CHAPTER FOUR

STABILIZED PAVEMENT
MATERIALS

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 STABILIZED PAVEMENT MATERIALS
 Problematic soils:

◦ Expansive soils

◦ Dispersive soils

◦ Organic soils

◦ Saline soil or presence of saline water

 These soils require special treatment before

acceptance in the pavement foundation so that they
will be re-classified to fall into one of the subgrade
categories for the purpose of pavement design.

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3
 STABILIZED PAVEMENT MATERIALS
 Soil stabilization:

 The alteration of the properties of an existing soil either by

blending two or more materials and improving particle size

distribution or by the use of stabilizing additives to meet

the specified engineering properties.

 “The treatment of the materials used in the construction of

the road bed material, fill or pavement layers by the
addition of a cementitious binder such as lime or Portland
Cement or the mechanical modification of the material
through the addition of a soil binder or a bituminous binder.
Concrete and asphalt shall not be considered as materials
that have been stabilized.” ( ERA Mannual)
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 Generally, the objective of soil stabilization are:

◦ Improve the strength: (stability and bearing

capacity) for subgrade, subbase, base and low- cost
road surfaces,

◦ Improve the volume stability – undesirable properties

such as swelling, shrinkage, high plasticity
characteristics, and difficulty in compaction, etc
caused by change in moisture,

◦ Improve durability – increase the resistance to

erosion, weathering or traffic

◦ Improve high permeability, poor workability, frost

susceptibility, etc 5
 STABILIZED PAVEMENT MATERIALS
 The factors that should be considered in soil stabilization
include:

◦ Physical and chemical composition of the soil to be

stabilized,

◦ Availability and economical feasibility of stabilizing agents,

◦ Ease of application,

◦ Site constraints,

◦ climate,

◦ curing time, and safety.

 Such factors be taken into account in order to select the

proper type of stabilization.
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 Basically four techniques of soil stabilization are

commonly practiced in pavement construction.

◦ Mechanical stabilization

◦ Cement stabilization,

◦ Lime stabilization, and

◦ Bitumen stabilization

 The suitability of these methods depends on site

constraints, materials, climate, and economic

feasibility.
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 The stabilizing process with admixture involves the addition
of a stabilizing agent to the soil, mixing with sufficient
water to achieve the optimum moisture compaction of the
mixture, and final curing to ensure that the strength
potential is realized.

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 Mechanical Stabilization
 Mechanical stabilization is a method by which a soil or gravel

is mixed with the original soil in order to improve the grading

and mechanical characteristics of the soil.

 It is an improvement of an available material by blending it

with one or more material in order to improve the particle

size distribution and plasticity characteristics.

 The principal properties affecting the stability of compacted

base or sub-base materials are internal friction and

cohesion.

 Internal friction is chiefly dependent on the characteristics

of the coarser soil particles, i.e. gravel, sand and silt sizes.
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 Mechanical Stabilization
 The theoretical maximum density of aggregates is
obtained when grain size distribution follow the Fuller
maximum density equation of the form:

Where: p = percent passing sieve size “d”

D = maximum sieve size in the material,

n = a constant which varies between 0.45 to 0.50.

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 Mechanical Stabilization
 Liquid Limit and plasticity index: -

 The plasticity limits generally be used as satisfactory design

criteria for mechanical stabilized materials.

 Moreover, plastic Index and Linear Shrinkage of a material

passing 0.425 mm are normally related to one another. The

permissible values of shrinkage may be determined by test

or estimated from the permissible values of PI. Typical

values are 2% for sealed and 3% for unsealed pavements.

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 Mechanical Stabilization
 One of the most commonly used strength

tests is the laboratory CBR test.

 A 4-day soaking of compacted specimens

before testing is generally used. However,

conditions to be adopted for the test may be

altered in respect of the degree of

compaction and moisture content, to simulate

the worst conditions expected in service.

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 Cement Stabilization
 Cement is an effective stabilizing agent applicable to a wide

range of soils and situations .It has two important effects

on soil behaviors:

◦ Reduces the moisture susceptibility of soils: cement binds

the particles greatly and reduces moisture induced volume

change

◦ Develop inter-particle bonds in granular materials:

increased tensile strength and elastic modulus.

 Soil properties progressively change with increasing cement

contents. For practical reasons, two categories of cement

stabilized materials have been identified.

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 Cement Stabilization
 Cement modified materials: cement is used to reduce

plasticity, volume- change, etc, and the inter-particle bonds

are not significantly developed.

 Cement bound materials: cement is used to sufficiently

enhance modulus and tensile strength. Cement bound

materials have practical application in stiffening the

pavement.

 SELECTION OF CEMENT CONTENT

 The cement content determines whether the characteristics

of the mixture are dominated by the properties of the

original soil or by the hydration products.

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 Cement Stabilization

 As the proportion of cement in the mixture

increases, so the strength increases. Strength

also increases with time.

 The choice of cement content depends on the

strength required, the durability of the mixture,

and the soundness of the aggregate

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 Cement Stabilization
 The minimum cement content, expressed as a

percentage of the dry weight of soil, should exceed

the quantity consumed in the initial ion exchange

reactions.

 It is recommended that the percentage of cement

added should be equal to or greater than the initial

consumption of lime test (ICL), (British Standard

1924).

 A number of factors influence the quality of the

cement-soil interactions. 16
 Cement Stabilization

 The most important factors can be categorized into

four groups:

◦ Nature and type of soil.

◦ Cement content.

◦ Moisture content.

◦ Pulverization, mixing, compaction, and curing

conditions.

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 Cement Stabilization
 Cement content.
 Based on vast experience on cement stabilization, the
general guidelines in the following table have been provided
regarding the amounts of cement that are needed to
stabilize a soil.
Amount of Cement (%)
Soil type
By Weight By Volume
A-1-1 3-5 5-7
A-1-b 5-8 7-9
A-2 5-9 7 - 10
A-3 7 - 11 8 - 12
A-4 7 - 12 8 - 13
A-5 8 - 13 8 - 13
A-6 9 - 15 10 - 14
A-7 10 - 16 10 - 14
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 Cement Stabilization
 Since cement stabilized materials constitute in most cases
the main structural part of pavements, much attention is
given to their mechanical characteristics such as:

 Tensile and compressive strength,

 Deformation behavior, and

 Fatigue characteristics

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 Lime Stabilization
 Lime is a broad term which is used to describe
calcium oxide (CaO)- quick lime; calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2- hydrated lime, and calcium carbonate
(CaCO3)-carbonate is of no value for
stabilization.

 The most commonly used products of quick lime

and hydrated lime are hydrated calcitic lime
(CaO), dolomitic quick lime (CaO MgO).

 Lime can be applied as dry hydrated lime, quick

lime or slurry lime. 20
 Lime Stabilization
 Lime is an effective stabilizing agent for clayey to
improve both workability and strength.

 Lime is not effective with cohesion less or low

cohesion materials without the addition of
secondary (pozzolanic- fine materials which react
with lime to form cementations compounds)
additives.

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 Lime Stabilization

 The cementitous products resulting from

cement and lime stabilization are with
comparable behavior and follow fairly similar
evaluation, and construction considerations.

 The significant difference in the nature and

rate of cementations reactions, however, is a
basis for the choice between cement and
lime.
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 Lime Stabilization
 Basically four different processes are involved in
the soil-lime reaction which are: cation exchange,
flocculation, pozzolanic reaction, and carbonation.

 Cation exchange is an immediate reaction and

unlike pozzolanic reaction, it is not significantly
dependent on temperature in which cations such as
sodium and hydrogen are replaced by calcium ions
for which the clay mineral has a greater affinity.

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 Lime Stabilization

 This condition in turn promotes the development

of flocculent structures. This means that
plasticity, shrinkage and swelling and other normal
clay – water interactions are distinctly inhibited.

 The effect of lime on clay minerals of high cation

exchange capacity, such as montmorillonite clays,
is therefore more apparent than it is on clay of
low cation exchange capacity such as koalinite
clays.
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 Lime Stabilization
 Chemically equivalent amounts of quick lime and
hydrated lime have the same effect on plasticity.

 However, quick lime has an additional drying

effect since, the chemical reaction between the
lime and the water in the soil removes free water
from the soil and the heat produced by the
reaction assists in drying.

 The change in plasticity is accompanied an

immediate change in the strength of the soil as
measured by the CBR.
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 Lime Stabilization
 The effect of lime on the CBR value
increases with time as the pozzolanic
reactions take effect.

 Siliceous and aluminous materials in the

soil react with lime to produce a gel of
calcium silicates and aluminates.

 This gel cements the soil particles together

in a manner that is similar to that of
hydrated cement.

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 Lime Stabilization
 Minerals in the soil that react with lime to produce a
cementing compound are known as pozzolans, it takes
considerably more time than required for hydration of
Portland cement.

 This long term effect on strength, causing continuing

strength improvements with time, often called
pozzolanic reactions.

 The cementing action also depends on climatic

conditions and a thorough compaction of the mixture.

 High curing temperatures have a positive effect on the

pozzlanic reactions.
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 Lime Stabilization
 Temperatures lower than 13 and 160C retard the
reaction; from this point of view it is obvious that
lime stabilization is especially popular in tropical
countries.

 Carbonation occurs when the hydrated lime reacts

with the CO2 from the air.

 Carbonates (CaCO3) add some strength but the

carbonation reaction “eats” the lime and will
therefore retard pozzilanic reactions.

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 Lime Stabilization
 Other factors that are of influence on the soil-
lime reaction are:

◦ The presence of excessive quantities of organic

carbon retards the lime –soil reaction,

◦ Moderately weathered and unweathered soils

with high pH display good reactivity,

◦ Poorly drained soils exhibit a higher degree of

lime-reactivity than better drained soils,

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 Lime Stabilization
◦ A minimum amount of clay approximately 15% is
required to insure an adequate source of silica
and/ or alumina for the lime- soil pozzolanic
reaction.

◦ The strength of lime stabilized materials is

dependent on the amount of lime, the curing
time, curing temperature and compaction

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 Lime Stabilization
 In addition, the quality of water, type of stabilizing

lime, and uniformity are important affecting the

quality of production as they are in cement

stabilization.

 Mix design procedures for lime stabilization are the

determination of the maximum amount of lime that

can be taken by the soil before free lime occurs

(the lime content above which further increases do

not produce significant additional strength) or the

lime requirement to attain a specific strength levels.

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 Lime Stabilization

 Characteristics related design procedures are

related to the conditions for which they have

been developed.

 The usually used minimum strength requirements

for mix design are 0.69 MPa for subbase and

1.12 for subbase materials and 0.11 for base-

course materials.

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 Lime Stabilization
 When lime is used for subgrade improvements,
the design lime content may be designated as
the lime content above which no further
appreciable reduction in PI occurs or minimum
lime content is increased 0.5 to 1.0% to offset
the effect of field variability.

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 Bituminous Stabilization
 Bituminous materials are used as stabilizers to
retard or completely stop moisture absorption by
coating soil or aggregate grains in the soil-
aggregate mixture.

 Bituminous stabilization is used with non- cohesive

granular materials-where the bitumen adds
cohesive strength; and with cohesive materials –
where the bitumen “waterproofs” the soil thus
reducing loss of strength with increase in moisture
content.
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 Bituminous Stabilization
 Both effects take place partly from the

formation of bituminous film around the soil

particles which bonds them together and prevents

the absorption of water, and partly from simple

blocking of the pores, preventing water from

entering the soil mass.

 Because more care is necessary in bituminous

stabilization to achieve satisfactory mixing, its

use has not been as widespread as cement and

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 Bituminous Stabilization
 Bituminous materials: -

 The bituminous materials that are used for

stabilization works are mostly penetration grade
bitumen and cutback bitumen and bitumen
emulsion.

 The characteristics of cutbacks depended on the

particle size distribution of the soil, the
temperature of application, and the type of mix
plant.

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 Bituminous Stabilization
 The more viscous binders are normally used for
soils having only a small proportion of material
passing the 0.075mm sieve and for plant mixes,
while the lighter binders are used for mix –in
place methods and with soils containing a larger
proportion of fines.

 Emulsions are generally suitable for soil

stabilization in climate where rapid drying
conditions occur, since this is equivalent to adding
water to the soil as well as bituminous binder.

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 Bituminous Stabilization
 Soils requirements: -

 Bituminous materials are used for the stabilization

of both cohesive and non-cohesive granular soils.

 Soils which can readily pulverized by construction

equipment are satisfactory for bituminous
stabilization.

 Cohesive soils usually have satisfactory bearing

capacity at low moisture content. The purpose of
using bitumen as a stabilizer in such soils is to
waterproof them as a means to maintain them at
low moisture contents and high bearing capacities.
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 Bituminous Stabilization
 In the non-cohesive granular materials,

bitumen serves as a bonding or cementing

agent between particles.

 Depending on the particle size distribution and

physical properties of the available soil

materials and the function of the stabilizing

bitumen, there are four types of soil-bitumen

mixtures in highway engineering.

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 Bituminous Stabilization
 Soil-bitumen: this is a mixture of cohesive soil and
bitumen for waterproofing purposes. The maximum
grain size should preferably not greater than one-
third of the compacted layer. The bitumen
requirements commonly range from 4-7% of the dry
weight of the soil.

 Sand bitumen: sands such as beach, river, pit, or

existing roadway sand may be stabilized with
bitumen if they are substantially free from
vegetable matter, lumps or balls of clay or adherent
films of clay.
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 Bituminous Stabilization
 Waterproofed granular stabilization: This is a
system in which a soil material possessing good
gradation of constituent particles from coarse to
fine, and having high potential density is
waterproofed by uniform distribution of small
amount (1-2%) of bitumen.

 Oiled earth: This is a soil surface, consisting of

silt-clay material made water and abrasion
resistant by slow or medium curing bitumen
cutbacks or emulsions.
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 Bituminous Stabilization
 Table Characteristics of soils empirically found suitable for
bitumen stabilization.
Sieve size Percent passing
Soil-bitumen Sand-bitumen Water proofed granular stabilization

A B C
1.5inch 100
1inch 80-100 100
075inch 65-85 80-100 100
No. 4 >50 100 40-65 50-75 80-100

No. 10 35-100 25-50 40-60 60-80

No. 40 15-30 20-35 30-50

No.100 10-20 13-23 20-35

No.200 10-50 <12,<25 8-12 10-16 13-30

Plasticity characteristics
LL <40
PI <18 <10;<15 <10;<15 <10;<152
Field moisture <201
Linear shrinkage <51 42
 Bituminous Stabilization
 The mechanism of stabilization with bituminous
materials consists of adding cohesive strength and
reducing the percolation of water,

 No chemical interaction is taking place.

 Waterproofing occur by coating the surface of

particles aggregated lumps of particles or by
blocking the pores of the soil mass, and a strength
comes from the presence of a continuous film of
bitumen giving cohesion.

 Too much bitumen, however, causes loss of strength

by lubricating the particles and preventing interlock.
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 Bituminous Stabilization
 The mix design procedure for bituminous treatments
of soils may be considered under four headings;

◦ mix design for stability in non-cohesive or

cohesive materials;

◦ mix design for sand-bitumen mixes, and

◦ mix design for oiled earth roads.

 For the first three types of mix, a series of tests

should be made with varying bitumen contents and
grades using hot bitumen, cutback and emulsion,&the
appropriate mix is selected giving due weight to the
need for stability or water resistance as required. 44
 Bituminous Stabilization
 Compaction, compressive, and water absorption
test are normally used to select the optimum
amount of bitumen content.

 May difficulties in construction and poor

pavement performance may be attributed to a
lack of appreciation of this additive effect.

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THANK
YOU!!

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