According to the current Title 14 of the Code of Federal provides a brief introduction to the airplane and its

Regulations (14 CFR) part 1, Definitions and major components.

Abbreviations, an aircraft is a device that is used, or
intended to be used, for flight. Categories of aircraft for
certification of airmen include airplane, rotorcraft, MAJOR COMPONENTS
lighter-than-air, powered-lift, and glider. Part 1 also Although airplanes are designed for a variety of pur-
defines airplane as an engine-driven, fixed-wing poses, most of them have the same major components.
aircraft heavier than air that is supported in flight by the The overall characteristics are largely determined by
dynamic reaction of air against its wings. This chapter the original design objectives. Most airplane structures
include a fuselage, wings, an empennage, landing gear,
Aircraft—A device that is used for flight in the air. and a powerplant. [Figure 1-1]
Airplane—An engine-driven, fixed-wing aircraft heavier than air that is
supported in flight by the dynamic reaction of air against its wings.

Empennage

Wing

Fuselage

Powerplant
Landing Gear

Figure 1-1. Airplane components.

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FUSELAGE However, if the side of the can is dented only slightly,
The fuselage includes the cabin and/or cockpit, which the can will collapse easily. The true monocoque con-
contains seats for the occupants and the controls for struction mainly consists of the skin, formers, and
the airplane. In addition, the fuselage may also bulkheads. The formers and bulkheads provide shape
provide room for cargo and attachment points for the for the fuselage. [Figure 1-3]
other major airplane components. Some aircraft uti-
lize an open truss structure. The truss-type fuselage is Skin Former
constructed of steel or aluminum tubing. Strength and
rigidity is achieved by welding the tubing together
into a series of triangular shapes, called trusses.
[Figure 1-2]

Longeron
Diagonal Web Members

Bulkhead

Figure 1-3. Monocoque fuselage design.

Vertical
Web
Members
Since no bracing members are present, the skin must be
strong enough to keep the fuselage rigid. Thus, a
significant problem involved in monocoque construc-
Figure 1-2. The Warren truss. tion is maintaining enough strength while keeping the
weight within allowable limits. Due to the limitations of
the monocoque design, a semi-monocoque structure is
Construction of the Warren truss features longerons, used on many of today’s aircraft.
as well as diagonal and vertical web members. To
reduce weight, small airplanes generally utilize The semi-monocoque system uses a substructure to
aluminum alloy tubing, which may be riveted or which the airplane’s skin is attached. The substructure,
bolted into one piece with cross-bracing members. which consists of bulkheads and/or formers of various
sizes and stringers, reinforces the stressed skin by
As technology progressed, aircraft designers began to taking some of the bending stress from the fuselage.
enclose the truss members to streamline the airplane The main section of the fuselage also includes wing
and improve performance. This was originally accom- attachment points and a firewall. [Figure 1-4]
plished with cloth fabric, which eventually gave way to
lightweight metals such as aluminum. In some cases, Bulkheads
the outside skin can support all or a major portion of and/or
Formers
the flight loads. Most modern aircraft use a form of this
stressed skin structure known as monocoque or semi-
monocoque construction.

The monocoque design uses stressed skin to support

almost all imposed loads. This structure can be very Stressed Skin
strong but cannot tolerate dents or deformation of the Stringers
surface. This characteristic is easily demonstrated by a
thin aluminum beverage can. You can exert considerable Wing Attachment
Points
force to the ends of the can without causing any damage. Firewall

Figure 1-4. Semi-monocoque construction.

Truss—A fuselage design made up of supporting structural members

that resist deformation by applied loads.

Monocoque—A shell-like fuselage design in which the stressed outer Semi-Monocoque—A fuselage design that includes a substructure of
skin is used to support the majority of imposed stresses. Monocoque bulkheads and/or formers, along with stringers, to support flight loads
fuselage design may include bulkheads but not stringers. and stresses imposed on the fuselage.

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 On single-engine airplanes, the engine is usually through the struts to the main fuselage structure. Since
attached to the front of the fuselage. There is a fireproof the wing struts are usually attached approximately
partition between the rear of the engine and the cockpit halfway out on the wing, this type of wing structure is
or cabin to protect the pilot and passengers from called semi-cantilever. A few high-wing and most
accidental engine fires. This partition is called a low-wing airplanes have a full cantilever wing
firewall and is usually made of heat-resistant material designed to carry the loads without external struts.
such as stainless steel.

WINGS
The wings are airfoils attached to each side of the
fuselage and are the main lifting surfaces that support
the airplane in flight. There are numerous wing
designs, sizes, and shapes used by the various manu-
facturers. Each fulfills a certain need with respect to
the expected performance for the particular airplane.
How the wing produces lift is explained in subsequent
chapters.

Wings may be attached at the top, middle, or lower por-

tion of the fuselage. These designs are referred to as
high-, mid-, and low-wing, respectively. The number of
wings can also vary. Airplanes with a single set of
wings are referred to as monoplanes, while those with
two sets are called biplanes. [Figure 1-5]

Many high-wing airplanes have external braces, or

wing struts, which transmit the flight and landing loads

Airfoil—An airfoil is any surface, such as a wing, propeller, rudder, or

even a trim tab, which provides aerodynamic force when it interacts
with a moving stream of air. Figure 1-5. Monoplane and biplane.

Monoplane—An airplane that has only one main lifting surface or

wing, usually divided into two parts by the fuselage.

Biplane—An airplane that has two main airfoil surfaces or wings on The principal structural parts of the wing are spars,
each side of the fuselage, one placed above the other. ribs, and stringers. [Figure 1-6] These are reinforced by

Fuel Tank
Spar

Spar

Ribs
Skin

Wing Flap

Aileron

Stringers
WingTip

Figure 1-6. Wing components.

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trusses, I-beams, tubing, or other devices, including the A second type of empennage design does not require
skin. The wing ribs determine the shape and thickness an elevator. Instead, it incorporates a one-piece hori-
of the wing (airfoil). In most modern airplanes, the fuel zontal stabilizer that pivots from a central hinge point.
tanks either are an integral part of the wing’s structure, This type of design is called a stabilator, and is moved
or consist of flexible containers mounted inside of the using the control wheel, just as you would the eleva-
wing. tor. For example, when you pull back on the control
wheel, the stabilator pivots so the trailing edge moves
Attached to the rear, or trailing, edges of the wings are up. This increases the aerodynamic tail load and
two types of control surfaces referred to as ailerons and causes the nose of the airplane to move up. Stabilators
flaps. Ailerons extend from about the midpoint of each have an antiservo tab extending across their trailing
wing outward toward the tip and move in opposite edge. [Figure 1-8]
directions to create aerodynamic forces that cause the
airplane to roll. Flaps extend outward from the
fuselage to near the midpoint of each wing. The flaps
are normally flush with the wing’s surface during
cruising flight. When extended, the flaps move simul-
taneously downward to increase the lifting force of the
wing for takeoffs and landings.

EMPENNAGE
The correct name for the tail section of an airplane is
empennage. The empennage includes the entire tail
group, consisting of fixed surfaces such as the vertical Stabilator
stabilizer and the horizontal stabilizer. The movable sur- Antiservo
faces include the rudder, the elevator, and one or more Tab
trim tabs. [Figure 1-7]
Pivot Point

Vertical
Stabilizer
Rudder Figure 1-8. Stabilator components.
Horizontal
Stabilizer
Trim Tabs

Elevator The antiservo tab moves in the same direction as the

trailing edge of the stabilator. The antiservo tab also
functions as a trim tab to relieve control pressures and
helps maintain the stabilator in the desired position.

The rudder is attached to the back of the vertical stabi-

lizer. During flight, it is used to move the airplane’s
nose left and right. The rudder is used in combination
with the ailerons for turns during flight. The elevator,
which is attached to the back of the horizontal stabi-
Figure 1-7. Empennage components. lizer, is used to move the nose of the airplane up and
down during flight.

Trim tabs are small, movable portions of the trailing

edge of the control surface. These movable trim tabs,
which are controlled from the cockpit, reduce control
pressures. Trim tabs may be installed on the ailerons,
the rudder, and/or the elevator.

LANDING GEAR
Empennage—The section of the airplane that consists of the vertical The landing gear is the principle support of the airplane
stabilizer, the horizontal stabilizer, and the associated control surfaces. when parked, taxiing, taking off, or when landing. The

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 most common type of landing gear consists of wheels, airplanes, provides a source of heat for the pilot and
but airplanes can also be equipped with floats for water passengers. The engine is covered by a cowling, or in
operations, or skis for landing on snow. [Figure 1-9] the case of some airplanes, surrounded by a nacelle.
The purpose of the cowling or nacelle is to stream-
line the flow of air around the engine and to help cool
the engine by ducting air around the cylinders. The
propeller, mounted on the front of the engine, trans-
lates the rotating force of the engine into a forward-
acting force called thrust that helps move the airplane
through the air. [Figure 1-10]

Engine

Figure 1-9. Landing gear. Cowling

The landing gear consists of three wheels—two main

wheels and a third wheel positioned either at the front or
rear of the airplane. Landing gear employing a rear-
mounted wheel is called conventional landing gear.
Airplanes with conventional landing gear are sometimes
Firewall
referred to as tailwheel airplanes. When the third wheel is
located on the nose, it is called a nosewheel, and the
design is referred to as a tricycle gear. A steerable nose-
wheel or tailwheel permits the airplane to be controlled Propeller
throughout all operations while on the ground.
Figure 1-10. Engine compartment.
THE POWERPLANT
The powerplant usually includes both the engine and
the propeller. The primary function of the engine is to
provide the power to turn the propeller. It also gener-
Nacelle—A streamlined enclosure on an aircraft in which an engine is
ates electrical power, provides a vacuum source for mounted. On multiengine propeller-driven airplanes, the nacelle is
some flight instruments, and in most single-engine normally mounted on the leading edge of the wing.

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