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 3 1833 029

625.7 G28r
Genat, Robert, 1945-
Road construction

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ALLEN COUNTY PUBLIC LIBRARY

FORT WAYNE, INDIANA 46802

You may return this book to any location of

the Allen County Public Library.

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 ROAD
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JM>tishe« * Wholesalers «£>
 / dedicate this book to my insightful friend, Jerry Stein.
He has helped me countless times without ever uttering a word of advice-
he knows how to ask the right questions.
Thanks for being such a good friend, Jerry.

First published in 1995 by Motorbooks Special Sales Manager at the Publisher's address
International Publishers & Wholesalers, PO Box 2,

729 Prospect Avenue, Osceola, WI 54020 USA Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Genat, Robert.
© Robert Genat 1995 Road construction/Robert Genat.
p. cm. — (Enthusiast color series)
All rights reserved. With the exception of quoting Includes index.
brief passages for the purposes of review no part ISBN 0-7603-0040-2 (pbk.)

of this publication may be reproduced without Road machinery. Title.

1. I. II. Series.
prior written permission from the Publisher TE223.G46 1995
625.7— dc20 95-17472
Motorbooks International is a certified trademark,

registered with the United States Patent Office On the front cover: Canting this grader's front
wheels helps the tires grip a slanted surface.
The information in this book is true and complete Robert Genat
to the best of our knowledge. All recommendations
are made without any guarantee on the part of the On the frontispiece: The elevated final drive

author or Publisher, who also disclaim any liability sprocket on theCAT D8L is designed to be above
incurred in connection with the use of this data or the mud and dust and is isolated from the ground
specific details shocks absorbed by the treads. Robert Genat

We recognize that some words, model names and On the title page: A spotless grader motors along
designations, for example, mentioned herein are on a road expansion job. Robert Genat
the property of the trademark holder. We use
them for identification purposes only. This is not On the back cover: The bulldozer's blade is
an official publication up and the operator is shifting into reverse
after making a pass to the edge of a fill.
Motorbooks International books are also available Robert Genat
at discounts in bulk quantity for industrial or

sales-promotional use. For details write to Printed in Hong Kong

Allen County Public Library

900 Webster Street
PO Box 2270
Fort Wayne, IN 46801-2270

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 Contents

Acknowledgments 6
Introduction 7
Chapter 1

A Brief History Of Roads-Where The Path Began 9

Chapter 2

Bulldozers— The Tough Guys 15

Chapter 3

Excavators— Digging For Dollars 27

Chapter 4

Scrapers— Push-Pull Production 41

Chapter 5

Graders— Earth Sculptors 55

Chapter 6

Milling Machines— A Cut Above 65

Chapter 7

Pavers— Laying It Down 73

Chapter 8

Rollers & Compactors—

Where A Breakdown Is Good 87
Index 96

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 Acknowledgments

deepest gratitude to the wonderful ange vest, and took me on a tour of his sites. I

Mymen and women working in the road was given full access to all his sites and peo-
construction industry who helped me with this ple. Thanks, John.
book. They gave me answers to "how's it Thanks to Kirk Landers, editor of Construc-

work?", "what's that thing for?", and "why do tion Equipment Magazine. His publication is

you do it that way?". They let me climb on, in, gospel to those in the industry. Writing this book
and around several pieces of equipment. And would have been difficult without Kirk's help.
they gave me rides on some of the equip- Thanks to all the equipment manufactur-
ment—that was fun! ers for their cooperation. Not only do they
A special thanks to John Daley of Daley build some of the toughest equipment in the
Construction. When I told him of my project he world, but they're also some of the nicest folks

invited me in, gave me a hard hat and an or- in the country.

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 Introduction

with the grace They pavement

One of the great things about being a little of a dancer. lay

kid is playing with toys. And some of the as smooth as a billiard table. Millions of mo-
most fondly remembered toys are the Tonka torists travel along these well-constructed
Toys. These bright yellow replicas of real, roads and highways, which link people to
heavy equipment fired our imaginations. We home, work, and play.

tore up mom's flower beds on a regular basis The road construction team consists of
with our land improvements and moved top- many players. Bulldozers are the tough guys

soil by the tiny bucket load. We could imitate that clear away tree stumps and level the
the sounds of big motors, growling and ground. Excavators are the diggers. They cut,

screeching, as we crushed the azaleas and or remove, large amounts of soil and dig
rolled over the petunias. We got dirty along drainage lines. Scrapers come in next to cut

with our big, tough toys. We all dreamed of and fill, meaning they remove soil from a high
running those large machines, whether it was area and transport it to a low area. Graders fol-

a grader, an excavator or a bulldozer. Some low as finishing machines. Their job is to give

dreams are never realized. We grow up to the dirt road its final, smooth finish prior to

teach school, sell computers, or even write paving. Pavers do just that-they pave the road
books. But, there are the lucky few who get to with asphalt or concrete. Rollers and com-
operate the big iron. They get to build Ameri- pactors finish the job, ensuring that the road
ca's roads and operate road construction surface is smooth and reliable. We will also

equipment. look at milling machines, which chew up old

Each year, teams of huge, powerful ma- roads so they can be repaved.
chines move tons of earth and lay down thou- So let's put on our hard hats, lace up our
sands of cubic feet of concrete and asphalt. boots, and take a close-up look at these in-
These earth sculptors can move tons of dirt credible pieces of equipment.

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A Brief History Of Roads-
Where The Path Began

Man the
has always been
invention
to the wheel he had
of
a traveler, but prior
far
While the
back as 1500
earliest roads can be traced as
b.c, the first architects of

little need for roads. Footpaths were the modern roads were the Romans. They built

highways of the day, and they were usually 50,000mi of roads between 300 b.c and a.d.

the shortest and easiest distance between 300. The Roman roads were well-planned
two points. They only needed to be wide and beautifully built; many remain today.

enough for one person, and elevation Roads were the key to the Roman's military

changes or turns of any degree were accept- and economic strength. Their major roads
able. These simple paths sufficed until the were as straight as possible, forty feet wide,

invention of the wheel created the need for had proper drainage, and were elevated about
roads. The wheel was probably invented be- three feet above the surrounding land.
tween 3,000 and 4,000 b.c and its use The first roads in America were a com-
spread throughout Europe by 2,500 b.c, plex network of footpaths the Native Americans
when wheels were commonly fitted to carts established between their villages and hunting
and chariots. The wheels were a great inno- grounds. Like the Romans, they routed their
vation. Unfortunately, few natural surfaces trails on high ground to give them a view of

provide the proper texture for wheels to roll possible enemies or for scouting animals.
on, and the new wheels were tearing up the When the Europeans settled in America, they
surfaces and causing ruts and pot holes brought the wheeled technology of the day;
(some problems never go away). Smoother, horse-drawn carts, carriages and wagons.
wider and more durable roads were needed. Without roads, early penetration inland from
the East Coast was limited to waterways. Be-
A CAT 140G is making another pass down the yond the waterways, there were the
road. Thismodel is powered by a 150hp dies el
Allegheny mountains to conquer. Another ma-
and weighs in at close to 30,0001bs. The orange
cone on the back covers a ripper that is turned up. jor obstacle to road building was heavy foresta-

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This large expanse of dirt is within days of final passes. The excavation and preparation for
becoming a freeway. String lines are set along the paving is a lengthy process. It has taken over a
sides while the graders and rollers make their year of work to prepare this grade.

tion. With all of the major cities on the Eastern Because of the lack of coordination and
seaboard connected by waterways, only the dedication to road building by state and feder-
brave and adventurous went west. By the late al governments in the late 1700s, several pri-

1700s, wider wagon paths were being cut vate toll roads were set up in the fashion of
through the coastal mountains. Clearing these English roads. These roads were called turn-
paths was difficult as some of the trees stood pikes because of the long pole called a "pike"
150ft tall. Thousands of years of fallen trees that would be turned away after you paid your
and shrubs made clearing the way even more fee at the toll booth. In 1795, the Philadelphia
laborious. Even after the path was cleared, and Lancaster Turnpike was opened. As the
wagons and carts required the high ground first major hard-surfaced road in America, the
clearance provided by large diameter wheels Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike's success
to pass over remaining stumps and debris. triggered a boom in turnpike construction. Be-

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 the voice of ten million bicyclists was heard
through their organization, the League of Ameri-
can Wheelmen. Wielding power equal to today's

Siena Club, they fought for road improvements.

The single most important driving force
behind road improvement was also the
biggest revolution in modern society-the au-
tomobile. Initially seen as toys for the rich, au-
tomobiles became commonplace. In 1905,
there were a total of seventy-eight thousand
cars registered in the United States and twen-
ty states had programs for the improvement of

their roads. Also, between 1913 and 1916,

there were several major pieces of federal and

state legislation directed to highway construc-
tion. In 1925, a federal committee was formed
to initiate a standard for road signs and mark-
ings. Until then each state had its own mark-
ing system, if it had one at all. The depression
of the thirties initially slowed road construc-
tion. In 1933, the Civilian Construction Corps
De rigueur for today's construction worker: hard
employed close to three hundred thousand
hat, orange vest with reflective stripes, and
durable boots. While this worker does not drive men in many public works projects, including
a dozer (yet), she still has an important role on those devoted to road building.
the road construction job site. She and her
partner are in constant radio contact to control In 1921, there were 3.2 million miles of
vehicle traffic in an area of a road expansion. roads. By 1961, that figure had jumped to 3.6 mil-
Large dump trucks were maneuvering in and out
lion miles. Today, our network of roads and
of traffic after being loaded by an excavator.
much for the safety of the
Traffic control is as streets is over 3.9 million miles long. It must be
workers as for the auto travelers. noted that a large percentage of the roads exist-

ing in 1921 were unimproved. It wasn't until

tween 1792 and 1828, Pennsylvania con- 1943 that the number of surfaced roads (includ-

structed over 3000mi of hard-surfaced roads. ing gravel and stone) equaled the number of

The widespread use of the bicycle had an unimproved roads. By 1972, eighty percent of our

impact on roads. As new designs and improve- roads were improved (meaning they were sur-
ments made bicycles safer and easier to ride, bi- faced in some fashion). Today, over ninety-three

cyclists saw the need for better roads. In 1890, percent of our roads are improved. Of that figure,

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There must be an axiom for overcrowded roads.

No matter how wide they are, motorists will fill
them to capacity.

one-third are stone or gravel. We have come a will they be going, and how do we preserve the
long way to support our automotive habit. That natural environment. Vehicle dynamics and hu-
habit includes 190 million registered motor vehi- man dynamics also determine the design of the

cles being driven by 173 million drivers. road. A 12ft lane width is considered a minimum.
Each day, Americans travel almost four bil- Rural roads have lane widths of between 13 and
lion miles. We depend on roads for commerce and 14ft. Once a lane exceeds 14ft in width, drivers
recreation. Good roads don't just happen, they are will try to squeeze in two cars. The maximum
the result of good planning and engineering. De- grade of a road should be no more than fifteen

signing a road is like working out a difficult puz- percent with a much lower amount of four to six

zle. How many cars will travel the road, how fast percent being the accepted standard. Modem ve-

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 The Eighth Wonder of the World

"The Eighth Wonder of the World" is how the The dream was shattered as the first fatality

Pennsylvania Turnpike was touted at its opening on occurred three weeks after opening. Vehicle speeds
October 1, 1940. "The Pike." as it was called by locals, were dangerously high, and drivers complained of

stretched 160mi from Middlesex to Irwin. This was being lulled into a hypnotic trance by the long stretch-
America's first superhighway, but it had its skeptics. Many es of featureless straight road. A 70mph speed limit

said that few would use it. Even the U.S. Bureau of Roads was set within a year, and guard rails started to pop
predicted that only 700 cars per day would travel the Pike. up along the narrow median.
Actual use for the first two weeks was approximately The Pennsylvania Turnpike is America's oldest
10,000 cars per day. Motorists traveled its four lanes of surviving superhighway. It now stretches 360mi
concrete at speeds as high as 90mph. Long, gentle curves between the Ohio Turnpike and the New Jersey
provided easy entrance and exit. A 10ft wide grassy medi- Turnpike. In its lifetime it has carried well over two bil-

an separated the lanes of traffic. Service stations and lion vehicles and will continue to carry vehicles well
restaurants were conveniently spaced. This was a glimpse into the twenty-first century.

of the future — high speed automobile travel.

hides can climb grades of ten percent without too speaking of today's drivers said, "attentiveness

much difficulty. The designed slope for a modem is more important than intelligence." Today's

road is between 1/4 to l/2in per foot. The amount driver is most content with consistency of de-
of slope is determined by the type of material. sign, standard lane widths, markings, and sig-

Concrete has the least amount of slope, and dirt nage. Signs are the same size and shape from
roads have the most. state to state. Most shoulders are designed
Human dynamics are also important to with a different color than the traffic lane. This
the design of a road. Human reaction time is contrast gives the driver a visual cue to the

critical to the safety of a road. One engineer, lane boundaries, especially at night.

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Bulldozers— The Tough Guys

probably the most Once

The bulldozer is identifi- at the site, the dozer's task is to pre-

able piece of construction equipment in pare the area for the scrapers and graders. The
the world. More commonly called "dozers", wide crawler treads allow the dozers to climb
they are the go-anywhere, do-anything mem- steep hills and traverse areas unsuitable for less

bers of the construction team. Along with the agile pieces of equipment. The dozers power
excavator, dozers are the first mechanized through the site, removing tree stumps and lev-

pieces of equipment to arrive at a new con- eling the ground. They do heavy cutting with

struction site. Transportation of a dozer to and their front blade, also called a dozer. This may
from the job site is a tricky proposition because entail removal of an entire hill or simply dozing

of their size. Dozers must be transported by trees and shrubs. With their blade, they remove
truck because they can weigh as much as organic growth that would be an unsuitable
200,0001bs and their steel cleat treads would base for a paved road. They may cut into areas

tear up any road The . trailers used to transport and then pile that dirt up near an excavator to be
these monsters are specially built on a very loaded and hauled away Or they may push it to

low platform with multiple sets of tires to a low area that needs to be filled. With their

spread the load out evenly. The low platform is high horsepower (up to l,000hp) and crawler
required because of the height of the loaded treads, bulldozers have the ability to pull out

dozer. You certainly can't miss them on the stumps and deep roots with their blade or with
road as they are pulled by a diesel tractor and rippers. Rippers are long sharp steel teeth
accompanied by additional vehicles with mounted on the rear of the dozer which can be
"wide load" warning signs. hydraulicaliy raised and lowered. The operator
drives forward and activates a control lever to
This Cat D8L pushes its 285hp into a cut, while lower the rippers. The ends of the rippers are
the water truck in the background lays down a
curved to help them burrow into the ground as
spray of water. Watering reduces dust loosens
the soil. they are pulled along. The rippers break up soil

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The slope cutter on this Cat D8L is retracted. polished blade or rippers. Compare the size of
Judging from the rust build-up on the cutter, it the massive rippers to that of the operator.
hasn't been used as frequently as the sand-

that has been compacted over the years and Driving a dozer is no picnic; the ride is

snaps old tree roots like twigs. A pass or two rough. Driving over unimproved land covered
with these sharp rippers leaves the soil loose with stumps and large rocks can be a jarring
enough so the scrapers can move in to pick it up. event. Treads are designed for traction, not a
A dozer also eliminates the need for a smooth ride. Most cabs are open and the oper-
tow truck on the construction site. If any of the ator is exposed to all types of weather condi-
wheeled equipment gets bogged down due to tions as well as the dust kicked up by the blade.
soft soil or mud, the dozer will come to the res- From the operator's thickly padded seat
cue. It is not unusual to see a dozer pushing a the view is excellent. Displayed in front of the

scraper that bogged down in the middle of his operator is a no-nonsense instrument panel
cut. The dozer's large crawler treads allow it to with a minimum of gauges and warning lights.

easily push its buddy out. To the right of the instrument panel is the

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The large pair of rippers on the back of this and the other set changes their angle of attack.
dozer are controlled by two pairs of hydraulic The tips and leading edges are replaceable.
cylinders. One set lowers and raises the rippers

throttle lever, which is used to set engine rpm. ample, the operator would press the pedal to
Speed is controlled with the decelerator pedal keep the dozer's speed low. To stop, the oper-

on the floorboard. The hand throttle sets the ator depresses the decelerator and brake at

power level and the decelerator reduces pow- the same time.
er. The dozer is normally run with the hand The bulldozer has no steering wheel,
throttle set for maximum power. As the opera- just a pair of levers on the left console. These

tor applies pressure on the decelerator, power two levers turn the dozer by reducing power
to the treads is reduced and the dozer slows. to either the right or left tread. If you pull back
In this way, the operator regulates the speed on the right hand lever, the dozer will turn
of the dozer. While driving down a hill, for ex- right as the right tread slows down and the

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A dozer and its rippers leaves a path of
devastation and destruction. Loosened soil is
then easily picked up by a scraper.

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Right, this dozer operator is backing up. His left
hand is on the lefttread steering control and
his right foot is on the decelerator.

Bottom, this is the flight deck of a Cat D4H.

Visibilityfrom this elevated platform is very
good. Both edges of the blade are visible as are
both treads. The comfortable seat is covered
with black vinyl. The pair of levers on the left
controls steering. The smaller single lever
controls direction and gear choice. Two pedals
are on the floor: the pedal on the left is the
brake and the pedal on the right is the
decelerator. The lever above the decelerator is
the throttle. The horizontal grip on the right is
the dozer control, and just behind it is the
ripper control.

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As the dozer is moving forward, the water truck
comes alongside to water down the area being
dozed.

left tread attempts to pass it by. If you pull back in each range. The dozer or blade control lever
all the way on the right lever, it will lock the and the ripper control lever are on the console
right tread and you will spin on a dime to the to the driver's right. The movement of the rip-

right. The lever on the left performs the same pers is controlled by the simple up and down
function for the left tread. motion of the lever. The dozer control lever is

The transmission power shifter is to the handled with the touch of a skilled artisan.

left of the steering controls. This lever selects This lever controls the cutting and must be
forward or reverse direction and gear selection constantly adjusted as the operator moves

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Also note the elevated drive sprocket, a fairly new sprocket above the dirt and grime and isolating it

feature that decreases wear by elevating the drive from the pounding of the ground.

along. This lever may also control the angle or using the decelerator. When one side of the

tilt of the blade. blade digs in, the dozer will skew out of its

While the controls for a dozer are rela- intended path without a precise amount of

tively simple, handling one of these beasts is steering correction. The operator must be
not. Skilled operators possess good hand-eye able to feel the amount of power needed and
(and foot-eye) coordination and an uncanny know the type of material being moved. Dif-
ability to make minute adjustments and keep ferent soil types, general topography, and
the blade peeling off the correct amount of hazards determine each move. All of the
turf. Once the blade is down and digging in, senses come into play to interpret what is

it's up to the operator's skill and feel. The happening to the machine and adjust the
only visual cue is the amount of dirt spilling proper control to maintain the cut.

off He must also feel the attitude of

the blade. In addition, some dozers come equipp-
the machine and carefully adjust the power ed with optional foot steering. Skilled opera-

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 *

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The rippers on the back of this Cat D4H are

much smaller than the ones on its big brother,
the D8L.

tors switch between foot and hand controls and scrapers to follow. The powerful machines
as easily as we switch from a Ford to a Chevy. and highly skilled dozer operators make turning
The life of a bulldozer and it's operator is a nasty tenain into the beginnings of smooth high-
tough one. They are the first on scene and get the ways look as easy as a Sunday drive.
tough job of preparing the land for the excavators

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The slope cutter is laid down parallel with the
bottom edge of the blade, effectively widening
the blade for this pass.

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Left, this Cat D9H has been superseded by the Above, at over 40 tons, moving a large Cat D8L
D9N that uses the elevated sprocket design. is no easy task. Large custom trailers are used
Today's duty has been to push mud around and for transport. The trailers have six axles full of
quite a bit is stuck on the sides and treads. One wheels to spread the heavy load. They are
cannot appreciate the mass and power of these slung low to provide bridge clearance.
machines without a close-up look at how well
they are built.

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 .^^////J Chapter 3»
%
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Excavators— Digging For Dollars

Like dozers, excavators are one of the first

pieces of heavy equipment to arrive on

scene. Years ago, they were called steam
shovels because of their steam power and
shovel at the end of the long arm. The shovel,
or bucket, remains, but today's excavators are
diesel-powered and computer-controlled. An
excavator's undercarriage is capped off by a
pair of large crawler treads. These treads give
the excavator mobility in undeveloped terrain.
The design of the undercarriage allows the

carbody above to swivel 360deg. The carbody

contains the diesel engine, hydraulic pumps,
and cab for the operator. Attached to the car-
body is the boom, the first of the two portions
of the arm. The boom is shaped like a
boomerang and at its far end is attached the
stick. The stick extends out and at its end is

the bucket. Boom and stick combinations can

provide a reach of over sixty feet. An example
of where that long reach could be used is in

Right, wow— a close look at the two cubic yards

of dirt that was just dumped.

Left, this is what two cubic yards of dirt look like

when they isscooped up by this excavator's bucket.

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Above, this excavator operator's left hand is on
the joystick that controls the swing and
left
stick movement. The stick is the end portion of
the arm to which the bucket attaches.

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Right, the big Cats get thirsty, too. Custom-built v^fes*^-" --,
trucks bring not only fuel, but a daily dose of
preventive medicine in the form of grease for all the
y'gZ^Ji- *»«*t^ ."

zerk fittings. Preventive maintenance is the key to

machine longevity. These trucks and their operators
do a tremendous service to their contractors.

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 Above, looking like a Jurassic Park clash of
prehistoric buckets, two excavators work together.

Left,once again, the combined work of giants.

The dozer is pushing the wet clay into the area
of the excavator. Because the scraper is unable
to work with this type of soil, the excavator is
loading the scraper. The scraper will then
transport his load to another part of the site.

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The boom and stick of this Komatsu excavator road and is watching the graceful arc of this
give a reach of over 35ft. The worker on the
it versatile machine.
ground has temporarily stopped traffic on this

river conservation or dredging where light ized demolition attachments. A system of high
loads are handled at extended distances. pressure hydraulics ties the boom, stick, and
Shorter length combinations provider greater bucket together, all controlled by the operator.

digging and lifting power while sacrificing Excavators come in multitude of sizes,

reach. with over 190 different new models avail-

At the end of the stick is the bucket, able. Various combinations of weight, horse-
which does the digging. Buckets are rated in power, digging depth, and bucket size match
cubic yards of capacity and range in size from any application. Excavators range in horse-
.75 to 10.5 cubic yards (you could easily park a power from 85 to 650. Operating weights
Corvette in a 10.5 cubic yard bucket). Other ac- range from the little guys at 26,7801bs to the

cessories are available as a replacement for the sumo wrestler size of 213,0001bs. Other vari-

bucket, such as roller compactors and special- ables are maximum digging depth and buck-

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Under the back of this Komatsu PC300LC is a such a hard worker. Notice the large neatly
six-cylinder 207hp diesel engine. This engine plumbed hydraulic lines running up the boom
runs the hydraulic pumps that make this beast (the boomerang shaped portion of the arm).

et size. With a multitude of options available, truck that hauls other heavy equipment like

the contractor can tailor the excavator to ex- the bulldozer. Excavators are used for road
act job needs. construction when there is an abundance of

The excavator arrives early to the job soil to be removed (cutting) or dramage lines to

site, usually brought in by the same type of be dug. Undeveloped areas demand equip-

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Notice the interesting wear strips welded onto Contractors occasionally arrive at their job site
the side of the bucket in the foreground. Many in the morning only to find one of their buckets
contractors will have their company name missing.
welded into the pattern to reduce theft.

ment with mobility and the excavator's this, a dozer will first clear a path to give ac-
crawler treads allow them to traverse almost cess for the trucks to be loaded. The excavator
any terrain. The excavators may be used to will then position itself to efficiently load those
uproot trees and move large boulders which trucks. As it works away on the cut of the hill,

would hamper or prohibit the movement of the excavator will continually adjust its posi-
other wheeled equipment. tion between the trucks and the area to be cut.

Excavators will also be used to move In some areas, a dozer will use its blade to
large areas which need to be cut or removed. push soil to the excavator for loading.
Thismay be a large hill which will be chipped Another use of excavators in road con-
away at for weeks or months. To accomplish struction is the digging of drainage lines. First,

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The versatility of these machines is again This is an operator's view of the world. Depth
shown. The bucket has a cable attached and is perception is a necessity for an operator. Today's
lifting old pipe out of the ground. Notice the task is to dig trenches for lay drainage pipe.
wear strips
artistic pattern of that have been
welded onto the bucket.

the excavator trenches the path for the pipe. digging, and they come in a variety of types.

Once the trench is dug, the excavator can lay General purpose buckets perform routine,
the pipe. This is done by wrapping a cable everyday excavation and dirt digging. Heavy-
around the pipe and attaching it to the buck- duty buckets are used to dig in rougher condi-
et. Once the pipe is in place, the excavator fills tions, such as light rock and dense clay. For
the trench and covers the pipe. highly abrasive applications such as heavy
The excavation of a road construction rock and demolition, there are severe-duty
site will generally reguire a bucket of some buckets. Bucket widths usually come in incre-

type. The most common buckets used are for ments of six inches.

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Scraper's wheels can easily get stuck in soft or mother lion with her cub. The excavator
wet soil. This bogged-down scraper is being operator smoothly, carefully, and gently helped
helped out of its predicament by an excavator. its friend out of the mire.
The entire operation was like watching a

Buckets are a high-wear item because of ter theft. The last thing a contractor wants is to

the constant digging into all sorts of substances. arrive at the job site to find an excavator buck-
Repeated contact with sharp rocks takes it toll et missing. The teeth at the leading edge of the

on the condition of the bucket. In order to pro- bucket are replaceable, since digging into rock
long a bucket's useful life, most contractors will break them off occasionally.

weld rub strips onto the areas most vulnerable Excavator operators must have excellent
to excessive wear, such as the sides, to improve depth perception in order to keep everything
durability. Rub strips are nothing more than a within range of the bucket. Excellent periph-
series of weld beads added along these high- eral vision is necessary for the operator as he
wear areas. The rub strips may have the con- swings the bucket. The operator must be
tractor's name as part of the pattern to help de- aware of all elements in this potentially haz-

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ardous environment. Tons of dirt at the end of loading; a heavy-duty mode for difficult work,
a swinging arm could senously damage an- such as digging in rocky areas where high
other piece of equipment or mjure or kill a by- horsepower is essential; and a fine lifting mode
stander. A heavy bucketful swinging in what where smooth movements are critical. These
could be a radius of over 60ft make's for a modes can be changed with the touch of a but-

dangerous place to work. Skillful operators dig ton without interrupting the flow of work.
with ease. They use a smooth, rhythmic mo- Critical to the addition of these controls
tion of scooping, swinging, unloading, and re- is the electronics that drive them. The temper-
turning to dig again. The motion is much like ature extremes and vibration excavators are
the graceful arms of a dancer as opposed to subjected to would destroy unprotected elec-
the jerky movements of a robot. Smooth accel- tronics, so the circuitry must be shock-mount-
eration and deceleration of the bucket swing ed and protected from the elements. Many ex-
are essential for efficient work. Operators must cavators have ovemde systems that allow
dig with care to avoid undercutting their own standard digging if the selected system fails.

footing and falling into the hole they have just One excellent addition to the electronics
dug. Good operators are also aware of the type package is built-in electronic troubleshooting.

of soil and its limitations. Poor judgment on the This diagnostic equipment is similar to the

operator's part may put him in an area too equipment auto mechanics use on modem
steep to dig on and still swing the arm safely. cars. The service technician can just plug in
Improper location may cause the excavator to and diagnose a problem in minutes, instead of

tip over. The operator needs to be sure of his hours. The advantage here is that the me-
location so as not to undercut his own footing. chanic makes his diagnosis at the job site.

Sophisticated digital controls help the Options abound to enhance the opera-
operator with his work. Hydraulic excavators tor's working environment. Cabs are spacious
have been widely used since the sixties, and user-friendly. Operator comfort is directly

whereas computer controls have been added related to production and safety. Most of the

only within the past ten years. The newer, newer models offer cloth-covered eight-way
state-of-the-art excavators allow the operator adjustable seats. The armrests, with hand
to select the hydraulic pump output to maxi- controllers at the end, are independently ad-

mize speed and economy. All of this is done justable from the seat. This allows each oper-

with the touch of a button from the seat of the ator to use the controls for maximum comfort
cab. Most new excavators have two or three and control. And yes, air-conditioning is avail-

power selection levels. While each manufac- able, along with oscillating fans, seat belts,

turer has its own specific name for each pow- heater, and AM/FM radio.

er mode, they are usually broken down like The excavator is a very versatile ma-
this: a general mode for normal digging and chine. It combines power with the ability to

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This Komatsu PC220LC is laying its 50,0001bs a pizza with a rotary cutter. Notice how the
ofweight into this compaction tool. The back front edges of the treads are off the ground.
and forth action of this tool is not unlike cutting Have I said that an excavator is versatile?

move over the roughest terrain. It offers the

contractor a flexible tool with the capacity to

dig drainage trenches, lay pipe, and do large
cutting. Its computerized controls aid the
skilled operator in completing his tasks in Right, with extreme concentration and a
minimal time. Excavators prepare the land for joystick in each hand, this excavator operator
is pulling up another bucketful. A loss of
the next phase of road construction and for the
concentration with this machine could cause
next group of machines in line. thousands of dollars of damage or loss of life.

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Scrapers-Push-Pull Production

One of the fastest pieces of road construction bic yards. There are also scrapers with a larg-
equipment is the scraper. Its massive er capacity designed to haul coal.
horsepower (200 to 700) and large wheels Scrapers are brought in after the dozers
make it capable of speeds up to 35mph. Like and excavators have smoothed the area. The
shotguns, scrapers come in single-barrel and scraper's job is to cut and fill, that is, to remove
double-barrel versions. A single-barrel has a soil from a high area and quickly move it to fill a
single engine in the front. Double-barrel scrap- low area. The cut is made by lowering the bowl
ers have two large diesel engines, one in the into the ground. The front edge of the bowl has
front and one in the rear. The front portion of a a full-width horizontal cutting edge made of re-

scraper is called the "tractor" while the rear placeable hardened steel sectional plates. At
portion is called the "scraper." The operator and each end of the cutting edge are vertical plates

controls are located m the tractor. The scraper called "slobber bits." Slobber bits are the visual

contains the bowl, sometimes called the "can." aids for the operator to gauge the depth of cut.

This is where the scraped dirt is held. Here's how the hardware works. There
Scrapers are articulated, meaning that are three levers to the operator's right: the
the tractor and the bowl are attached with a bowl control, the apron control, and the ejector.

hinge. The wheels are solidly mounted and The bowl control lowers and raises the bowl,

the scraper turns by bending at the hinge, determining the amount of cut. The apron is a
which allows a tight turning radius. sliding door which drops down over the open
Maximum capacity for a large scraper's front of the bowl, keeping the freshly scraped
bowl is forty-four cubic yards, but the average dirt inside. The ejector is a large ram on a tele-
scraper generally holds about twenty-five cu- scoping hydraulic cylinder that pushes the dirt

out of the bowl when dumping the fill dirt into

a low area. The width of the bowl provides for

Coming at morning light,
you in the early this
scraper moves across a well-worn path. an even application of the fill material.

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Two Cat 637Ds in the "push" phase of a push- rear has already floored his accelerators to help
pull cut. The operator in the lead scraper has his buddy with the cut.
just lowered his bowl to cut. The operator in the

,-* -*. -

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The lead scraper has already filled his bowl rear. Now time for him to return the favor by
it's

with the help of his friend pushing from the pulling his buddy through his cut.

Left,with a quick look back, the operator can

see that his bowl is filled and spilling over the
side. His right hand is on the control to close

the apron and lift the bowl above ground level

to stop the cut.

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This battle-scarred Cat 637 has probably moved time to pre-flight their machine prior to the
millions of tons in its lifetime. Properly work day. A simple mechanical breakdown can
maintained, these machines can be effective cause delays that cost a contractor thousands of
tools for many years. Good operators take the dollars.

Let's ride along as the operator positions cut is usually about six inches, depending on
the scraper in the area of the cut. First he will the conditions. With the depth set, the power
shift around in his seat to look over his right comes on, and the cut is made. The operator's
shoulder at the slobber bits. With his left hand eyes are on the slobber bits and the filling bowl
on the steering wheel and his right hand on with an occasional glance in the direction of

the bowl control lever, he will drop the bowl to travel. Once the bowl is filled, the apron will be
the appropriate depth for the cut. While the dropped and the bowl raised. Then the opera-
scraper can cut as deep as 18in, the average tor will quickly drive along the haul road to the

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Cat helping Cat as a D8L dozer powers 285hp into
its crawler treads to help a scraper with its cut.

fill area. The advantage of the large rubber tires erator drives forward, the load is spread along
and high speed is reduced travel time to the fill his path creating the fill. I asked one operator
Maximum speed for a scraper is around
area. about the most dangerous aspect of dnving a
35mph on level ground. After amving at the fill scraper. "Speed," was his first reply. He then
area, the driver will open the apron and acti- went on to clarify how fast a scraper can ac-
vate the ejector to empty the bowl. As the op- celerate on a downhill haul road with a full

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With a quick glance at his buddies cutting in
the background, this scraper operator is coming
back from filling to take another cut.

load. An inexperienced operator can let it get

away from him. An operator has to be careful
in the area of a fill. The soil is not compacted
and if you are on the edge of the fill the scraper
can go over. The operator I spoke to once rolled

a scraper down a hill and broke his back.

One advantage of scrapers is that they

are designed to be worked together in a
"push-pull" configuration. Push-pull is where
two scrapers, properly equipped, team up to
help each other. Every scraper has a stinger—
Scraper operators spend a majority of their time
an extended push bar—on the back of the
looking over their right shoulder at the front
scraper to provide an area for another piece edge of the bowl, watching the cut.

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While not able to turn on the proverbial dime, tractor, or front section, can turn ninety degrees
the scraper can make a very tight turn. The to the bowl or rear section.

of equipment, such as a dozer, to push them er from four diesel engines driving through

if they get stuck. In push-pull, the stinger on eight large tires. While scraper two is push-
one scraper is pushed by the tractor of a sec- ing, the operator is lowering his scraper's bail
ond scraper. The scraper doing the pushing (a hinged bar in the shape of a half hoop) on
has a large push-plate on the front. As the front, to latch onto a hook on the back of
scraper one is cutting, scraper two is pushing scraper one's stinger. When scraper one's
from behind. This exerts the total horsepow- bowl is filled and raised, scraper two's bowl

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Above, this welder is in the jaws of the
monster, attaching a new "slobber bit." Welded
to the edge of the bowl, slobber bits are what
the operators watch to gauge the depth of cut.
The large horizontal piece behind the welder is
the edge that is lowered to make the cut.

Right, having just dumped his load, this

operator is taking advantage of the horsepower
of two large diesels and a smooth area. At
35mph, the scraper has the highest speed of all
road construction vehicles. Operators will tell
you that the speeds get much higher when you
have both a full bowl and both throttles floored
while going down a steep haul-road.

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 49

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The dozer is going north with its rippers down,

loosening the ground. The scrapers are coming
in for a southerly pass to make their cut across
previously ripped ground.

Two large Cat scrapers coming at you. The lead It'snot unusual to have a scraper loaded by an
scraper is pulling the scraper in the rear. Notice excavator. This area has a lot of clay and the
how the driver sits at an angle in his seat so he scrapers would otherwise get bogged down.
can keep a constant watch over his right
shoulder. Also note that the push plate in the
front of this machine has fresh grease on it,
indicating he has been a puller all day.

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Just after filling his bowl, the front machine is operators. Experienced operators work together
helping his buddy in the rear by pulling him smoothly without verbal communication.
along. There is no radio communication between

will be lowered, and scraper two will be two skilled operators in push-pull is like

pulled by scraper one to help with his cut. watching operations on the flight deck of an
Again, four motors and eight tires are helping aircraft carrier. Everything is smoothly chore-
with the cut. As scraper two finishes his cut, ographed, with no wasted motion and mini-
he will accelerate slightly, releasing the ten- mum communication.
sion off his bail, and retract it thereby un- Scrapers are valued for their ability to
hooking the two scrapers. He will give a move large amounts of dirt guickly when cut-
small wiggle to indicate to operator one that ting and filling. They have the ability to team
he is free, and they will both motor down the up and double the amount of power needed to

haul road to dump their load. The operator of make their cuts. They provide a key step in

the rear scraper has the most responsibility, road building by providing the fill base need-
since he can see both machines. Watching ed for good roads.

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In this profile of a Cat 623B tractor, you can hydraulic lines that control the scraper's
clearly see one of the two large hydraulic hydraulically operated bowl, apron, and ejector
cylinders that steer this beast ninety degrees to functions. The white box on top of the cab is
each side. Also note the Medusa-like group of the air conditioner, a luxury option.

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The scraper chassis is also used as a water independently of each other. Water blasts out
tanker. The tank that replaces the bowl holds at a pressure high enough to injure anyone
thousands of gallons of water. Sprayers mounted standing too close. Water is used to control
on the front and rear and both sides are operated dust and to aid in soil compaction of a fill area.

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Graders—Earth Sculptors

was always most impressed by

As a kid,
graders.
I

Maybe it was their long wheel

drives those wheels
tween 125 and 275hp. The
sits above and ranges be-
grader's work is

base, high cab, or large rear driving wheels. less arduous and therefore does not require
Maybe it's the fact they can push large the higher horsepower of their dozer and
amounts of soil or carefully cut a fraction of an scraper brothers.
inch off of a grade. Whatever it is, they still In front of the engine is the cab, which
fascinate me. looks like nothing more than a glass box. From
A grader is a large wheeled machine. the cab, the operator steers and operates the
The basic layout has the large diesel engine controls for the blade. The front tires can be
over the four rear driving wheels. In front of leaned up to eighteen degrees to keep the
the engine is the high mounted cab. Extending grader balanced on a slope. In addition to the
in front of the cab is the backbone portion of front wheels turning and leaning, the entire

the frame, to which the blade is attached. Up front assembly can be articulated by a frame
front at the end of the backbone are the two pivot just behind the cab. Articulation allows
steerable front wheels. the front portion of the frame to pivot from side
The average road grader varies from 26 to side independent of the turning of the front

to slightly over 32ft in length. They are sup- wheels. This articulation, by turning the frame
ported by six large tires similar to those used and wheels in the same direction, allows for

on the scraper. The rear portion is supported easier blading on narrow roads or sharp turns.

by four of those tires, and they provide the dri- The frame can be articulated, turned one direc-
ving force for operation. The diesel engine that tion (left for instance), and the wheels turned to
the opposite direction (to the right), to set up a
This spotless grader is motoring along on a crab path where front and rear wheels are fol-
road expansion job. The dirt flowing off the
lowing a parallel track. This technique would
heel of the blade is being piled into a windrow.
His next pass will work down that windrow. be used for cutting banks and side slopes.

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56

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 This vintage Allis-Chalmers grader is being
used to spread asphalt over a midwestern rural
road. Today's graders have hydraulically
actuated steering as opposed to this older
model's manual steering.

In the past, graders were operated a ma-

jority of the time with the operator standing.
Today, graders are designed for more comfort-
able operation from a seated position. Ad-
justable control consoles bring the control
levers within easy reach of the operator. In the

center of this console is a conventional steer-

ing wheel. On each side are a series of close-
ly spaced blade control levers which are logi-

cally placed for one-hand operation. The op-

erator has two hydraulic pump settings. Nor-

mal operation will use 2150psi and for heavy

duty operation he will select 3500psi. Ad-
vances in hydraulic pump technology allow
the driver smooth control of the blade regard-
less of engine speed. Blade control is what this

machine is all about. The blade, or moldboard

assembly, has an infinite amount of adjust-

ments. The angle of attack can be changed,

the blade can be raised or lowered, angled to
cut on either side, shifted off-center to place

the blade to one side of the grader, or any

combination of the above.
The grader can have an optional rear-
mounted ripper attachment much like the one
on the rear of the bulldozer. The shanks of the

rippers are much smaller than those of the

dozer. The grader's lack of horsepower and
traction are the limiting factors. The rippers
are used in the same fashion as the dozer.
They are dropped into the soil and dragged

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Front wheel lean is evident in this photo. This
feature helps the grader keep its footing on a
slanted surface.

along to break up the compacted dirt. The

grader can then make a pass over the same
area with its blade to plow away the freshly
turned soil.

The grader's primary use is as a finish-

ing machine. They are the last machines to

travel the road prior to paving. They work

closely with the compactors to achieve the

"Boston gloss" or final smooth road. The com-

pactors will travel over the area running their
vibrating drums to compact the soil. As it is

compacted, the soil will compress at dissimilar

rates in different areas. This will cause high

and low spots. This is where the grader comes

in to take down the high spots and fill in the

low areas. The operator's skill in being able to

cut fractions of an inch off the grade is the key
to the success of this operation. The compactor
will come in again, and the process will be re-

peated over and over until the foundation for

the road is smooth and ready for paving.

The grader is a versatile, bladed road

construction machine. Precise controls over the
blade give the grader its ability to create smooth
roads. In conjunction with the compactors they

provide the solid base for a new road.

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Like soldiers standing at attention, the rippers Years ago, driving a grader was done while
on the back of this grader are turned up and out standing. Today's controls are adjustable, enabling
of the way. The replaceable tip can be clearly the operator to sit, thus reducing fatigue. Another
seen. As evidenced by the surface rust, these comfort feature is air conditioning. The six levers
guys have not been used in a while. to the left of the steering wheel represent only
half of the blade controls, the other six are to the
right of the wheel.

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A Cat 140G is making another pass down the road. weighs in at close to 30,0001bs. The orange cone
This model is powered by a 150hp diesel and on the back covers a ripper that is turned up.

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 The worker with the shovel is directing the
grader operator. Deep in the ground just to the
right of the worker's shovel is a grade stake. It

has blue plastic feathers on top and its depth is

set to establish the proper grade. The worker
indicates to the operator how much to cut in
order to get down to grade; in this instance,
only a fraction of an inch is needed.
I almost got a little too close on this one, as the

heel of the passing blade spills dirt in my direction.

Right, the "doctor" is making a house call.

This grader has lost a hydraulic seal in its
moldboard actuating cylinder. Hydraulic fluid is
visible on the back of the moldboard and on the
rear tire. Not fully visible in the cab is the
operator; he's the one with the concerned look
on his face.

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Milling Machines—A Cut Above
*
One of the meanest machines used in road pavement and cuts the surface to a new grade.
construction, or should I say road re-con- The number of teeth on the drum is determined
struction, is the "asphalt eater," formally known by the size of the machine and the diameter of

as a milling machine, cold planer, or pavement the drum. The rotating drum is lowered onto
profiler. Milling machines are large, track-driven and into the pavement, and the machine is dri-

vehicles that have a large drum cutter under- ven forward. Crawler tracks provide the drive.
neath. Milling machines are used for removing The tracks provide traction against the action of
asphalt, concrete, or soil. They chew up and spit the cutter, which rotates opposite the direction
out pavement at a torrid pace. Milling machines of travel. The cutters remove pavement in the

prepare an existing road in need of repair for a same fashion as does a machine shop's hori-
new layer of pavement. They also can expand zontal milling machine. Each machine contains
a current road by removing the shoulder in grade controls to maintain the depth of cut and
preparation for new pavement. This milling ac- angle of slope. The cutters are constantly cooled
tion removes the top layer of concrete or as- by water spray, and the milled roadway is fed
phalt. Lumps in the road created by years of up a conveyor system to waiting dump trucks.

weather and stress are smoothed out. The conveyor system is designed to

The key to the milling machine's opera- swing from side to side. This aids in maneuver-
tion is a large revolving drum containing hun- ability and loading of trucks. The key to keep-
dreds of replaceable tungsten carbide teeth. ing a milling machine working is having a truck
This drum is brought into contact with the in position to accept its output of ground-up
pavement. Where space will allow, two trucks
Down the road our milling machine goes,
leaving a rough looking, but smooth and are positioned side-by-side at the end of the
properly graded surface on which the paver will conveyor. After the first is filled, it leaves, and
lay a new mat of asphalt. A street sweeper is
coming into view to pick up stray debris to
the conveyor is swung over to the second truck.
prevent it from entering the nearby traffic lane. As it is filling, another truck is moved into the

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 position of the first and so on. Where traffic re-
strictions will not allow trucks to be positioned
side-by-side, individual trucks are maneuvered
into position directly in front of the machine.
This changing of trucks is the only thing that
slows the progress of a milling machine. If the
work being done is in an open area, the debris

can be piled up and later scooped into dump

trucks with a front loader. Pavement profilers

can grind up thousands of tons of asphalt road

per day to be recycled into another road.

These bad boys come in two basic con-
figurations of crawler track design: three-track
The camera's strobe light freezes the spinning and four-track. The three-track design has a
cutter drum exposing some of the 152 teeth on
this Roadtec RX-45. The cutter drum rotates pair of tracks in the front and a single track in
against the direction of travel. The conveyor
belt lowers with the cutter drum to transport
the debris up to a waiting dump truck.

The operator's gloved hand eases the lever

ahead, controlling forward velocity. The cutting
speed is measured in feet-per-minute (fpm),
with a maximum fpm of 120. The large red push
Milled asphalt road shoots off the end of the 3 2 in button is an emergency shutdown.
wide conveyor into the bed of a waiting truck.
Note the two small red air horns on the end of Right, negotiating a turn can be tricky. This
the conveyor. A quick beep of these horns Roadtec has a 20ft turn radius with the front
signals the truck driver to pull ahead slightly as track only and a 12ft turn radius using both
the conveyor edges close to the back of the truck front and rear. Notice how high this planer is
bed while the milling machine inches forward. raised for maneuvering.

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This RX-45, with its 86in wide cutter, is toimagine anything over 45ft long, almost 15ft
classified as a medium-sized machine. It's hard high with over 400hp as being "medium-size."

the rear. Four-track models are the largest and set. While watching one being positioned on a
are arranged with two pairs of tracks, front and downtown street, it was interesting to observe

rear. Steering is done with the front track or the operator negotiate a tight intersection. He
both front and rear tracks. With the ability to was turning with both the front and rear tracks
steer both sets of tracks, the turning radius can and moving the conveyor from side to side at

be almost half that of a turn with only a single the same time. This balancing act was execut-

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Dual stations allow the operator to work from
either side. The ride is a bit bumpy as the
cutters eat up the pavement below.

ed without damage to surrounding property or a new layer of pavement applied. This tech-

to his machine. Tracks can be crab steered for nology has extended to very specialized large
tight quarters maneuvering or cutting. The milling machines with self-contained pavers.
largest four-track models are over 50ft long and In this case, the old road material removed,
14ft high. Maximum weight is over 100,0001bs. processed, and mixed with additional new hot
Cutting speed is measured in feet-per-minute mix and then laid back down by the same ma-
and can be as high as 120, working out to about chine. The ultimate recycling machine!
1.3mph. The factor that determines the speed is

the depth of cut and the type of material being

Next page, outside Chicago, this CMI PR-800-7
cut. Maximum cut depth is 12in. Maximum is making its way north as traffic speeds past.

speed while not milling is a little over 4mph. Working on major highways is a dangerous
proposition. Traffic lanes need to be closed to
Asphalt eaters are big money savers for a complete the work. Everything possible is done
community. No longer is it necessary to dig up to alleviate traffic congestion, but motorists
continue to speed through. Due to the danger to
and replace an entire street. The top layer of
workers, several states have doubled speeding
the street can be milled off (and recycled) and fines in road construction areas.

69

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 .^^///^ Chapter 7

*<tf
Pavers— Laying It Down

Ninety-three percent of Amenca's roads are carbonized particles will form, and if the tem-
of asphalt construction. That equates to perature is too low it will not compact proper-
over 3.5 million miles of black ribbon. Asphalt ly. Most states restrict asphalt paving to days
provides an economical, long-lasting road sur- when temperatures are above 40deg Fahren-
face. Asphalt is made up of a binder and an heit. As we all know, road building and repair
aggregate. The binder is an oil refining are limited to the warmer months. As someone
byproduct called bituminous. The aggregate is in the Midwest once joked, "We have two sea-
the gravel and sand that is mixed in. An anal- sons, winter and road repair."

ogy would be chunky peanut butter. The After the excavation crews have spent
peanut butter would be the binder, and the months clearing, cutting, filling, compacting,

chunks of peanuts would be the aggregate. and grading, it's time for the finished product.
While we all know how well peanut butter The road base must be properly compacted
sticks to the roof of our mouths, it would make and free of any organic growth. A properly
a poor road surface. The proper mixture of compacted roadbed will be to a depth of over
binder and aggregate is important to the ap- two feet. Compaction prevents the road from
plication of asphalt. Temperature is also key. sinking into a soft area. Any organic growth
Application temperatures of asphalt should be left grow and eventually take
will continue to

not less than 250deg and not more than the smooth road and make it uneven. The
375deg. The exact temperature is determined grade and slope must be correct for proper
by the engineer at the job site. If it's too hot. drainage. The problem is laying down an even
thickness of asphalt across the entire lane, and
An engineer takes a reading of the freshly laid
mat of asphalt. Today's temperature is just doing it consistently and seamlessly across
under 300 degrees, an ideal temperature for multiple lanes for miles. Specialized machines
compacting. Asphalt is perishable and must be
applied and compacted at certain temperatures built exactly for that purpose are simply
to provide a good road surface. known as pavers. Their job is to take the hot

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 Above, this long pile of asphalt is called a
windrow. It has been dropped into the path of
the paver for pickup. It will soon become a
California freeway.

Left, the fresh mat of asphalt, just laid down, is

being checked for proper depth by a worker with
a ruler. Paving is hot, smelly work. The asphalt is
delivered at around 300 degrees. The paver gets
very warm from processing the hot asphalt. The
sun beats down on the black pavement and
warms your feet as you walk. Unfortunately the
operator has moved out from under the shade of
the umbrella to the right side to carefully steer
along the previously laid mat. While not easy
work, most paving crew members find this work
very rewarding. There is a great deal of
teamwork among the paving crew, and there is
the satisfaction of taking your kids or grandkids
for a ride down a road you paved.

mix asphalt and spread it evenly and consis-

tently across the area to be paved. Uniformity
of the aggregate mix, temperature, depth,
slope, and grade are all carefully controlled.

A paver is a machine which distributes

the hot mix asphalt over the area to be paved.

Most pavers are self-propelled by either
crawler treads or rubber tires. Less common

Next page, the hopper on this paver is being

directly filled by the dump truck. This hopper
can hold fourteen tons of asphalt.

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The 22in diameter solid rubber front wheels on oscillating bogie frame. They provide the
thisBlaw-Knox paver are mounted on an steering and support for the hopper.

are the pavers which are towed by other ma- the paver is the hopper where the hot mix as-
chines. Pavers are rated by the width of pave- phalt is dumped. This hopper can hold over
ment they can apply The paving widths range fourteen tons of hot mix. At the bottom of the
from a minimum of 4ft to a maximum of 40ft. hopper is a conveyor system which feeds two
All pavers are designed to accommodate ad- augers at the rear. These augers spread the as-
justable paving widths. The most common phalt across the screed. A screed is the rear-
pavers are adjustable between eight and most section of the paver that lays down and
twelve feet of paving width. The other impor- irons out the asphalt.

tant specifications of a paver are maximum It takes a minimum of three people to run
paving depth and paving speed. Maximum a paver: the operator and two screed men.
depths of paving range from four inches to
machine is in the process of
Right, this pickup
twelve inches. Maximum paving speed is
consuming a windrow and providing the asphalt
slightly over 690ft per minute. In the front of to the paver's hopper.

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 Operators of the rollers and the paver discuss
the night's paving work about to begin.
Operators enjoy working at night. Cool air and
the lack of indignant, inconvenienced drivers
make for a pleasant working environment.

There is also a crew supporting them by di-

recting trucks and using asphalt rakes. The

operator's job is to steer the paver and keep
the paving speed constant. While it can pave
at a higher rate, the preferred rate is between
sixty and eighty feet-per-minute. The job of

the screed men is to keep the newly laid mat

of asphalt at a constant depth. They stand on
the screed, make precise adjustments to the
screed, and keep a constant watch on depth.
Once the paver converts the truck load of hot

mix to a smooth mat of asphalt, a team of

rollers will come in to turn it into a road.

The first mechanized pavers were used in

the thirties and were very effective for their day.

Today's pavers are a godsend to the paving

contractor. They are reliable and highly produc-
tive. There is nothing that can raise the blood
pressure of a contractor more than to have a
paver break down with thousands of tons of

costly hot mix on the way. Asphalt is a perish-

able product. It becomes long-lasting only after
it has been properly applied and compacted.
The machines, however, are nothing
without the men and women of the paving
team. Each has a specific job and, when done
well, this team of paver crew and roller oper-
ators produces a beautiful band of black road.

A good crew can lay down 3,000 tons in one

shift. That tonnage can increase where the
paving season is short and the work days last

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The lower area in the rear of the paver is called
the screed. It contains the augers that distribute
the hot asphalt in an even layer. The men at
What is Macadam?
each end are called screed men. It is their job to
make sure the depth is consistent. This screed The somewhat archaic word "macadam" is often

man is checking depth with a simple tool. used to describe a smooth roadway of any
Barely visible is the string line that sets the type.The word macadam comes from
name of the
grade along the side of the road. Englishman, John McAdam In 1783, he was
appointed to the thankless task of highway com-
missioner. The word "highway" was a misnomer
as long as fourteen hours. Because of the na-
to describe what was really a series of mud paths.
ture of asphalt, the crews don't stop for lunch- McAdam set out to learn everything he could
they eat on the go. It's also not unusual for the about roads. Over the years his expertise grew

paver to be fueled while running. and in 1 81 6 he published Remarks on the Present

System of Road Making. In his book, he detailed
I asked one manufacturer about his most
the formula for a durable, low-cost road. His for-
unusual paving assignment. He said that mula was simple: pay strict attention to grading,
paving companies prefer large parking lots; no material selection, and proper drainage. One of

his major contributions was the use of a water-

traffic to contend with, and flat as a pancake.
bound dust surface. That water-bound surface
The paving of the NASCAR track in Richmond,
then progressed to tar-bound, as rubber tires and
Virginia was an unusual assignment. Rich- higher speeds prevailed.
mond is a 3/4mi, "D" shaped short track. The The first macadam road in the United States
was built in 1823. It was a ten-mile stretch of road
front stretch is banked at 8deg, the back
in Maryland between Hagerstown and Boonesboro
stretch 2deg and the corners are banked as built by John Davis. Davis's orders to his workers
high as 16deg. Anyone familiar with racing were to use no stone in the roadbed larger than six

knows NASCAR stock cars are very tough on ounces or two inches in diameter. This first layer

was then packed by a six-ton cast iron roller, pulled

tracks. They are very powerful, heavy, and
by a team of horses. McAdam's recommendation
have wide, sticky tires. Turn speeds at Rich-
was to let the passage of traffic pack the roadbed,
mond are around lOOmph. The challenge at but Davis's schedule required a more expedient
Richmond was to lay a smooth, seamless mat method. The second layer of stratum was laid in

the same fashion as the first, followed by yet a third

that could withstand the rigors of racing. The
layer. The finished road was fifteen inches thick in
paving crews were brought in early to get ac-
the center and twelve inches thick at the edges.
customed to the high banks and to work out This varied from McAdam's specification, which
any possible problems. One problem was the called for a constant thickness of ten inches.

Two years following the construction in

steep banking. To keep the paver from sliding
Maryland, the macadam technique was used for a
down the banking, a grader was brought in
seventy-three-mile stretch of the Cumberland
and, using its blade to steady the paver, both Road.Known for low-cost and durability, the
machines drove around the track together. macadam road was the first step in modern
American road construction.
This is yet another example of the teamwork
required in the road construction business.

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 Aimed in the direction of its next paving
assignment, this Blaw-Knox PF-180H paver
waits for an asphalt delivery. The road ahead

«4 has been prepared by milling to establish the

proper grade and to smooth any irregularities.
It has a tack coat of liquid asphalt which aids

in adhesion of the finished asphalt mat. The

flat black area extending down the road is a
reinforcing fabric sometimes called petromat.
This mat covers the milled road and covers any
cracks, preventing them from migrating up into
the new layer of asphalt.

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 A ±A4
* * / / '
4S*£ Chapter 8
<K«K*
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Rollers & Compactors—
Where A Breakdown Is Good
the casual observer a A seasoned operator can save the
ToThey have big
a
wheels and probably
steel
roller is roller. destruction.

contractor thousands of dollars.

weigh a lot. They finish asphalt and are simple Wheeled compactors are used for the

to operate; just don't drop your watch in front compaction of the dirt that will be the founda-
of one. But there's a lot more to rollers than tion of a road. Wheeled compactors have a
meets the eye. First of all, there are two cate- pair of rubber tires in the rear and a steel drum
gories of rollers and compactors: static and vi- vibratory roller in the front. The vibrating roller
bratory. Also, they come equipped with either effectively increases the weight of the ma-
steel rollers, tires, or a mix of both. Each is de- chine, thereby accelerating compaction. As an
signed for a specific task. Wheeled compactors area is filled by the scrapers and leveled by
having a combination of steel drum up front the graders, the compactors come in to com-
and tires in the rear are used prior to paving for pact the soil. The compactors make several
soil compaction. Rollers with two steel rollers passes over the same area to fully compact the
and those with all rubber tires are used for the soil. The area is watered down to aid in the

finishing of asphalt. More important, as you compaction. Layer after layer of soil is added
will see, is the skill of the operator. As with any and compacted to a rate of 95% of its com-
piece of construction equipment, they can be pressibility. This layering and compacting is

high production tools or implements of mass done to a depth of 2.5ft below grade to pro-
vide a solid base for the pavement. Graders

This Ingersol-Rand Pro-Pac 115 tips the scales work with the compactors, constantly adjust-
at a little over 25,0001bs. Its vibratory drum can ing the grade as the soil is compacted. This
exert an effective rolling/compacting weight of
provides a smooth surface that won't turn into
55,0001bs. The operator has a dial at his finger
tips to vary the frequency between 1,000 and a series of dips and rises in a few years. Once
1,890 vibrations per minute (VPM). The VPM is
the road base is compacted and graded, the
set to match the resonate frequency of the type
of soil being compacted. pavers and finish compactor rollers take over.

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This rubber-tired compactor is classified as a asphalt into a stable, less permeable surface. It

pneumatic compactor. Its rubber tires work the rides on nine high-pressure slick tires.

After a surface of hot mix asphalt (often drums for rolling. Inside each drum is a vibra-
called a lift or a mat) is laid down by a paver, tor mechanism. With the vibrator on, a fifteen-

there are three rollers assigned the task of fin- ton roller can have the effective weight of a
ishing the job. The first, and probably most im- thirty-three-ton roller. Operator settings con-
portant, is the breakdown roller. No, it doesn't trol the vibration in both amplitude and fre-
breakdown! It breaks down and compacts the quency. There are several settings for ampli-
asphalt. It is a vibratory type with two steel tude (the harshness of the vibration) and fre-

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This steel wheel roller is the third and final it relies on its weight and smooth rollers to
roller/compactor to work this surface. This finish this asphalt surface into a beautiful road.
roller does not have a vibratory system; instead

quency (vibrations-per-minute). Asphalt com- erator must know what he or she is doing, or
paction requires high frequency and low am- the newly laid mat can be destroyed. The as-
plitude. Riding on one of these compactors is phalt needs to be compacted as soon as pos-
smooth until the operator turns on the vibrator. sible after being laid down by the paver. The
I was sure my fillings were working their way temperature of the pavement must be above
out of my molars; everything vibrates! The op- 250deg, typically between 280 and 300deg.

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Above, with its pneumatic rubber tires in the 82.7in. The operator stops for a short chat with
rear, this Bomag BW213D is designed for the a fellow worker. Notice the sturdy rollover
compaction of soil only. The rolling width is protection for the operator.

Left, not all rollers are big and beefy. This little

guy is used for small patching jobs.

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This Ingersol-Rand vibratory compactor is sprayed onto the rollers. This keeps the hot
called a "breakdown" compactor because it asphalt from sticking to them. The operator's
breaks down and compacts the hot asphalt. seat swivels a full 180 degrees to give the
Large tanks at both ends of this Ingersol-Rand operator the comfort of many seating positions.
vibratory compactor roller contain water that is

The breakdown compactor rolls from the low turned off prior to stopping. If the vibrator is

side of the slope up. The operator must be very turned on while the roller is standing still it

careful about turning the vibrator on and off. will hammer itself into two ruts under the
The roller must be up to speed before the vi- rollers. In front of the lead roller, a small wave
brator is turned on, and the vibrator must be of asphalt is created. If the roller operator dri-

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ves too fast for the type material he is rolling,

he will drive over this wave and create a

speed bump. When rolling a new mat next to
one that has been compacted, the operator
must be careful to edge his way in. The first

pass is called "pinching the joint." This pass

will only cover the three or four inches of the

new mat. Each successive pass will extend

into that mat by only one foot. This careful
rolling will insure a seamless joint between
mats. The breakdown roller operator must be
careful not to roll the new pavement too much
or it will start to crack and break up. Once the
temperature of the asphalt begins to fall, ex-
cessive rolling will damage the new mat. This
damage is not something the following rollers
can fix; the mat will need to be replaced.
Following the breakdown roller is an-
other type of compactor. This roller is unique in
that it has nine pneumatic rubber tires instead
of a pair of steel rollers. The tires are set in one
row of four in front and one row of five in the

back. They are staggered so that from the

The sun has just set, and the night paving
front, as you look through the gaps of the front
crew is getting ready for a long night's work.
tires, you see the rear tires. These tires have This compactor operator is doing a final pre-
flight check.
no tread and are as smooth as drag slicks.

They are ten-ply and carry 1 lOpsi of pressure.

All the tires must be within 5psi of each other. The final member of the team is the fin-
This roller weighs in at nine tons. Its job is to ish roller. Its job is to seal the surface. There
seal and further compact the asphalt. The as- are no vibrators, just two smooth steel rollers.

phalt temperature must be above 180deg. The This roller works from the high side down, the
tires are coated with diesel fuel until they get way water would flow off the surface. This
up to temperature. Once the tires get hot, the roller provides the final step in the road build-
roller must stay in constant motion over the ing process. Properly constructed, the new
hot asphalt, or they will cool, and the asphalt road will last for many years and provide safe
will stick to them. transit for all types of vehicle traffic.

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The water spray on this roller is broken; as an
alternative, a worker is pouring fuel oil onto the
roller to keep the asphalt from sticking.

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Compactors work in concert with graders on
the final stages of preparing a road foundation
for paving.

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 Index

articulated, 41 paving of the NASCAR track, 83

breakdown compactor, 92 Pennsylvania Turnpike, 13
buckets, 32, 35, 36 pinching the joint, 93
built-in electronic troubleshooting, 37 push-pull cut, 42
compaction tool, 38 push-pull, 46, 47, 51
controls dozer, 21 rippers, 15, 16, 17, 50, 60
decelerator pedal, 17 rub strips, 36
double-barrel, 41 single-barrel, 40
finish roller, 93 slobber bit, 41, 48

first mechanized pavers, 81 slope cutter, 23

grade stake, 62 steam shovels, 27
Lancaster Turnpike, 10 stinger, 46
macadam, 83 turnpikes, 10
maximum depths of paving, 78 vintage Allis- Chalmers grader, 57
maximum paving speed, 78 water tanker, 53
operators working at night, 81 windrow, 75
pavement profilers, 66

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