March 2014 NHMRC Ref# MEN4d

FUNDED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH

PSA Testing for Prostate Cancer in Asymptomatic Men

Information for Health Practitioners

This information has been developed for health How frequent are these benefits and harms?
practitioners* to read before they discuss the To help men make a decision, they should be informed of both
prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test as part of a the potential benefits and harms of PSA testing. These vary with
age and familial risk. The following rates are estimates for men
medical consultation. It provides a summary of
aged 60 years who have no first-degree relatives affected by
the evidence on the benefits and harms of PSA prostate cancer and who, for the next 10 years, have an annual
testing, with or without digital rectal examination PSA test. Ideally, they would be based on current Australian
(DRE), for prostate cancer in asymptomatic men. active surveillance and treatment rates. However, since these
figures are unavailable, the most recent relevant figures have
For the purposes of this document, been used, including evidence-based estimates of benefit.
asymptomatic men include those with stable Possible benefit of PSA testing
lower urinary tract symptoms, because these • For every 1000 men tested, 2 men will avoid death from
symptoms are very common in ageing men and prostate cancer before 85 years of age because of PSA
are not clearly associated with an increased risk testing1. This benefit might be greater for men at high risk
for prostate cancer. of prostate cancer, such as those with a strong family history
of the disease.
• For every 1000 men tested, 2 men will avoid metastatic
What are the potential benefits of PSA testing? prostate cancer before 85 years of age because of PSA testing2.

• Reassurance: If the PSA test result is normal or very low, Expected harms of PSA testing
this can provide reassurance.
False-positive results:
• Early detection: If prostate cancer is detected at an
• For every 1000 men tested:
early stage, when it is still confined to the prostate gland,
there is an opportunity to commence early treatment. - 87 men who do not have prostate cancer will have a false
positive PSA test that will lead to a biopsy1.
• Early treatment: Early treatment may cure the disease,
and thus avoid loss of quality of life due to advanced - 28 men will experience a side effect from the biopsy that
prostate cancer, and death from prostate cancer. they consider to be a moderate/major problem that may
require healthcare, and 1 will require hospitalisation3.
What are the potential harms of PSA testing? Overdiagnosis:
• False positive results: If no cancer is present, a positive • For every 1000 men tested, 28 men will have prostate cancer
test may cause psychological distress and unnecessary diagnosed as a result of the PSA test1, many of whom would
prostate biopsies. have remained asymptomatic for life (i.e. are overdiagnosed).
• False negative results: If prostate cancer is present, a Overtreatment:
normal or low PSA may provide false reassurance and may • For every 1000 men tested,
delay cancer diagnosis.
- 25 men will choose to undergo treatment (surgery or
• Overdiagnosis: A positive PSA result may lead to radiation) because of uncertainty about which cancers
diagnosis of a cancer that is progressing so slowly it would need to be treated, many of whom would do well without
not have caused any health problems had it been left treatment (i.e. are overtreated)4.
undetected and untreated. - 7–10 of these 25 men will develop persistent impotence
• Overtreatment: Unnecessary treatment of slowly and/or urinary incontinence, and some will develop
progressing cancer may result in harmful effects without persistent bowel problems, due to treatment4.
any health benefit. • For every 2000 men tested, 1 man will experience a serious
cardiovascular event, such as myocardial infarction, due to
treatment4.
*This document is not a substitute for relevant clinical practice guidelines and
therefore does not contain recommendations.
Continued on page 2
What research has been done to study Does PSA testing in asymptomatic men
the effectiveness of PSA testing for reduce their overall risk of dying?
prostate cancer?
Four RCTs, including the two largest trials, examined the
In 2013, the National Health and Medical Research Council effect of PSA testing on death from all causes. PSA testing
(NHMRC) released an evaluation of the evidence on the appears to have no discernible effect on the overall risk of
effectiveness of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing of dying.
asymptomatic men in reducing mortality and morbidity from
prostate cancer5. For the purposes of this evaluation, PSA Does PSA testing in asymptomatic men
testing refers to PSA testing with or without DRE.
reduce their risk of having metastases present
The evaluation identified five relevant systematic reviews, at diagnosis of prostate cancer?
which included a total of six randomised controlled trials
(RCTs) of varying quality and with heterogeneous results that Four RCTs, including the two largest trials, examined the
compared PSA testing (with or without DRE) with no PSA effect of PSA testing on the presence of prostate cancer
testing. These mass prostate cancer screening trials were metastases at diagnosis, most of which were in bone.
conducted in North America and Europe. Participants ranged There was some inconsistency in the definition of
from 45 to 80 years, but most were aged between 50 to 74 metastatic disease across the trials. However, overall, the
years, with follow-up ranging from 6 to 14 years. This remains evidence shows that PSA testing reduces the risk of having
a short period relative to the natural history of prostate metastases present at diagnosis of prostate cancer. The
cancer. Trials ranged in size from 9000 to 182,000 men. largest RCT showed that after a median 12 years of follow up,
Although some of these trials were well designed, they had the cumulative risk of prostate cancer metastases remained
some limitations that affect the interpretation of results. For lower in those who had PSA testing than in those who did
example, in one trial, many men had a PSA test before they not.
entered the trial, and in another, protocols varied between
study centres5. Does PSA testing in asymptomatic men affect
the quality of life of men who are diagnosed
Does PSA testing in asymptomatic men reduce with prostate cancer?
their risk of dying from prostate cancer?
None of the six RCTs has reported complete data on the
All six RCTs examined the effect of PSA testing on death from effect of PSA testing on quality of life. Thus it is unknown
prostate cancer, but the findings were inconsistent. Of the whether PSA testing affects quality of life in the long term
two largest and most recent trials, one found that PSA testing due to advanced prostate cancer. However, this uncertainty
led to a small but significant reduction in death from prostate should be considered in the context of the potential benefits
cancer; the other found that PSA testing did not reduce and harms outlined on the first page.
death from prostate cancer. Thus, the present evidence is
inconsistent as to whether PSA testing affects the risk of
dying from prostate cancer.

1. Howard K. et al., ‘A Model of Prostate-Specific Antigen Screening Outcomes for Low- to High-Risk Men’, Arch Intern Med, vol. 169, 2009, pp. 1603-1610.
2. National Health and Medical Research Council requested the calculation of this figure from Professor K. Howard, University of Sydney, using methods in Howard, K et al., Arch Intern
Med, vol. 169, 2009, pp. 1603-1610 and results reported in Schroder, FH et al., Eur Urol, vol. 62, 2012, pp. 745–752.
3. Rosario DJ. et al. ‘Short Term Outcomes of Prostate Biopsy in Men Tested for Cancer by Prostate Specific Antigen: Prospective Evaluation Within ProtecT Study’, BMJ, vol. 344, 2012, pp. d7894.
4. Moyer VA. on behalf of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, ‘Screening for Prostate Cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement’, Ann Intern Med,
vol. 157, 2012, pp. 120–134.
5. National Health and Medical Research Council. Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) testing in asymptomatic men: Evidence Evaluation Report. Commonwealth of Australia, 2013.
Available at: http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/guidelines/publications/men4

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 March 2014 NHMRC Ref# MEN4d
FUNDED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH

PSA Testing for Prostate Cancer in Asymptomatic Men

Information for Health Practitioners

This information has been developed for health How accurate is a PSA test?
practitioners*, to support discussion with men
A PSA test is used to evaluate the probability that prostate
and their families about the benefits and harms cancer is present – it does not diagnose prostate cancer.
of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing for A prostate biopsy is the only method by which prostate cancer
prostate cancer. can be definitively diagnosed.

The PSA test is not perfect:

Frequently asked questions about • For every 10 men who have an abnormal PSA test result,
about 7 will not be diagnosed with prostate cancer after further
PSA testing for prostate cancer diagnostic evaluation; that is, the result is a false positive.
• A small proportion of men with a normal PSA test result will
Why is prostate cancer important? have prostate cancer; that is, the result is a false negative.
Prostate cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer in Many prostate cancers found by PSA testing are slow-growing
Australia and second most common cause of male cancer and thus not life-threatening, so they may not cause a man
deaths1. Both the risk of developing prostate cancer and the risk any harm during his lifetime. PSA testing does not accurately
of dying from prostate cancer increase considerably from age determine which cancers are likely to be a threat to a man’s
50 to 70 years (Table 1). Men with a family history of prostate health and which are not.
cancer are also at higher risk of developing prostate cancer.

Are there any other tests available for

What is a PSA test?
prostate cancer?
A PSA test is a blood test that is commonly used to detect
There are other tests, such as free PSA, Prostate Health Index
possible prostate cancer. It involves taking a sample of blood
(PHI), PCA3 urine test and multi-parametric magnetic resonance
to measure the concentration of PSA, a protein produced by
imaging (MRI), but these either have not been shown to be
cells in the prostate gland. Elevated PSA levels may indicate
superior to PSA alone or are yet to be fully evaluated. Digital
the presence of prostate cancer, but may also be caused by
rectal examination (DRE) is also used with the PSA test to test
other conditions, such as benign prostate enlargement or a
for prostate cancer.
prostatic infection.

Table 1: Age-specific risks of diagnosis and death from prostate cancer

Within the next 10 years Within the next 20 years

What is the chance What is the chance What is the chance What is the chance
For a man
of a diagnosis of of dying from of a diagnosis of of dying from
currently aged
prostate cancer?a prostate cancer?b prostate cancer?a prostate cancer?b

40 years 4 in 1000 0 in 1000 33 in 1000 1 in 1000

50 years 30 in 1000 1 in 1000 109 in 1000 4 in 1000

60 years 82 in 1000 4 in 1000 172 in 1000 19 in 1000

70 years 98 in 1000 15 in 1000 176 in 1000 69 in 1000

Sources:
a) Australian Cancer Database 2010, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW). Based on the most recent complete national incidence data available (2009).
b) Analysis of AIHW National Mortality Database, based on the most recent national mortality data available (2011). The mortality data in the AIHW National Mortality Database were
provided by the Registries of Births, Deaths and Marriages and the National Coronial Information System and coded by the Australian Bureau of Statistics

*This document is not a substitute for relevant clinical practice guidelines and therefore does not contain recommendations.
1. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2013. Prostate cancer in Australia. Cancer series no. 79. Cat. no. CAN 76. Canberra: AIHW.

Continued on page 4
How can men prepare for a PSA test? If a man receives a diagnosis of prostate
cancer after an abnormal PSA test, what
Men should not have a PSA test if they have:
choices does he have?
• an active urinary infection;
• ejaculated in the last 48 hours; Not all prostate cancers require treatment. If a man is
diagnosed with prostate cancer, the options depend on the
• exercised vigorously in the last 48 hours; stage and grade of the cancer. A positive biopsy does not
• had a prostate biopsy in the last 6 weeks; or necessarily indicate that the cancer will cause harm if left
untreated.
• had a DRE in the past week.

Any one of these can cause an elevation of PSA levels. Observation

Watchful waiting is an approach to management of the
What are considered normal and abnormal disease usually in older men with limited life expectancies.
PSA test results? Active surveillance is an active plan to postpone intervention,
in which men are closely monitored for signs of disease
PSA levels increase as men age. Therefore, an age-specific progression. The practitioner will recommend treatment with
reference range should be used when deciding whether the palliative intent if the disease progresses.
test results are normal or abnormal. Repeat tests should be
done by the same laboratory. Active treatment
In men who require treatment with curative intent, the
What happens if a man receives a normal PSA choices include radical prostatectomy, radiation therapy
test result? and, for locally advanced or metastatic disease, androgen
deprivation therapy. The possible side effects of treatments
A normal PSA test result indicates that prostate cancer is vary and can have a negative effect on quality of life. Known
unlikely to be present. No further action may be needed. If side effects include urinary incontinence, impotence, bowel
the PSA level is at the upper end of the reference range and/ dysfunction, and complications immediately after surgery.
or if there is a family history of prostate cancer, the test may Men should be encouraged to discuss management options
be repeated. with their general practitioner and specialist.

A normal PSA test result may alleviate anxiety but does not
guarantee that no cancer is present. If a man has a normal If a man decides not to have a PSA test what
test result but wishes to continue to be tested for prostate risks should he and his family be aware of?
cancer, he may consider having another PSA test in a year or
two. Some doctors may suggest a time to the next PSA test, Deciding not to have a PSA test is appropriate for many men.
based on the current test result. In the unlikely event that a man who decides not to have a
PSA test has a potentially fatal prostate cancer, he may miss
the opportunity for early detection and early treatment. If
What happens if a man receives an abnormal prostate cancer is not diagnosed and treated until it causes
PSA test result? symptoms, such as blood in the urine or bone pain, it may
have spread beyond the prostate and be incurable. Symptom
An abnormal PSA test result should not be ignored.
management may include androgen deprivation therapy,
It can cause worry and anxiety because it indicates the
radiotherapy and chemotherapy amongst others.
possible presence of prostate cancer; however, it does not
confirm that cancer is present. Usually, an abnormal PSA test
will be repeated. If the result remains abnormal, a man may
choose to be referred to a specialist for further investigations.
If the PSA level is rising, the specialist may recommend a
prostate biopsy, which can diagnose prostate cancer early
when a cure may be possible. However, as with the PSA test, References
the biopsy is not a perfect test: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2013. Prostate cancer in
Australia. Cancer series no. 79. Cat. no. CAN 76. Canberra: AIHW
• If the biopsy is negative, further follow-up or monitoring Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) National Mortality Database.
may still be necessary. Howard K. et al., ‘A Model of Prostate-Specific Antigen Screening Outcomes for
Low- to High-Risk Men’, Arch Intern Med, vol. 169, 2009, pp. 1603-1610.
• The biopsy may cause embarrassment, anxiety and
Moyer VA. on behalf of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, ‘Screening for
discomfort. Prostate Cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement’,
Ann Intern Med, vol. 157, 2012, pp. 120–134.
• The biopsy may lead to complications, such as blood in
National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Prostate-Specific
the urine or semen, or infection. Antigen (PSA) Testing in Asymptomatic Men: Evidence Evaluation Report’,
Commonwealth of Australia, 2013. Available at: http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/
• Some men experience pain from the biopsy, although this guidelines/publications/men4
can be reduced by local anaesthetics or sedation. Rosario DJ. et al., ‘Short Term Outcomes of Prostate Biopsy in Men Tested for
Cancer by Prostate Specific Antigen: Prospective Evaluation Within ProtecT
Study’, BMJ, vol. 344, 2012, pp. d7894

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