nine
spec imens

1
Scale:-1 12in • l!t

Figure 13. Apparatus for inve s tigating frost action in road materials .
68

PAVEMENT DESIGN
Although cement-stabilized soil was used during World War II for the construction
of military airfields, it has only been used on a considerable scale in Great Britain
as a constructional material for roads since 1945. The following briefly summarizes
the use of stabilized soil in road pavements.

Minor Roads
Minor roads are principally housing estate roads, lightly-trafficked rural roads,
and car parks carrying less than 150 commercial vehicles per day. Soil-cement bases
approximately 6 in. thick and usually surfaced with a double surface dressing or thin
pre-mixed bituminous surfacing have been used in a considerable mileage of such
roads.
The bases were constructed mostly by the mix-in-place method on subgrades having
a ·California bearing ratio (CBR) value generally more than 6 percent. Preliminary
design work on the composition of the stabilized soil was usually not as rigorous as
that described previously in this paper. After determining the soil suitable for sta-
bilization, laboratory tests determined the cement content necessa ry for an unconfined
compressive strength of 250 psi with cylindrical specimens at 7 days. The origin of
this criterion was research carried out at the British Road Research Laboratory in
1939, which showed that a minimum compressive strength of 250 psi at 7 days was re-
quired to insure that cement-stabilized soils satisfied the requirements of the American
wet-dry and freeze-thaw tests.

Main Roads
The structural design of main roads is governed by the requirements of Road Re-
search Note No. 29 ( 12). This document, prepared by the British Ministry of Trans-
port and the Road Research Laboratory, contains recommendations for the design of
bituminous-surfaced and concrete pavements for various categories of roads defined
by the amount of commercial traffic they will carry 20 years after construction. Ce-
ment-stabilized soil is permitted as the base material for flexible roads carrying
light and medium traffic (i.e., roads estimated to carry less than 1, 500 com mercial
vehicles per day in 20 years). In addition cement-stabilized soil is permitted as the
subbase material for both bituminous-surfaced and concrete roads. The material is
not permitted as the base of bituminous-surfaced roads carrying heavy traffic, since
excessive deformation has occurred on some stretches of heavily-trafficked bituminous
roads having cemented bases.
For any given category of road, the pavement design of bituminous-surfaced roads
consists of a constant thickness of surfacing and base with a variable thickness of
subbase depending on the CBR value of the subgrade. A 6-in. minimum thickness of
stabilized soil base is recommended for roads estimated to carry from 150 to 450
commercial vehicles per day; for roads estimated to carry between 450 and 1, 500
commercial vehicles per day an 8-in. base is required. With the heaviest category
of traffic (more than 4, 500 commercial vehicles per day) the thickness of the recom-
m e nde d subbase can be as much as 20 in. (for CBR of 2 percent), but in such cases it
is usual to employ a suitable granular subbase material and to stabilize if necessary
the top 6 in. of the subbase, generally by mix-in-place method. This stabilized layer,
in addition to complying with the strength requirements of the subbase (a CBR value
of at least 20 percent for the heaviest category of traffic), also provides an excellent
working platform for the construction of the base. By constructing a stabilized soil
subbase during good weather, it has often been possible to carry on with the construc-
tion of the base during the wet winter months, whereas work has sometimes had to be
suspended when unstabilized gravel subbases have been used in similar circumstances.
Two large full-scale road experiments will be carried out by the Road Research
Laboratory to determine the conditions under which cemented bases can be success-
fully used in heavily-trafficked bituminous roads (13). Various compositions of the
 69

cemented base will be obtained by using different gradings of aggregate and different
strengths of the cemented material. Bases will be constructed to a constant thickness
beneath a constant thickness of bituminous surfacing at one site, and certain composi-
tions will be laid to form bases having a range of thicknesses under different types and
thicknesses of surfacing at a second site.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENT-STABILIZED SOIL BASES AND SUBBASES

In the early stages of the development of soil stabilization in Great Britain, the
specifications were usually of the "methods" type; that is, the mix proportions (cement
content and moisture content) were specified together with the details of the plant to
be employed and the method of carrying out the work. The control of the process was
thus limited very largely to supervision of the constructional procedure.
With the increased use of stabilized soil and the greater knowledge of the proper-
ties of the material which have become available ~n recent years, the form of the spe-
cification has changed. The properties of the final product are specified, and the
contractor is given considerable freedom in the way the process is carried out. Al-
though in this "end product" form of specification a considerable amount of control
testing is required, it results in a stabilized layer having more consistent properties
which is likely to perform more satisfactorily under heavy traffic conditions. It also
results in some saving in the amount of cement required for a given strength for the
layer and encourages the development and use of improved processing plant.
The main factors now specified are the minimum state of compaction of the layer
and the minimum unconfined compressive strength of specimens of the stabilized ma-
terial made to the same state of compaction. The most suitable moisture content for
the stabilized material is determined from preliminary full-scale trials carried out
under the supervision of the engineer responsible for the work.

Compaction Requirement
It is usual to define the minimum state of compaction required in stabilized soil in
terms of a maximum permissible air content for the material. The maximum air
voids usually permitted is 5 percent; that is, the stabilized material has to be com-
pacted to a dry density of at least 95 percent of the saturation dry density. This cor-
responds approximately to a relative compaction of at least 100 percent of the maxf-
mum dry density of the British Standard compaction test which is almost identical
to AASHO T99-57.
Specification of the state of compaction in terms of air voids is considered to have
the advantage of simplifying the control work where variations in the type of material
occur. Thus, in the relative compaction procedure such variations would require
frequent laboratory compaction tests to be made before the results of the dry density
measurements could be interpreted, whereas the value of the air void requirement can
be applied without change to a wide range of materials provided they are reasonably
well graded. It must be stressed that in the air void method the actual control of the
state of compaction is carried out by dry density measurements and it is only in the
interpretation of such results that the air void criterion is employed.

Strength Requirements
It is now usual in Great Britain to specify the strength of stabilized materials in
terms of a minimum unconfined compressive strength of the completed layer. No
consistent value of the minimum strength has been ·employed in the past but generally
it has been of the order of 250 to 500 psi for specimens cured at constant moisture
content for 7 days. The most recent Ministry of Transport specifications for stabilized
soil require a minimum value of 400 psi for cylindrical specimens having a height/
diameter ratio of 2: 1 and 500 psi for cubical specimens. These values refer to the
mean of five test specimens made on samples of the stabilized material taken at random
70

over each 1, 000 sq yd of completed layer. The specimens have to be compacted to a

dry density within 2 pcf of the average value being achieved in the stabilized layer.
Although a lower strength has often been required for subbases in comparison with
that for bases, the present tendency is to require the same strength for both as it is
now recognized that subbases must withstand high stresses from construction traffic.
A recently revised version of the Ministry of Transport Specification (14) is given
in the Appendix. -

CONTROL TESTS FOR CEMENT-STABILIZED SOILS

Tests for Compaction and Moisture Content
The sand-replacement test is usually employed for determining the dry density of
compacted stabilized layers. Generally, five test determinations are made at random
over each 1, 000 sq yd of completed layer to provide a mean value for control pur-
poses. Where the results are required very quickly, ra-pid methods of moisture con-
tent determination (15) may be employed but these are not considered to be as reliable
as the oven-drying procedure.
Comparisons have been recently made of the results of dry density measurements
of cement-stabilized bases determined by the sand-replacement test and on cores cut
from the hardened material. This work has indicated that the sand-replacement test
can sometimes be seriously in error, the results being up to 10 pcf higher than those
for the cores. The probable cause of this error is the slight inwards collapse of the
sides of the hole made for the sand-replacement test during excavation. The largest
errors have occurred when wet unstable granular material has been employed. As a
result of these findings, dry density measurements by the sand-replacement test are
now delayed for at least 4 hours after the completion of the compaction work to allow
the material to acquire an initial set. This procedure has been shown to result in
reasonable agreement between the core measurements and the sand-replacement test.
Studies have been made at the British Road Research Laboratory of the use of gamma
and neutron radiation methods of determining the density and moisture content of com-
pacted layers, but this work has indicated that serious errors in the measurement of
dry density can result from existing methods. Both the type of material and the den-
sity gradients in the compacted soil layer have been found to have a serious effect on
the calibration of the apparatus.

Strength Tests
The control of the strength of stabilized soil in practice is carried out by deter-
mining the unconfined compressive strength of the material using the previously de-
scribed test procedures.
For control purposes the strength of stabilized material is normally determined at
7 days. However, research (16) carried out by the Road Research Laboratory has in-
dicated that it is possible to test specimens at an age of only 1 or 2 days and to use the
results to predict the strength likely to develop at 7 or 28 days. The accuracy of such
predictions (about 10 percent) is thought to be sufficiently close for field control work
and any disadvantage in the error of prediction would be offset by the advantage of ob-
taining the strength at an early stage. However, this early testing procedure has not
yet been applied on any large-scale work.

Cement Content Tests

Current British specifications for soil stabilization do not normally specify the
cement content of the material. The contractor is responsible for complying with
the minimum strength requirements. However, instances may sometimes arise where
it is desirable to determine the cement content (such as in connection with trials to de-
termine the performance of the processing plant). Either the E. D. T. A. method or
the flame photometer method can be employed. Full details of these two methods are
given in Road Research Road Note No. 28 (17). Both methods are based on a comparison
 71

of the calcium content of the soil-cement mixtures with that of the soil and cement. For
this reason neither method is applicable to soils with high or variable calcium contents
and in such cases a less accurate method based on determination of the sulfate content
has to be employed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was carried out as part of the program of the Road Research Board of
the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, United Kingdom. The paper is
published by permission of the Director of Road Research.

REFERENCES
1. Grimer, F. J., and Ross, N. F., "The Effect of Pulverization on the Quality of
Clay-Cement." Proc. 4th Internal. Soil Mech. Conf., 2: 109-13 (1957).
2. British Standard No. 1924:1957, "Methods of Test for Stabilized Soils." British
Standards Institution, London (1957).
3. Grimer, F. J., "Studies of Factors Affecting the Strength of Cement-Stabilized
Materials." Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, Road Research Tech.
Paper No. 65 (in press).
4. Sherwood, P. T., "Effect of Soil Organic Matter on the Setting of Soil-Cement
Mixtures." Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, Road Research Tech.
Paper No. 61 (1962).
5. Sherwood, P. T., "Effect of Sulfates on Cement- and Lime-Stabilized Soils."
HRB Bull. 353, 98-107 (1962).
6. British Standard No. 1377:1961, "Methods of Test for Soil Classification and Com-
paction." British Standards Institution, London (1961).
7. Williams, F. H. P. , and Maclean, D. J. , "The Compaction of Soil: A Study of
the Performance of Plant. " Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, Road
Research Tech. Paper No. 17 (1950).
8. Lewis, W. A., "Further Studies in the Compaction of Soil and the Performance of
Compaction Plant." Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, Road Research
Tech. Paper No. 33 (1954).
9. Lewis, W. A., "Investigation of the Performance of Pneumatic-Tyred Rollers in
the Compaction of Soil." Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, Road
Research Tech. Paper No. 45 (1959).
10. Lewis, W. A., "Recent Research into the Compaction of Soil by Vibratory Com-
paction Equipment." Proc. 5th. lnternat. Soil Mech. Conf., 2: 261-8 (1961).
11. British Standard No. 12: 1958, "Portland Cement (Ordinary and Rapid Hardeni ng)."
Bri tish Standards Institution, London (1958).
12. "A Guide to the Structural Design of Flexible and Rigid Pavements for New Roads."
Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, Road Note No. 29 (1960).
13. Lee, A. R., and Croney, D., "British Full-Scale Pavement Design Experiments."
International Conf. on Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, Univ. of
Michigan (1962).
14. "Specification of Road and Bridge Works." Ministry of Transport and Civil
Aviation (in press).
15. Croney, D., and Jacobs, J. C., "The Rapid Measurement of Soil Moisture Con-
tent in the Field." Roads and Road Construction, 29: 343, 191-4 (1951).
16. Grimer, F. J., and Krawczyk, J., "Strength/Age Relations for Soil-Ce ment with
Particular Reference to the Prediction of Later Strengths from Earlier Ones."
Magazine of Concrete Research (1963, in press).
17. "The Det-ermination of the Cement or Lime Content of Cement- or Lime-Stabilized
Soils." Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, Road Note No. 28 (1960).
72

Appendix

CURRENT SPECIFICATION IN USE IN GREAT BRITAIN FOR

CEMENT STABILIZED MATERIALS
This specification, which forms part of the revised specifications for Road and
Bridge Works (14), was prepared by the British Ministry of Transport with the assist-
ance of the British Road Research Laboratory.

(804) Cement stabilized materials for bases and sub-bases

Materials to be stabilized
The material used for stabilization may be a naturally occurring soil, a washed or
processed granular material, crushed rock or slag, an industrial waste product (such
as pulverised fuel ash, burnt colliery shale) or any combination of these providing the
material is free from organic contamination which would affect the setting of the ce-
ment and does not contain such a proportion of sulphates or other chemical that the
long-term durability of the stabilized material will be affected (See notes for guidance
of engineers).
The material shall be well-graded with a coefficient of uniformity of not less than
10 and have a grading finer than the following limits:-
B. S. sieve size Percentage passing
2 in 100
l '/2 in 95
£dn
i'a in
45
35
3
/10 in 30
No. 7 25
No. 25 12
No. 52 5
No. 200 0
If the material is plastic it shall have a liquid limit not greater than 45 per cent and
a plastic limit not greater than 20 per cent as determined in accordance with B. S.
1377.
In the event of the contractor offering a material having a grading curve falling
slightly outside the limits stated in the Table, or plasticity properties slightly outside
the limits given above, the Engineer may approve its use subject to his being satisfied,
as a result of such tests as he may require that it meets all other requirements speci-
fied in the Clause. The material may, however, prior to its use in the works be sub-
ject to disapproval by the Engineer if, although having acceptable grading or plasticity
properties, it is shown during the preliminary trials to be incapable of producing a
well closed final surface to the compacted layer, or if the compacted stabilized ma-
terial is considered to be frost susceptible.

Cement and cement content

Ordinary Portland or other approved cement to B. S. 12: Portland cement or Port-
land blastfurnace cement to B. S. 146: Portland blastfurnace cement shall be used. The
cement content shall be such as to provide a crushing strength to the requirements
stated in this Clause.

Moisture content
The moisture content of the mixed cement stabilized material shall be determined
from preliminary field compaction trials, using the mixed material, employing the
type of plant and method of operation which has been approved by the Engineer for the
 73

main work and using the optimum moisture content as determined in the laboratory
compaction test using heavy compaction (B. S. 1377 Test 11) as a basis.
If water has to be added during mixing it shall be free from organic contamination
and the source of supply shall be approved by the Engineer.

Method of stabilization to be used

If the layer to be stabilized does not exceed 6 inches in compacted thickness it may
be constructed in one layer within the range 3-6 in after compaction using either mix-
in-place or stationary plant for the mixing process provided the plant meets the re-
quirements specified in the Clause. If the course to be stabilized exceeds 6 inches
in compacted thickness it shall be constructed in two or more layers each within the
range 3 in to 6 in in thickness when compacted. When two or more layers are em-
ployed the mix-in-place process will only be permitted for the construction of the
bottom layer.

Mixing
The plant to be used for pulverising and mixing the stabilized material shall be ap-
proved by the Engineer on the basis of preliminary trials to establish that the plant
is capable of producing the degree of mixing and uniformity of the stabilized material
specified in this Clause .
If stationary plant is used it shall be of the power driven paddle or pan type and may
be of the batch or continuous type. When mix-in-place construction is employed with
plastic soils, the mixer shall be of the single-pass type and the degree of pulverisa-
tion as determined in accordance with B. S. 1924 achieved in one pass shall not be less
than 80 per cent. With non-plastic materials both single and multi-pass equipment
will be permitted.
The proportioning of the cement in the stabilized mixture shall be by weight or, if
approved by the Engineer, by volume.
If batch mixers are used the appropriate measured amounts of material and cement
shall be delivered into the mixer. Water may be added during mixing to bring the
moisture content of the resulting mixture to the optimum moisture content for com-
paction as determined by the preliminary trials. Special care shall be taken with
batch type paddle mixers to ensure that the cement is spread uniformly in the loading
skip so that it is fed uniformly along the mixing trough and that with both paddle and
pan mixers the cement is proportioned accurately by a separate weighing or pro-
portioning device from that used for the material being stabilized. Mixing shall be
continued until the mixture has the uniformity required by this Clause and for no.t less
than one minute unless a shorter minimum period is permitted by the Engineer, after
satisfactory preliminary trials.
If continuous mixing is used the paddles, baffles and rate of feed of material shall
be adjusted to give a uniformly mixed material. The spray bar distributing water into
the mixer, if it is required, shall be adjusted to give uniformity in moisture content
throughout the mix.
If the mix-in-place process is used the mixers shall be equipped with a device for
controlling the depth of processing and the mixing blades shall be maintained or reset
periodically so that the correct depth of mixing required is obtained. The cement
shall be spread ahead of the mixer by means of a cement spreader of a type to be ap-
proved by the Engineer fitted with control gates or other device to ensure a uniform
and controllable rate of spread of cement both transversely and longitudinally.
If multi-pass equipment is being employed, the soil shall first be pulverised to the
required depth and degree with successive passes and the moisture content adjusted
if it is more than 3 per cent below the value required for compaction. The cement
shall then be spread and mixing continued with successive passes until the required
depth and uniformity of processing has been obtained.
With single-pass equipment the forward speed of the machine shall be selected, in
relation to the rotor speed, such that the required degree of mixing, pulverisation and
depth of processing is obtained.
74
The machine shall also be set so that it cuts slightly into the edge of the lane proc-
essed previously so as to ensure that all the material forming the layer has been
properly processed. If it is necessary to adjust the moisture content of the material
to the optimum for compaction, water shall be added during the mixing operation using
a water sprayer of such a design that the water is added in a uniform and controlled
manner both transversely and longitudinally.
Where hard non-plastic soil is encountered in situ, the Engineer may approve the
use of a scarifier or prepariser ahead of the mixer but with plastic soils no prior
scarification will be permitted unless the soil is subsequently recompacted before
processing with the single-pass mixer.
The output of the mixing plant shall be such that a minimum rate of 20 linear yards
per hour measured longitudinally of completed stabilized layer can be maintained in
order to permit satisfactory compaction of the material.

Transporting and spreading plant-mixed material

The plant used for transporting the mixed material shall have a capacity suited to
the output of the mixing plant and the site conditions and shall be approved by the
Engineer. All transporting plant shall be capable of discharging cleanly.
The mixed material shall be removed directly from the mixer after mixing and
transported directly to the point where it is to be laid. The mixed material shall be
covered during transit and while awaiting spreading to prevent it from drying off from
wetting by rain. Where the stabilized material is being used to form a base layer it
shall be spread and tamped evenly without delay by an approved paver to the levels
and shape to give, after compaction, the specified thickness of layer and surface regu-
larity. Where the conditions or location preclude the operation of a paver or where
the material is being used for a sub-base layer, the material may be spread by any
other approved method which is shown to avoid segregation of the material and which
will produce after compaction the specified levels, shape, thickness of layer and sur-
face regularity.

Compaction
Compaction shall commence as soon as possible after the mixed material has been
spread and shall be completed within a period of two hours of mixing or such shorter
period as may be necessary in drying weather.
Compaction shall be carried out initially with a 2-3 ton smooth-wheeled roller
followed by an 8-10 ton smooth-wheeled roller, and finished, if necessary with a 2-3
ton smooth-wheeled roller or the compaction can be carried out by such other means
such as pneumatic-tyred or vibrating rollers, dropping weight or vibrating plate com-
pactors as are approved as a result of compaction trials. The work of compacting
shall be continued in such a manner as to produce throughout the full depth of layer
an average dry density corresponding to not more than 5 per cent air content at the
moisture content at which the stabilized material is compacted or such other air con-
tent as the Engineer shall permit as a result of the preliminary compaction trials.
Where it is necessary to employ more than one layer of stabilized material, the
material for each successive layer shall, subject to the following proviso, be placed
and compacted within two hours of the completion of the compaction of the layer be-
neath. Where it is not possible to achieve this and the two hour limit has to be ex-
ceeded, the surface of any layer remaining so exposed shall be subjected to the curing
process required by this Clause.
Special care shall be taken to obtain full compaction in the vicinity of both trans-
verse and longitudinal construction joints and the Contractor shall, if required, pro-
vide special small compactors to assist in this work. Any loose uncompacted material
left in the vicinity of construction joints shall be removed prior to the placing of fresh
stabilized material.
The approval of the Engineer shall be subject to each layer on completion of com-
paction being well closed, free from movement under the roller, from compaction
planes, ridges, cracks or loose material and, within the tolerance for surface finish
 75

allowed in this Clause, true to the lines and levels shown on the Drawings. All loose,
segregated or otherwise defective areas shall be broken out to the full depth of the
layer and recompacted. If this cannot be carried out within the two hour limit speci-
fied, the material broken out shall be removed and replaced with freshly processed
and properly compacted material without extra charge.

Protection and curing

The surface of any layer of stabilized material, unless it is to be covered within
two hours by another layer of the material or other pavement course, and any ex-
posed edges shall be cured as soon as compaction is completed for a period of at least
7 days. Curing shall be achieved by any of the following methods:
(1) Cove1·ing the surface of the stabilized layer with an approved impermeable
plastic sheeting laid so that joints in the sheeting are overlapped by at least 3 feet and
held down at intervals by suitable means so that the sheets will not be blown off the
layer by wind.
(2) Spraying the surface of the stabilized layer with an approved quick breaking 55
per cent bitumen emulsion at a rate not lighter than 6 sq yd per gallon of emulsion.
Where it is necessary to limit heat absorption of the base, the bitumen emulsion shall,
where directed by the Engineer, be lightly blinded with coarse sand or fine gravel at
a rate of 200 sq yd per ton.
(3) On very small schemes where the Engineer does not require methods (1) or
(2) to be used, covering the stabilized layer with at least a 3-in thick layer of suitable
soil which is kept in a damp condition by periodic spraying with water during the curing
period and completely removed on completion of this period.
During frosty weather the stabilized layer shall be protected by means of a layer of
straw or soil at least 3 inches thick covered by impermeable sheeting and maintained
in position during the period of the frost. Work involving the use of cement shall not
be continued when the descending air temperature in the shade falls below 38° F nor
shall it be resumed until the ascending air temperature reaches 38° F. Frozen ma-
terial shall not be used in the stabilized layer and all work shall be discontinued if, in
the opinion of the Engineer the weather is in any way likely to be harmful to the process
of construction.
Where side forms are used in the construction of the stabilized layer they shall be
firmly secured in place and not removed until at least 6 hours after the completion of
the compaction work. The edges exposed by such removal shall be protected from
drying and be cured for a period of at least 7 days after construction by use of any of
the methods listed above.
Construction traffic or other vehicles shall not use any stabilized layer until it has
been cured for a period of at least 7 days. Thereafter, the use of the stabilized layer
by traffic shall be subject to the requirements of Clause 27/20.
If shown on the Drawings or stated in the Bill of Quantities, the stabilized layer
shall, after curing and approval be then sealed by surface dressing in accordance with
Clause 914 but using instead variations (b), (e) and (f) in Clause 710.

Joints
The Contractor shall so organise his work that longitudinal joints against hardened
stabilized material are avoided as far as possible. Wherever possible, in any day's
work the area constructed shall extend the full width of the carriageway. At the end
of each day's work on completion of compaction, the transverse edge of the layer shall
if stabilized be feathered out and shall be cut back vertically to the full depth of con-
struction of the layer before work starts again. Alternatively the work may be ter-
minated against an approved stop end. When the joint has been cut back or formed it
shall be adequately protected from drying out. On resumption of work the vertical
face of the joint shall be brushed to remove loose material and freshly mixed stabilized
material shall be butted tightly against the previous work. Joints in the layers, where
more than one layer is required, shall be staggered a distance of 5-10 ft.
76
Accuracy of surface and the thickness of stabilized base or sub-base
The surface of the completed stabilized base or sub-base shall be within the limits
of tolerance of surface irregularity permitted in the specification for surface levels
of flexible and concrete bases (Clause 27/18). *

Preliminary trials
At least ten days before the main work of stabilization is started, the Contractor
shall construct an area of stabilized material of 500-1, 000 sq yd extent as stated in
the Bill of Quantities as a preliminary trial at a site to be approved by the Engineer.
For this trial the Contractor shall use the materials, mix proportions, mixing, laying,
compaction plant and construction procedure that is proposed for the main work. The
preliminary trial is to test the efficiency of mixing, spreading and compaction plant
and the suitability of the methods and organisation proposed by the Contractor. The
results of the dry density measurements made in the stabilized trial area will be used
to confirm the moisture content and minimum state of compaction to be attained in the
main stabilization work.

Crushing strength and uniformity of the mixed material

The average crushing strength at an age of 7 days for each batch of 5 test specimens
made and tested in accordance with Clause 30/2 shall not be less than 400 lb/sq in for
cylindrical samples having a height/diameter ratio of 2:1 or 500 lb/sq in for cubical
specimens. If an area of stabilized layer represented by the 5 test specimens has an
average strength less than the specified minimum values the area shall be replaced
with acceptable stabilized material.
In addition to complying with the minimum specified strength, the stabilized ma-
terial shall have such a uniformity that the root mean square value of the coefficient
of variation of crushing strength of five successive batches of 5 test specimens shall
not exceed 40 per cent.

30/2 Provision for testing cement-stabilized material

Samples of the mixed cement-stabilized material shall be taken from the site im-
mediately prior to the compaction of the material. Five samples shall be taken at
random times and spacings over each 1, 000 sq yd of completed layer or such other
area as the Engineer decides. From each sample a cylindrical or cubical test speci-
men as appropriate to the type of material shall be prepared, cured and tested using
the procedure given in B. S. 1924. The specimen shall be compacted to a state of com-
paction within 2 lb/cu ft of the average density being achieved in the compacted sta-
bilized layer. After preparation the specimens shall be cured at constant moisture
content within the range of curing temperatures given in B. S. 1924 for a period of 7
days. The specimens shall then be weighed, the dimensions checked and tested in un-
confined compression. A representative portion of the crushed material from each
specimen shall be retained for a moisture content determination in accordance with
B. S. 1924 and the dry density of each test specimen shall then be determined using the
weight, dimensions and moisture content of the material.
The results of the 5 test specimens shall be averaged to give a representative figure
for the area from which the samples were originally taken.
To obtain a comparable average value for the state of compaction of the stabilized
layer, 5 determinations of dry density shall be made at random over each 1, 000 sq yd
of stabilized layer or such other area as the Engineer decides and the results averaged.
The method to be used for determining the dry density shall be the sand- replacement
method according to British Standard 1377; Methods of Testing Soils for Civil Engi-
neering purposes. The measurements shall be made at least 4 hours after the comple-
tion of the compaction work and preferably within a period of 24 hours.

·lfThis clause requires an accuracy of surface level of ± r

4 in for sub-bases and ± y
2
in
for bases of flexible pavements.