Dessertation

DISSERTATION REPORT
SESSION 2017-2018
TOPIC: - ‘DOMES, VAULTS AND SHELL

CONSTRUCTION’
GUIDE: - AR. VIRESH JHALANEE

NAME OF STUDENT: - EKTA AGARWAL
ENROLMENT NO- 040114032
BATCH: 2014-2019
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING

JAGANNATH UNIVERSITY
PLOT NO.-IP-2&2, PHASE IV, SITAPURA INDUSTRIAL AREA, JAIPUR
DOME , VAULT & SHELL CONSTRUCTION
APPROVAL
The dissertation study title “DOME, VAULTS AND SHELL
CONSTRUCTION” is hereby approved as original work of EKTA
AGARWAL, Enrolment no – 040114022 on the approved subject carried
out and presented in manner satisfactory to warrant as per the standard
laid down by the Faculty of Architecture, Jagannath University; Jaipur.
This dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of
B.Arch degree from Jagannath University, Jaipur.
It is to be understood that the undersigned does not necessarily enclose or

approved any statement made, any opinion expressed or conclusion drawn
therein, but approves the study for the purpose it has been submitted.
DATE:
PLACE:
………………………. ………………………
EXTERNAL EXAMINER Ar. Viresh Jhalanee
DISSERTATION GUIDE
………………………. ……………………….
Ar. Vivek Kumar Ar. Sumeet Rai
DISSERTATION HEAD HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
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DECLARATION
I, Ekta Agarwal , hereby solemnly declare that the dissertation undertaken
by me, (Domes, vaults and shell construction) is my original work and
whatever incorporated in the form of text, data, photography, drawings, etc.
From different sources, has been duly acknowledged in my report.
This dissertation has been completed under the supervision of the guide
assigned to me by the Faculty of Architecture & Planning, Jagannath
University.
I also declare that the work embodied in the present dissertation is my

original work/ extension of the existing work and has not been copied from
any Journal/dissertation/book, and has not been submitted by me for any
other Degree/Diploma.
Ekta Agarwal
Enrolment No. – 040114022
Session. - 2017-2018
Jagannath University,
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Being a student of architecture, I have undertaken this foray into the realm
of Architecture with some trepidation.
A Dissertation on this scope would not have been possible without the
active and passive support of my friends, who have contributed greatly to
my thinking and insights during the dissertation, and who were instrumental
in the crystallization and formulation of my thoughts on many of the
subjects and issues discussed within.
I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to my guide AR. VIRESH

JHALANEE for his able guidance and useful suggestions, which helped me
in completing the dissertation successfully in time.
This Dissertation is completely dedicated to my parents and my

sister/brother their constant love, support and motivation throughout have
made the task possible.
Ekta Agarwal
IV YEAR B.ARCH
Jagannath University
Jaipur, Rajasthan
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 AIM
1.2 OBJECTIVE
1.3 NEED OF STUDY
1.4 SCOPE
1.5 LIMITATIONS
1.6 METHODOLOGY
1.7 CHAPTERS
CHAPTER 2: DOMES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 ELEMENTS
2.3 EVOLUTION
2.4 TYPES
2.5 ADVANTAGES
2.6 DISADVANTAGES
2.7 CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
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2.8 VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

2.9 MODERN TIMES DOMES
2.9.1 GEODESIC DOME
2.9.11 INTRODUCTION
2.9.12 ADVANTAGE
2.9.13 DISADVANTAGE
2.9.14 VARIOUS SHAPES AND VARIETIES
2.9.15 STAR DOME
2.9.15.1 ARRANGEMENTS
2.9.2 MONOLITHIC DOME
2.9.21 INTRODUCTION
2.9.22 MATERIAL USED IN CONSTRUCTION
2.9.23 STEPS OF CONSTRUCTION
2.9.24 PROFILE AND SHAPE
2.9.25 ADVANTAGES
2.9.26 DISADVANTAGES
2.9.27 COMPARISON WITH CONVENTIONAL
2.10 DISASTER SURVIVING DOMES

2.11 STRUCTURES WHERE DOMES CAN BE USED
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2.12 INTERIOR LAYOUTS OF DOME HOUSES

2.13 LITERATURE CASE STUDY
2.13.1 GLOBAL VIPASSANA PAGODA (MUMBAI)
2.14 LIVE CASE STUDY

2.14.1 PARLIAMENT LIBRARY (NEW DELHI)
CHAPTER 3: VAULTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 EVOLUTION
3.3 ELEMENTS
3.4 TYPES
3.5 VARIETIES OF MATERIALS
3.6 CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
3.7 TRADITIONAL VAULTS
3.8 MODERN VAULTS
3.9 COMPARISON OF TRADITIONAL AND MODERN VAULTS
3.10 ADVANTAGES
3.11 DISADVANTAGES
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3.12.1 OYSTER BAR IN GRAND CENTRA TERMINAL (US)
3.13 LIVE CASE STUDY

3.13.1 SANGATH (AHEMADABAD)
CHAPTER 4: SHELLS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 SINGLE OR DOUBLE CURVATURE SHELLS
4.3 FORMS OF CURVATURE
4.3.1 SURFACES OF REVOLUTION
4.3.2 SURFACES OF TRANSLATION
4.3.3 RULED SURFACES
4.3.4 DEVELOPABLE AND NON DEVELOPABLE SURFACES
4.4 TYPES
4.5 SHELL SYSTEM MATERIALS
4.6 ADVANTAGES
4.7 DISADVANTAGES
4.8.1 SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE (AUSTRALIA)
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4.9 LIVE CASE STUDY

4.9.1 LOTUS TEMPLE (NEW DELHI)
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS
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CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
Vaults and domes were used extensively in the roofing of ancient buildings. They were
the favored choice for large-space monumental coverings for centuries. Unlike the
traditional construction technique of prismatic members, the construction technique
used in arches, vaults, and domes allow building large and complex structural shapes
completely in compression without having tensile stresses. In the past, masonry was the
ideal material to fit with these structural shapes. Furthermore, arch was one of the most
distinctive elements of Roman, Islamic, and Gothic architectures. According to
historical records, many arches, vaults and domes were subjected to severe
earthquakes in the past without sustaining large damage. The many historical
monuments around the world that remained safe during many centuries are living
examples of this fact. The Pantheon, St Peter's dome, the Segovia Aqueduct, Spain,
and the red dome in Maragheh, Iran are few examples of such monuments.
Furthermore, in recent years, many arches, vaults and domes had survived the effects
of earthquakes with little or no damage.
This has been demonstrated in the 1999 Kocaeli Earthquake. Most of the main
compounds of mosques, having single dome with multiple semi-spherical domes, were
generally intact or suffered very slight damage. On the other hand, the losses occurred
during recent earthquakes have proven that there is an urgent need for improved
knowledge of the seismic behavior of these parts of buildings. In order to have proper
rehabilitation schemes, a better understanding of the structural behavior of such parts
under lateral loads is needed. Furthermore, some knowledge on the construction
materials and the traditional techniques used in the past, are necessary. Moreover,
investigations on the cracks developed and the collapse modes observed during past
earthquakes are quite essential prior to the start of any rehabilitation scheme. In the
following sections, discussions on these subjects are given.
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AIM
To study the importance of domes, vaults & shell construction for a sustainable & strong
design.
OBJECTIVE
• To study about significance of domes and vaulted roof construction, shell
construction in modern era.
• To study evolution of domes, and vaulted roof since ancient times.
• To study about various materials and techniques used for such constructions in a
sustainable and useful way.
• To study how it can be used in Indian context.
• To study structures where it can be used.
NEED OF STUDY
• These type of constructions allows usage of less materials to enclose larger
spaces, are structurally efficient, energy efficient, helps in climate control & have
a natural beauty.
• Have high span to depth ratios.
SCOPE
• Various materials in which these can be casted.
• How they are more resistant in resisting natural calamities.
• Famous structures with these construction typology adding to their beauty.
• Comparative study of these construction in India and foreign countries.
• Advantages and disadvantages of these.

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• How these prove to be sustainable & useful for present and future need.
LIMITATIONS
• Structural engineering will not be studied in depth.
• Costing will not be studied in depth.
METHODOLOGY
DOMES, VAULTED ROOF & SHELL

CONSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION
THEIR TYPES ADVANTAGES &

SIGNIFICANCE &
DISDVANTAGES
EVOLUTION
SUSTAINABILITY &
USE IN INDIAN CONTEXT VARIOUS MATERIALS USEFULNESS IN MODERN
& TECHNIQUES ERA
STRUCTURES IN WHICH
IT CAN BE USED
LITERATURE AND LIVE

CASE STUDY
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF
USE IN INDIA AND FOREIGN
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CONCLUSION
CHAPTER – 2
DOMES
INTRODUCTION
A dome is typically an element of architecture that resembles the upper half of a sphere.
Domes are curved structures they have no angles and no corners and they enclose an
enormous amount of space with the minimum of materials as they don‟t require interior
supports.
ELEMENTS
 Coffer- It is an architectural series of sunken panels.

 Cupola- It is a small dome like structure on top of building.
 Lantern- It is a daylighting cupola architectural element.
 Oculus- Top surface of a dome.
 Pendentive - It is a constructive device which allows placement of a circular
dome over a square room or elliptical over a rectangular room.
 Rotunda- Any building with a circular ground plan covered by a dome.
 Squinch - It is a construction filling in upper angles of a square room so as to
form a base to receive a dome.
 Tholobate - It is the upright part of a building on which dome is raised.
 Whispering gallery- It is a circular, hemispherical enclosure often beneath a
dome in which whispers can be heard clearly in other parts of gallery.
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COFFER CUPOLA PENDENTIVE
SQUINCH THOLOBATE WHISPERING

GALLERY
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EVOLUTION
TYPES OF DOME
ONION DOME
 Also known as bulbous dome.

 It is bulbous shape tapering smoothly to a point, strongly
resembling an onion.
 It is greater than a hemispherical dome with pointed top in an ogee profile.
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 They are typically wooden but masonry examples are found in late Mughal
architecture.
 These are mostly found in Russia , Turkey , India & Middle east.
 It is larger in diameter than a drum.
 Its height usually exceeds its width.
CORBEL DOME
 Different from a „true dome‟.
 Also known as beehive dome.
 Consists of purely horizontal layers.
 As the layers get higher, each is slightly corbelled toward
the centre until meeting at the top.
OVAL DOME
 Oval in shape.
 Sometimes oval in plan.
 Sometimes oval in profile.
PARABOLIC DOME
 A unique structure.
 Bending stress is zero as its uniformly distributed load of
its dead load is zero.
 However if the point load is applied at the apex of a
parabolic dome, the bending stress becomes infinite.
 Apex of the dome is stiffened or the shape modified to avoid the infinite stress.
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SAUCER DOME
 It is low pitched shallow dome.

 It has a circular base, segmental section.
 A section across the longer axis results in a low dome ,
capping the volume.
 A very low dome is a saucer dome, many of the largest
existing dome is of this kind only.
POLYGONAL DOME
 Also known as domical vaults, cloister vaults, or coved

vaults.
 These are domes which maintain a polygonal shape in
their horizontal cross section.
UMBRELLA DOME
 Also known as pumpkin, melon, scalloped or parachute
dome.
 These are a type of dome segmented by ribs radiating
from centre of the dome to the base.
CROSSED- ARCH DOME
 Rather than meeting in the centre of the dome, the ribs

characteristically intersect one another off- centre, forming
an empty polygonal space in the centre.
 Geometry is a key element of the designs with the octagon
being perhaps the most popular shape used.
 Whether the arches are structural or purely decorative remains a matter of
debate.
 Its examples are found in Spain, North Africa, Armenia, Iran, France & Italy.
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HEMISPHERICAL DOME
 The hemispherical dome is half of a sphere.
 According to E. Baldwin Smith, it was a shape likely
known to the Assyrians, defined by Greek theoretical
mathematicians, and standardized by Roman builders.
SAIL DOME
 Also called sail vaults, handkerchief vaults, domical vaults
(a term sometimes also applied to cloister vaults),
pendentive domes. (a term that has also been applied to
compound domes), Bohemian vaults, or Byzantine
domes, this type can be thought of as pendentives that,
rather than merely touching each other to form a circular
base for a drum or compound dome.
COMPOUND DOME
 Also called domes on pendentives or pendentive domes.(a
term also applied to sail vaults), compound domes have
pendentives that support a smaller diameter dome
immediately above them, as in the Hagia Sophia, or a drum
and dome, as in many Renaissance and post-Renaissance
domes, with both forms resulting in greater height.
ADVANTAGES OF DOME
 DURABLE
 SOUNDPROOF
 ECO-FRIENDLY
 DISASTER RESISTANCE (EARTHQUAKE, HURRICANE)
 CLIMATE CONTROL
 ENERGY EFFICIENT
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 CAN BE CONSTRUCTED IN VARIOUS MATERIALS

 SUSTAINABLE
DISADVANTAGES OF DOMES
 UNUSABLE SPACE
 FITTINGS OF DOORS & WINDOWS DIFFICULT
 PERMITS OF SUCH DESIGN DIFFICULT
 FINANCING & RESALE DIFFICULT
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
SQUINCH
 In architecture it is a piece of construction used for

filling in upper angles of a square room so as to form a
proper base to receive a octagonal or spherical dome.
 A squinch can be a single arch or a set of multiple
projecting nested arches placed diagonally over an
internal corner.
 It can take a variety of other forms as well including
trumpet arches and niche heads or half domes.
PENDENTIVE
 It is a constructive device permitting the placing of a
circular dome over a square room or an elliptical dome
over a rectangular room.
 The pendentives which are triangular segments of a
sphere, taper to points at the bottom and spread at the
top to establish the continuous circular or elliptical base
needed for the dome.
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 The curvature of pendentives is that of a sphere with a diameter equal to the

diagonal of the square bay.
VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
 BRICK
 MUD
 STONE
 GLASS
 WOOD
 METAL
 PLASTIC
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 CONCRETE
MODERN TIMES DOMES

GEODESIC DOME
 These are upper portion of geodesic

spheres.
 They are composed of a framework
of triangles in a polyhedron pattern.
 The structures are based upon
octahedron and tetrahedron.
 Such domes can be created using a
limited number of simple elements
and joints and efficiently resolve a
domes‟ internal forces.
 Their efficiency increase with increase in size.
PANELISED DOME
 The panelized technique allows the builder to

attach the plywood skin to the triangles while
safely working on the ground or in a
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comfortable shop out of the weather , this method does not require expensive
steel hubs.
 Holes are drilled through the members at precise locations and steel bolts then
connect the triangles to form the dome.
 These members are often 2‟ x 4‟ or 2‟ x 6‟, which allow for more insulation to fit
within the triangle.
PRE- FABRICATED DOME
 These are permanent structures made from pre-

fabricated sheets for fast construction on site.
CONCRETE & PLASTIC DOME
 Generally for such domes they start with a steel

framework dome, wrapped with chicken wire and
wire screen for reinforcement , the chicken wire and
screen is tied to the framework with wire ties.
 A coat of material is then sprayed or moulded onto
the frame , tests should be performed with small
squares to achieve the correct consistency of
concrete or plastic.
 Generally several coats are necessary on the inside
and outside , the last step is to saturate concrete or
polyester domes with a thin layer of epoxy
compound to shed water.
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MONOLITHIC DOME
 A form of monolithic architecture.
 Thin wall reinforced concrete shell structure.
 Structure which cast in one piece form.
 Energy efficient and designated as tornado
shelter.
 Three brothers David, Barry and Randy built
and patented first monolithic dome in 1975.
 Sizes range from 2.5m to 80m diameter dome.
GEODESIC DOME
 Invented in 1950‟s by Buckminster Fuller.
 It is a sphere like structure composed of a network of triangles.
 The triangles create a self-bracing framework that gives structural strength while
using a minimum of material, the term geodesic is from Latin, meaning earth
dividing.
 It being a collection of triangles which, by staying in a state of tension, together
forms in the space a hypothetical sphere.
 The structure becomes more and more sphere-like as the number of the diverse
sizes of the struts increases.
 One of the most fascinating facts in the geodesic
dome is that in the first look it seems that all the
triangles are equilateral and all the struts have
the identical length, looking better, we notice that
actually the struts have lengths which are similar,
but not identical, and here begin all the magic
behind the complicity of realizing a geodesic
dome.
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ADVANTAGES
 Sustainability: The life expectancy of the home.
 Energy Efficiency: Utilities; Convenience Vs. Conservation.
 Eco-Friendly: Minimal carbon footprint.
 Stronger Structure: Integrity & Support are synonymous.
 Cost Effective: More space and less surface area equals
 Natural Structure Design: The Standard of the Cosmos.
 Weather Resistant: Aerodynamics reduce destruction.
 Aesthetically Pleasing: Invariably the most eye catching.
 Highly Acoustic: Sound flows naturally in a sphere.
 Higher R-Value : Thermal Resistance is a high gain.
 Simple fascination of its naturally occurring shape.
 Versitality of material ( wood, wood+ brick, polyurethane Styrofoam with steel).
 Stability.
DISADVANTAGES
 Unusable Space.
 Doors and Windows-either make or special order has to be given.
 Permits-Building the home may also be a challenge as drainage and fire escapes
that meet code are made more difficult by the design of the home.
 Financing and Resale.
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VARIOUS SHAPES OF GEODESIC DOME
VARIETIES OF GEODESIC DOME
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 Pre-fabricated domes
 Panelised dome
 Concrete & foam plastic domes
 Bamboo
 Star dome
 Portable dome
STAR DOME
 Suitable for both horizontal & vertical
developments
 Better pre-fabricated dome
 Personal & funny
 Flexible & versatile
 Upgradeable & customizable
 Deconstructable
 No value decay & high residual value
 Sustainable
 Low environmental impact
 Energy efficiency
 All green tech hardware including renewable
energy
 Reuse of building( wooden beams, osb panels,
curtain walls, insulation blocks, windows
 Increased protection to climatic hazards, extreme
temperature, high winds, low speed flood,flash
floods & tsunamis
 Protection against fires & tornadoes ( as
underground building)
 Amazing acoustics
 Unlimited configurations
 Sustainability
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 Local
 Lightweight
 Renewable
 Low carbon footprint
 Versatility in materials (wood, natural fiber , expanding polystyrene ,bituminous
shingles etc.)
 Recycled materials (timber, cellulose, natural fibres ,foundation concrete blocks)
 Affordable
 Modular
 Easy to build
 Upgradeable
 Deconstructable
 Can be built almost anywhere
 Unique designs
ARRANGEMENTS
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MONOLITHIC DOME
A Monolithic Dome is a super-

insulated, steel-reinforced concrete
structure that can be designed for
virtually any use: office or business
complex, school, church, temple;
gymnasium or sports arena :theatre
or amphitheatre , airplane hangar,
factory bulk storage facility, house
or apartment complex, military
installations etc.
MATERIAL USED IN CONSTRUCTION
 Airform
 Polyurethane foam
 Reinforced steel
 Concrete
STEPS OF CONSTRUCTION
• Ring Beam Foundation

A reinforced concrete foundation is
constructed defining the shape of the
base.
• Inflate Air form
Airform placed on the base is inflated
through blower fans so that it can take
required shape.
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• Polyurethane foam
Approximately three inches of polyurethane is

applied to the interior surface of airform to
stiffen it., It is also the base for attaching
reinforcing steel bars.
• Steel Reinforcing
Steel reinforces rebar is attached to the foam

a spray mix of concrete is applied to interior of
the dome.
• Shotcrete
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PROFILE AND SHAPE
Low profile spherical segment
Most efficient shape.

Used for large domes.
Hemisphere
Surface area is double the floor area.
Useful for high-volume storage buildings and
smaller structures ,such as homes.
High profile spherical segment
Most volume for the least floor area.
Used for e water tanks, storage buildings, homes etc.
Oblate ellipsoid
Very efficient for single structures.
Wall have maximum vertical slope vs. structure size
Prolate ellipsoid(horizontal & vertical )
It is very tall.
Useful for bulk storage and buried building.
Elliptical base creates a very unique space
Torus
Not as space -efficient as dome.

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These are homes with a centre courtyard or garden.
ADVANTAGES
 Climate control
 Durability
 Domes are energy efficient
 Rapid construction
 Economic
DISADVANTAGES
 Unsustainable Materials
 The Vulnerability of the Air Form
 Very Poor Ventilation-Hole
 Permits and Property Value
 Fitting Windows and Doors
COMPARISION WITH CONVENTIONAL

 Lower construction cost
 Faster construction
 Less maintenance
 Security
 Energy efficient
DISASTER SURVIVING DOME STRUCTURES

• This domed government building in Baghdad, formerly
a part of Saddam Hussein's regime, was hit by a
5,000 lb (2,300 kg). bomb. Apart from the hole made
by the entry of the bomb, it remained structurally
sound.
• Many monolithic domes were in the path of the 2005

and 2006 wildfires in Oklahoma and Texas, and
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survived with only slight charring

of the exterior foam insulation.
• A monolithic dome in
Pensacola Beach, Florida, after
Hurricane Dennis in 2005.
STRUCTURES WHERE DOMES CAN BE USED

 COASTAL AREAS
 SAUNA & BEAUTY CENTRE
 HOTEL
 DISCO & BAR
 RESTAURANTS
 AUDITORIUMS
 EXHIBITION HALLS
 RESORTS
 STADIUMS
 AFFORDABLE HOUSING
 BUILDINGS & SHELTERS FOR EMERGENCY SITUATIONS( LOW
TECHNOLOGY DEPENDENCE)
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 TEMPORARY STRUCTURES LIKE PERGOLA & GAZEBO

 RAILWAY STATIONS
 AIRPORTS
 ART GALLERIES & MUSEUM
 OPERA HOUSES
 THEATRES/PERFORMING ARTS
 MOSQUES
 STUPAS
 LIBRARIES
 RETRACTABLE AREAS
 TEMPORARY EXHIBITIONHALLS
 MARRIAGE GARDENS
 CASINOS
 PROTECTIVE SHEILDS
 PLANETARIUM
 REFUGEE CAMPS
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INTERIOR LAYOUTS OF DOME HOUSES
34
LITERATURE CASE STUDY
GLOBAL VIPASSANA PAGODA ( MUMBAI )
 Biggest dome in the world (85.15m diameter).

 It was built out of gratitude to the Buddha, his
teaching and the community of monks practicing his
teaching.
 Total height of pagoda is 89.93m.
 Clear span of main dome is 85.15m.
 Clear height of main dome is 26.27m.
 Total masonry stone is 76,500m (192,000tons).
 Massive inner dome seats around 8000 people.
 Foundation of dome is made with basalt stones.
SECTION
35
36
LIVE CASE STUDY
PARLIAMENT LIBRARY ( NEW DELHI )

 The Parliament Library building in New Delhi,
India, was completed in 2002.
 It is a four-storey building, two floors of which
are above ground.
 The main architectural feature is the twelve
individual domes which make up the roof, each
comprising different dimensions, designs and
materials.
 The domes are both the highest and most
recognisable elements of the building. Two of
the domes are made from glass and stainless
steel.
 Located on a 10 acre site, the library is nearly
55,000 m2 in area and can accommodate
three million books on the two basement
floors.
 Site conditions and trees prohibited the north-
western corner of the site from being
developed, leaving the square incomplete.
 Otherwise the plan, with its courtyards and
axes, is similar to historic precedents.
 Of the four storeys in the building, only
two are above ground level.
 The height of the building is restricted to
the podium level of the Parliament House
as it is important not to obstruct the view
both to and from the government
headquarters.
 The Parliament Library building is
designed for a service life of 125 years.
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 The plan of the building is inspired by pre-

colonial Indian architecture such as the
magnificent Taj Mahal, with its square base and
symmetrical composition.
 The basic structure for the building is a
reinforced concrete frame with columns
generally spaced at 10 m intervals.
 The intermediate floors are of coffered concrete
slab construction while the roof is mainly
either steel-and-concrete domes or stainless
steel and glass.
 The novel design and construction of the
domes was the first of its kind in India.
 The central focal dome comprises a lattice of
stainless steel tubular members and cables
converging at key tension cast nodes.
 There are four doubly-curved triangular
„petals‟ inter-supported through four ladder
purlins which are joined at the top by a
rectangular compression element.
 Each petal is a grid of stainless steel tubes with
an outer diameter of 101.6 mm and 10 mm in
thickness.
 The overall stability is ensured through a network
of tension rods.
 All joints in the framework were cast in foundries
and connected to the tubes by a combination of
high strength preloaded (slip resistant) bolts and
welding. Consequently, the joints appear simple and elegant, even where 12
members meet.
 The entire structure is clad with insulated glass elements which allow natural
light into the central part of the building.
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 The second dome containing stainless steel, known as

the VIP dome, has a diameter of 16 m and a height of
2.5 m.
 It contains stainless steel tubes shaped into a
combination of 9 octagons and 12 squares (refer to
Figure 6).
 `To fit these shapes onto a truly spherical surface, the
octagons were slightly distorted. The octagons are
covered with a fibre reinforced concrete shell which is
clad with sandstone and granite, held by stainless
steel cramps.
 The squares are clad with glass panels. The entire
structure is supported on a ring beam through
articulated pin joints at 16 locations to allow rotation of
these joints.
 The ring beam is further supported on 8 circular

columns.
MATERIAL USED IN DOME CONSTRUCTION

 Stainless steel is very visible throughout the complex,
both internally and externally, and is used for two of
the domes. It was first included in the design of this
building when the engineers identified it as a suitable
material for the cramps which hold the external sand
stone in place, owing to its excellent corrosion
resistance. After consultations with the Nickel Institute
and ISSDA (Indian Stainless Steel Development
Association), grade 1.4307 (S30403) was selected.
 The central focal dome spans 25 m with a rise of 4.2
m and comprises stainless steel tubular members,
grade 1.4307, welded to cast nodes. Insulated glass
39
panes are used between the members to allow natural

light into the central part of the building.
 A natural gloss finish was specified.
 For the VIP dome, grade 1.4307 stainless steel tubes
were also employed to create a roof with a diameter of
16 m and pitch of 2.5 m.
 In addition to the domes, stainless steel cramps, also
in grade 1.4307, hold the external sandstone in place.
 Fabrication and Erection Geometric precision was
achieved for the various elements of the dome,
including the cast joints, the curved tubular sections
and the fixings, through careful workmanship.
 The stainless steel sections were rolled in Mumbai
before being sent to Chennai for bending and were
then assembled, welded and polished on site.
SECTIONS
40
CHAPTER-3
VAULTS
INTRODUCTION
A vault, in architecture, is an arch-shaped structure, usually of
masonry, used as the ceiling of room or other enclosed
space,as the roof of a building, or as the support for a ceiling or
roof.Masonry vaults are usually composed of wedge-shaped
pieces called voussoirs, which are held inplace, like the stones
of an arch, by the pressure of the neighboring pieces. Because
of the combined pressure of its components, any arch exerts an
outward pressure at its base.
The Cloisters, New York City

EVOLUTION
• In ancient Egypt brick vaulting was used ,chiefly for
drains . The Chaldeans and Assyrians used vaults
for the same purpose but seem also to have made
architectural use of high domes and barrel vaults.
Ramasseum, Egypt 1300 BC
41
• The Greeks made no use of vaults.
• Then Rome adopted this technique by using concrete as a construction material

so that no outer or external thrust or buttresses need to be given. Thus vaults
could be easily erected over vast spaces ,producing
impressive and complex thermo , amphitheatres , and
basilicas .
• The tunnel vault spans between two walls ,like a

continuous arch. The cross , or groined , vault is
formed by the intersection at right angles of two barrel
vaults , producing a surface that has arched openings
for its four sides and concentration of load at the four
corner points of the square or rectangle .
• The semicircular arch was

universally employed in
Romanesque vaulting
throughout Europe , and the
roman cross vault was the type
used for covering square or
rectangular compartments.
GERMAN GOTHIC VAULT

ITALIAN GOTHIC VAULT
42
ELEMENTS
 ABUTMENT- A structure built to support the
lateral pressure of an arch or span, e.g. at
the ends of a bridge
• IMPOST -Top course of a pillar or a wall
that supports the arch or vault.
• INTRADOS- Inner curve of an a arch or
vault.
• VOUSSIOR -A wedge shaped or tapered
stone used to construct an arch or a vault .
TYPES OF VAULTS
 Barrel vault (semi-circular vault)

 Groin vaults ( cross vaults)
 Rib vault
 Fan vault
43
 Cloister vault
 Net vault
 Annular vault
 Rampant vault
 Catalan vault
BARREL VAULT
Formed by an extension of arch as an unbroken series
passed together one behind the other.
CHARACTERISTICS
 Also known as wagon or tunnel vault.

 Circular in shape and semi cylindrical in
appearance.
 Simplest form of vault and best for roofing
purpose.
 TYPES
LONG SPAN BARREL VAULT SHORT SPAN BARREL VAULT
Span is larger than its width Span is shorter than its width
44
GROIN VAULT
A Groin vault (also known as a double barrel vault) is
produced by the intersection at right angles of two
barrel vault. The arches of vaults are rounded or
pointed. A Groin vault also known as a Double Barrel
vault.
CHARACTERISTICS
• Sometime the arches of groin vaults

are pointed instead of round.
• The groin vault required great skills
in cutting stone to from a neat arris.
• Difficult to construct neatly because
of the geometry of cross groins.
• In comparison with a barrel vault, a
groin vault provides good
economies of material and labour.
• The construction of groin vault can
be understood most simply by
visualizing two barrel vault section
at right angles merging to form a
squarish unit.
45
RIB VAULT
Ribbed vault is defined as the intersection of two or
three barrel vaults. Rib vaults is reinforced by masonry
ribs.
CHARACTERISTICS
• When the Ribbed vault are edged with an armature of piped masonry often
carved in decorative patterns.
• Some ribbed vaults even have six section in each bay.
• It is best for roofing purpose.
• In eleventh centaury there was a new technique introduced as Leta, which
became an example of Ichoir side aisles at Durham cathedral.
TYPES
QUADRIPARTITE RIB VAULT
When two masonry ribs dividing into 4 sections.
SEXPARTITE RIB VAULT
When three masonry ribs dividing into 6

sections.
Lierne vault of the nave of Chester Cathedral

46
FAN VAULT
A fan vault is a form of vault used in the Gothic style,
in which the ribs are all of the same curve and
spaced equidistantly, in a manner resembling a fan.
CHARACTERISTICS
The ribs of a fan vault are of equal curvature and

rotated at equal distances around a central (vertical) axis, forming the conoid shape
which gives rise to the name. In between sequences of conoids, flat central spandrels
fill the space.
King’s college chapel, cambridgbbey
CLOISTER VAULT
In architecture, a cloister vault or domical vault is a vault with four concave surfaces
(patches of cylinders) meeting at a point above the centre of the
vault.
CHARACTERISTICS
It can be thought of as formed by two barrel vaults that cross at

right angles to each other: the open space within the vault is the
intersection of the space within the two barrel vaults, and the solid
material that surrounds the vault is the union of the solid material
surrounding the two barrel vaults. In this way it differs from a groin
vault, which is also formed from two barrel vaults but in the
opposite way: in a groin vault, the space is the union of the spaces
47
of two barrel vaults, and the solid material is the intersection.
CATALAN VAULT
• The Catalan vault consists of plain bricks that form a low arch.
• It is also known as the Catalan turn,
Timbrel vault, or Tile vaulting. It is
widely used in Catalonia from which it
derives its name.
• It is traditionally constructed by laying
bricks lengthwise over a wood form or
"centring", making it a much gentler
curve than has generally been
produced by other methods of
construction.
• Builders have to use a fast setting
mortar to allow the brick to hold itself
after being tapped into place.
• This technique was by Catalan people
with layers of thinner, lighter bricks to
create a ceiling not only light but also
very strong.
• Tile vaulting uses much less material
and can be built much more quickly.
• Because the thin bricks are laid flat,
with their narrow edges in contact, the
total thickness of the vault is less than
conventional masonry, and therefore the selfweight and corresponding horizontal
thrust values are reduced.
• Tile vaulting can be constructed with minimal or no formwork.
• Gypsum plaster is used to hold the tile.
• Catalan vaults consist of a single or series of arches on the ceiling which create a
shell structure.
• Resource efficiency , since this technique was popular among common people,
the material had to be easy to make and affordable.
48
• Also, compared to making the same ceiling with a

solid design, Catalan vaults costs less and do not
require elaborate falsework.
RAMPAN VAULT
• A continuous wagon vault, or cradle vault, whose
two abutments are located on an inclined plane,
such as the vault supporting a stairway, or forming
the ceiling of a stairway.
• The impost on one side is higher than the impost on
the other side
VARIETY OF MATERIALS
• Bricks , stone , timber , wood, Rcc are used generally.
• In stone barrel vault due to the problem of fenestration , they provide a small
window which restricts the more light.
• Bricks are installed vertically ( not radially ) and are leaning at an angle.
• Its construction doesn‟t require centering.
Effects & solutions
• Brick, stone and concrete are materials strong in compression, but weak in
tension (if the structural breadth increases, the material has to be supported by
many columns or it collapses).
• This problem is solved by steel structures or the use of steel reinforced concrete
the tensile strength of steel is significantly more than that of bricks, stone or plain
concrete.
• The technique was cheap, fast, ecological and durable.
49
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
TIMBREL VAULT TECHNIQUE

 The method of timbrel vaulting was developed in the 14th century around the
Mediterranean, although its precise origins are unknown. The timbrel vault is also
known as a "masonry vault", "Catalan vault", "tiled vault", "laminated vault", "flat
vault" and "layered vault“
 Timbrel vaulting differs substantially from the Roman method of arch building,
which relies on gravity. The timbrel vault does not rely on gravity but on the
adhesion of several layers of overlapping tiles which are woven together with
fast-setting mortar. If just one layer of thin tiles was used, the structure would
collapse, but adding two or three layers makes the resulting laminated shell
almost as strong as reinforced concrete. The result defies common sense,
because a timbrel vault is very thin compared to a Roman vault, while at the
same time it is capable of bearing much higher loads. This of course enables
wider spans and gentler curves.
 At the end of 19th and the beginning

of the 20th century, the timbrel vault THE AYMERICH AMAT I JOVER IN TERRASSA
was rediscovered by the Catalonian
architects of the Modernism
movement. Some striking examples
are the crypt of the Colonia Guell,
which Antoni Gaudí designed in a very
low-tech fashion by hanging ropes and
weights from the ceiling (the building
has now suffered a disastrous
restoration), the Aymerich Amat i
Jover in Terrassa, a textile factory built
by Lluís Moncunill i Parellada, or the Celler Cooperatiu de Pinell de Brai by Cèsar
Martinell.
50
NUBIAN TECHNIQUE
 This technique came from Nubia, from Southern Egypt,
hence the name Nubian. It has been used since ages, as it
is testified by the vaults of the granaries of the
Ramasseum, Egypt, which was built by Ramses II around
1300 BC.
 The Nubian technique was revived and disseminated by

the Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy. We owe him thanks
for the worldwide renaissance, in the 20th century, of
earthen architecture and construction with arches, vaults
and domes.
 Craterre - the International Centre for Earth Construction,

and the Auroville Earth Institute inherited his spirit and
commitment towards the earth as a building material and
what the latter can do for people.
 The Nubian technique traditionally needs a back wall to stick the blocks onto.
The vault was built arch after arch and therefore the courses were laid almost
vertically. The binder, about 1-1.5 cm thick, was the silty-clayey soil from the Nile
and the blocks used were adobes, the sun dried bricks. The unevenness of the
adobes made it necessary to slightly incline the courses, so as to increase the
adhesion by force of gravity.
 The basis of this technique is that the blocks adhere to each other with earth
glue. The principle is that the dry block sucks by capillarity the water along with
the clay of the glue which will bind the blocks. It is essential that the blocks are
very thin, so as to have a high ratio “sticking area/weight”: the larger the area of
the block is and the thinner the block is, the better will be the adhesion.
51
 The Nubian technique was also used for building circular domes, using a
compass, as is shown hereafter. This technique has the advantage of allowing
one to build vaults and domes without centring. This technique with vertical
courses has a major disadvantage, which is that the earth glue is very liquid and
the blocks are very thin. Therefore the shrinkage of the glue is important and it
induces cracks, especially in vaults.
 When compressed stabilised earth blocks are used to build vaults using this
technique, the course can be absolutely vertical as it is not needed any more to
incline the courses for the adhesion. The even regularity of CSEB produced by
the Auram press 3000 allows building with a cement-stabilised earth glue of only
1-2 mm in thickness. The Nubian technique has been developed by the Auroville
Earth Institute to build other types of vaults, such cloister and groined domes,
and has evolved towards the Free Spanning technique.
PROCESS
52
TILED VAULT TECHNIQUE

 The first step in the execution of this kind of vaults it‟s the layout on surrounding
walls, followed by the execution of hollows ensuring an adequate connection
between the walls and the vault (Figure 3.4a). Usually the tiled vaults are
constructed starting from the outside towards the center given that each row is
closed nearly at the center vault technique.
 There is a large variety of brick vaults in Alentejo and Algarve, which are not only
sustainable structural solutions for pavements and ceilings, but also have a good
acoustic and thermal performance . These structures can consist of a single brick
layer or multi-layered .
 These vaults are usually built with solid clay bricks, usually with 300x150x35
mm3. In terms of the mortar, it is usually a mixture of limestone and plaster
(without sand) in a 3:1 ratio. The plaster is used so that the mortar hardens
almost instantly, which enables the constructive process without formwork .
RULES OF DESIGN OF TILED VAULT

Similar to other arched brick structures, the traditional design rules of this kind of vaults
are essentially based on empiric and geometric proportions rules. Thus some of the
rules are the following: a) Filling height According to Fidalgo [9], in tiled vaults the filling
should be made up to 1/3rd of the height of the rise, preventing any of the haunches
from detaching, improving the vaults´s structural behaviour. b) Rise Masons have
53
concluded that flatter outlines lead to a more stable structure, for this reason tiled vaults
usually have these given rises:
c) Stiffeners With the goal of improving the structural behaviour of the vaults,
reinforcement elements like braces and bearing walls are often used. The braces
(Figure 3.3a) have a length of 0.30 or 0.45 m, and are separated by 2.5 to 4.0 m [10].
The walls themselves are only used in larger vaults, and as the filling have the goal of
preventing haunches displacement. In terms of the cloister vaults, the bearing walls are
placed in both directions, and on the four corners blocks are placed in order to avoid
corner “uplift” when a load on the vault
is applied corner “uplift” when a load on
the vault is applied .
54
FREE SPANNING TECHNIQUE

 The free spanning technique is an ongoing development of the Nubian technique
that the Auroville earth Institute is working on since a few years. It allows courses
to be laid horizontally.
 This technique combines also the use of vertical courses, like in the Nubian
technique. Depending on the shape of vaults, structures are built either with
horizontal courses, vertical ones or a combination of both.
 The basis of the technique with horizontal courses is not anymore the adhesion
of the blocks by the earth glue, but the equilibrium of gravity forces of the various
courses, and their transfer onto the next courses and the masonry in general.
 It is essential to study the location of the centres of gravity so that the weight of
the masonry never goes beyond the springers.
 It is needed also to develop a certain sense of how the forces behave in the
masonry. The transfer of loads always takes the shape of catenary curves, and
assumes the most direct way.
55
TRADITIONAL VAULTS
Vault is arch shaped structure , its
usually a masonry used for ceiling
and other enclosed space masonary
valts are usually composed of
wedge-shaped pieces called
voussoirs which are held in place
like the stones of an arch by the
pressure of the neighbouring pieces
because of the combined pressure of
its components an arc exerts an
outward pressure at its base
MODERN VAULT
20th century found great advances in reinforced
concrete design ,the advent of the construction and
better mathematical understanding of hyperbolic
paraboloids allowed very thin strong vaults to be
constructed with previously unseen shape.
COMPARISON OF TRADITIONAL AND

MODERN VAULTS
TRADITIONAL MODERN
Mostly barrel, some groin Groin vaulted cathedrals
Round arches Pointed arches
Horizontal, modest height elevation Vertical soaring
Exterior plan little decoration and solid More realistic proportions individual featu
Dark gloomy mood Tall light filled
56
Examples st sernin , toulouse, france Chartres cathedral, france.
ADVANTAGES
• Gives more volume at a lower costs than adding floor area .
• It looks good over other forms of construction .
• Dead load can be reduced by economizing foundation and supporting system.
• The curved shapes often used for concrete are naturally strong structures.
• Using R.C.C. as a building material reduces both material cost and the
construction cost.
• As concrete is relatively inexpensive and easily cast into compound curves.
DISADVANTAGES
• Increased cooling or heating costs .
• Good labour and supervision necessary.
• Raise of roofs may be a disadvantage .
• Shuttering problem .
• Since concrete is porous material, concrete vaults or domes often have issues
with sealing. If not treated, rain water can seep through the roof and leak into the
interior of the building.
57
OYSTER BAR IN GRAND CENTRAL TERMINAL (UNITED STATES)

 Most masterpieces of catalan vaulting,
however, are in the United States.
 The method was previously unknown in the
Americas, until a family by the name of
Guastavinos imported it.
 Rafael Guastavino, born in Valencia in
1842, improved the centuries-old technique
and renamed it "cohesive construction". He
substituted bricks with thin tiles and the
traditional mortar with rapidly hardening
Portland cement, which enabled him to
build vaults 3 to 5 times wider than the
typical size of traditional timbrel arching.
 The main vaults at the oyster Bar are
configured from a part of a sphere by
cutting vertical Chunks off the sphere to
form a four-sided shape.Rather than
directing all of the load from the vault into
the pendentives in each corner, the
Guastavinos trimmed the curved openings
on the Four sides
 With very substantial, wide tile arches that carried a good portion of the vault
load. The loads from the vaults and the arches were delivered to the steel
columns of the main grand central terminal.
 The vaults of the Osyter Bar were constructed for the most part of the three layer
of tiles, one being the glazed face layer and the other two consisting of red terra
cotta. All were bonded together with high-strengh Portland cement mortar along
their edges, as well as between the layers.
 At the pendentives it was customary for the Guastavino to use several more
layers of tile.
58
 Many face tile had fallen off during the fire. This may be attributed to two causes,
most probably acting together.
 The first was thermal shock caused by a rapid heating and concurrent expansion
of the tiles, followed by a rapid cooling when water from the fire house was
sprayed on the ceiling, which likely generated sufficient movement and stress to
cause the bond in the mortar parge joint to fail.
ECONOMICAL AND FAST
 The popularity of the timbrel vault was not restricted to its aesthetic appeal. It
was simply a very fast and economical method, for two reasons.
 Firstly, and logically, much less building material was required.
 Secondly, there was no need for wooden scaffolding. Building a Roman vault
demands large amounts of wood, as every arch is required to be supported by a
wooden centering for a long period after initial construction.
 The masonry vault, on the other hand, is self-supporting apart from some
temporarily required, light shiftable formwork at the beginning of the job. While
constructing a timbrel vault, workers simply stood on the work of the day before
(which was two to four inches thick).
 These huge savings in both building materials and construction equipment meant
that the Guastavinos could offer much lower prices than their competitors.
DURABLE AND FIREPROOF
59
LIVE CASE STUDY
SANGATH, (AHEMDABAD)
• Architecture studio of AR. B.V. Doshi.
• Sandwiched construction of vault .
• The vaulted roof is of locally-made clay fuses over the concrete slab, which
provides a non-conducting layer. The top finish of China mosaic glazed tiles
further adds to the insulation. Being white and glossy it reflects sun while being
made from clay it retards the heat transmission.
• The roof form creates an efficient surface/volume ratio optimizing material

quantities. The higher space volume thus created provides for hot air pockets
due to convective currents that keep lower volumes relatively cool.
• The ventilating window at upper volume releases the accumulated hot air through
pressure differences.
• Vaulted roof form – the ventilating window at upper volume releases the
accumulated hot air through pressure differences.
• The structure is closely integrated with the outdoor space.
60
MATERIALS AND METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION
Exposed natural finishes
• The concrete of slabs and wall surfaces are kept bare

unplastered as final visual finishes, which provide a
natural look and save on finishing material quantity.
• Use of secondary waste material
• Paving material is a stone chip waste while the roof
surface is glazed tiles waste, both available as waste
material from factories at no cost. These have been
creatively hand-crafted and integrated into the design
by fully using waste material.
• The application is also skill-oriented and involves as
well as promotes craftsmen and our traditional
heritage.
PERFORMANCE
• The above measures have ensured excellent

climate control in terms of keeping the inside cool
and increasing the time-lag for heat transfer.
• There is a difference of about 8 oC between the
interior and exterior roof skin temperatures. The
time-lag for heat transfer is nearly six hours.
• The natural elements are harmoniously blended
with the built environment, and water recycling and
waste material reuse have ensured cost economy
as well as environmental consciousness.
ANALYSIS
• Favourable orientation
• Low embodied energy by making minimal use of manufactured materials
• Heavy construction to balance out diurnal temperature variation
• Roof insulation by air gap
61
• Light-coloured building to reflect heat

• Wind tower with evaporative cooling for summer cooling
• Building partially sunken to moderate internal temperature
• South-facing window with deep sunshades to cut off summer sun and to let in
winter sun
• Solid timber shutters in addition to glass shutters to prevent heat loss during
winter nights.
62
CHAPTER- 4
SHELLS
INTRODUCTION
They are light weight constructions using shell elements. Shell structures achieve the
most pure synthesis of architectural and structural forms. Also known as „surface
structures‟, shells resist and transfer loads within their minimal thicknesses. They rely
upon their three-dimensional curved geometry and correct orientation and placement of
supports for their adequate structural performance.
SINGLE OR DOUBLE CURVATURE SHELLS

• Single curvature shell: are curved on one linear axis and are a part of a cylinder
or cone in the form of barrel vaults and conoid shells.
• Double curvature shell: are either part of a sphere, or a hyperboloid of revolution.
• The terms single curvature and double curvature do not provide a precise
gemoetric distinction between the form of shell because a barrel vault is single
curvature but so is a dome.
• The terms single and doulbe curvature are used to distinguish the comparitive
rigidity of the two
• Forms and complexity of centring necessary to construct the shell form.
63
FORMS OF CURVATURE
SURFACES OF REVOLUTION
Surfaces of revolution are generated by the
revolution of a plane curve, called the
meridional curve, about an axis, called the
axis of revolution. In the special case of
cylindrical and conical surfaces, the
meridional curve consists of a line segment.
E.g. : cylinders, cones,
Spherical or elliptical domes,
Hyperboloids of revolution, toroids.
64
SURFACES OF TRANSLATION
Surfaces of translation are generated by sliding a plane curve along another plane
curve, while keeping the orientation of the sliding curve constant. The latter curve, on
which the original curve slides, is called the generator of the surface. In the special
case in which the generator is a straight line, the resulting surface is called a cylindrical
surface. If two parabolas are similar, the surface becomes a surface of revolution,
called paraboloid of revolution surfaces .
65
RULED SURFACES
Ruled surfaces are generated by sliding each end of a straight line on their own
generating curve. These lines are not necessarily at right angle to the planes containing
the end curves.
66
DEVELOPABLE AND NONDEVELOPABLE

SURFACES
Surfaces with double curvature cannot be developed, while those
with single curvature can be developed.
In other words, surfaces with positive and negative gaussian curvature (i.e. synclastic
and anticlastic surfaces) cannot be developed, while those with zero gaussian curvature
can be developed.
DEVELOPABLE SURFACES (SINGLY CURVED)

• Developable surface is a surface that can be unrolled onto a flat plane without
tearing or stretching it.
• It is formed by bending a flat plane, the most typical shape of a developable shell
is a barrel, and a barrel shell is curved only in one direction.
• Barrel :
Arch action & beam action together make a barrel. There are mainly two types of
barrel : - long barrels , arch action is prominent - short barrels, beam action
is prominent
67
• Structural behavior of short barrel shells: These shells are typically supported at
the corners and can behave in one or a combination of the following ways:
• Structural behavior of long barrel shells:
These are typically supported at the corners and behave structurally as a large
beam.
NON-DEVELOPABLE SURFACES (DOUBLY

CURVED)
Eg :- sphere, hyperbolic paraboloid
They are mainly classified as : 1) synclastic 2)

anticlastic
• Synclastic shells:
These shells are doubly curved
And have a similar curvature in each direction. E.g. domes
A dome is a good example of a synclastic shell, it is doubly curved and can be

formed by rotating a
Curved line around an axis.
a dome can be split up into two different directions; vertical
sections separated by longitudinal arch
Lines (also called meridians), and horizontal sections
separated by hoops or parallels.
Structural behaviour :
Similar to arches under a uniform loading the dome is under compression
everywhere, and the stresses
act along the arch and hoop lines.
• Anticlastic shells :
These are doubly curved but each of the two curves have
68
the opposite direction to the other. E.g. Saddle points.
Conoids, hyperbolic paraboloid and hyperboloids are all

considered to
the anticlastic shell because they are saddled shape with
different curvature in each direction and straight lines
can be drawn of the
surface.
Conoids: formed by moving a one end of a straight line

along a curved
Path and the other along a straight path.
Hyperboloids: formed by rotating a straight line around a vertical axis.

• Hyperbolic paraboloid:
Formed by sweeping a convex parabola along a
concave
parabola or by sweeping a straight line over a straight
path at one end and another straight path not parallel
to the first.
• Structural behaviours:
Depending on the shape of the shell relative to the
curvature, there will be different stresses. Shell roofs, have
compression stresses following the convex curvature and
the tension stresses follow the concave curvature.
69
TENSION TIE
Fig. (a) represents a doubly curved shell with no axis of
symmetry,
Shows a spherical dome supported on a wall.
Whenever the shells are supported vertically at their
edges, a tension
tie is required around the perimeter at the intersection of
the dome
and the wall. However, it is important to note that the tie
will be funicular for any
Shape of either the plan or Elevation.
Fig. (b) the shell has positive curvature and

Continuous vertical support.
The support may be a continuous wall or stiff beams between adequately spaced
columns. It is interesting that
the straight parts of the tie in fig. (c) do not require ties
across the building.
The thrusts are taken by shear forces through the width
of the shell, and only tension forces exist in the tie.
TYPES OF SHELL STRUCTURE

FOLDED PLATE SHELLS
The peculiar feature of the folded plate is the ease in forming plane surfaces. a folded
plate may be formed for about the same cost as a horizontal slab and has much less
steel and concrete for the same spans. The principle components in a folded plate
structure consist of :
• The inclined plates.
• Edge plates which must be used to stiffen the wide plates.
70
• Stiffeners to carry the loads to the supports and to hold the plates in line.
• Columns to support the structure in the air.
CYLINDRICAL BARREL VAULT
Barrel vaults are perhaps the most useful of the shell structures because
they can span up to 150 feet with a minimum of material. they are very
efficient structures because the use the arch form to reduce stress and
thickness in traverse direction.
71
DOMES OF REVOLUTION
A dome is a space structure covering a more or less square or
circular area. the best known example is the dome of
revolution, and it is one of the earliest of the shell structures.
excellent examples are still in existence that were built in
roman times. they are formed by a surface generated by a
curve of any form revolving about a vertical line. this surface
has double curvature and the resulting structure is much stiffer and stronger than a
single curved surface, such as a cylindrical shell.
SHELL SYSTEM MATERIALS

• REINFORCED THIN-SHELL CONCRETE.
• GLASS.
• STEEL.
• GLASS & STEEL.
• PLASTIC.
ADVANTAGES
• Allowing wide areas to be spanned without the use of internal supports, giving an
open, unobstructed interior.
• No bending moment in shell structures.
72
• Shell structures are suited to carrying distributed loads not concentrated loads.
• Loads applied to shell surfaces are carried to the ground by the tensile, shear,
compressive forces.
• Span thickness ratio of 400-500 Ex: 8cm Thickness 30-38m Span
• Very light form of construction. to span 30.0 m shell thickness required is 60mm .
• Dead load can be reduced economizing foundation and supporting system.
• They further take advantage of the fact that arch shapes can span longer.
• Flat shapes by choosing certain arched shapes.
• Esthetically it looks good over other forms of construction.
DISADVANTAGES
• Shuttering problem.
• Greater accuracy in formwork is
required.
• Good labor and supervision necessary .
• Rise of roof may be a disadvantage.
SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE (AUSTRALIA)

SYSTEM SPANS AND EFFECTIVE SPANS
• The sydney opera house spans up to 164 feet.

• The arches are supported by over 350km of tensioned steel cable.
• The shell thickness goes from 3 to 4 inches.
• All shells weight a total of 15 tons.
73
• This involved laying the foundations and

building a podium 82 feet (25 m) above sea
level.
• More than 39,239 cubic feet (30,000 m3) of
rock and soil were removed by excavators.
• The foundation was built atop a large rock that
sat in sydney harbour. The
second stage saw the building
• Of the shells, the podium
structure, the stage tower, and
the necessary machinery.
• Cable beams were built and
reinforced by steel cables to
release the stress of the weight.
• The strength of the cables was
tested by loading additional weights.
• When the builders were satisfied that the cables, would support, the beams were
made extendable by other beams.
• The "shells" were perceived as a series ofparabolas supported by precast
concrete ribs.
• The formwork for using in-situ concrete would have been prohibitively expensive,
but, because there was no repetition in any of the roof forms, the construction of
pre-cast concrete for each individual section would possibly have been even
more expensive.
• The design team went through at least 12 iterations of the form of the shells
trying to find an economically acceptable form (including schemes with
parabolas, circular ribs and ellipsoids) before a workable solution was completed.
In mid-1961, the design team found a solution to the problem: the shells
• All being created as sections from a sphere.
• This solution allows arches of varying length to be cast in a common mould, and
a number of arch segments of common length to be placed adjacent to one
another, to form a spherical section.
74
CONSTRUCTION
75
76
FINISHES
 Actual clay, brick, and stone
veneer granite or marble cladding
exposed aggregate finish sand
blasted finish form liner patterns.
 The sydney opera house uses
white glazed granite tiles.
1,056,000 tiles were used to cover
the massive structure.
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LIVE CASE STUDY
LOTUS TEMPLE ( NEW DELHI )
• TOTAL SITE AREA: 24 Acres

• CLIMATE: Tropical With Great
Variations In Temperature
• BUILDING TYPE: Worship Place
• TIME OF CONSTRUCTION: 1979-
1986
• ARCHITECT- Fariburz Sahba
CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM
 The lotus temple is constructed on arcaded construction system.
 Based on 9 radial grids.
 The inner leaves enclose the interior dome in a canopy made of crisscrossing
ribs and shells of intricate pattern.
 When viewed from inside, each layer of ribs and shells disappears as it rises,
behind the next, lower layer.
78
 Some of the ribs converge radially and meet at a central hub.

• A neoprene pad is provided between the radial beams and the top of the interior
dome to allow lateral movement caused by the effects of temperature changes
and wind.
ENTRANCE LEAVES AND OUTER LEAVES

• Shell surfaces on both sides of the ridge of the entrance and outer leaves are
formed out of spheres of different radii, with centres located at different points
inside the building.
• There is one set of spheres for the entrance leaves.
• The diameters of the spheres have been fixed to satisfy the structural
consideration of varying shell thickness.
• For outer leaves, another set of spheres defines the inner and outer surfaces of
the shells.
• The shell is uniformly 133 mm thick towards the bottom, and increases to 255
mm up to the tip, beyond the glazing line.
• The entrance leaf is 18.2m wide at the entrance and rises 7.8m above the
podium level.
• The outer leaf is 15.4m wide and rises up to 22.5m above the podium.
79
THE INNER LEAVES

• The inner leaf, comprising a cusp (ridge)
and a re-entrant (valley).
• The inner leaves rise to an elevation of
34.3m above the inner podium.
• At the lowest level each shell has a
maximum width of 14m.
• It is uniformly 200mm thick.
THE ARCH
• All around the central hall are nine splendid
arches placed at angular intervals of 40
degrees.
• The shape of these arches is formed by a
number of plane, conical and cylindrical
surfaces.
• Intersection of these surfaces provides
interesting contours and greatly enhances the
beauty of the arches.
• The nine arches bear almost the entire load of the superstructure beams were
dewedged, leaving the central hub supported.
• The remaining portion of the inner leaf was then taken up.
80
THE INTERIOR DOME

• Three ribs spring from the crown of each arch.
• While the central one (the dome rib) rises radially towards th e central hub, the
other two (the base ribs) move away from the central rib and intersect with similar
base ribs of adjacent arches, thus forming
an intricate pattern.
• Other radial ribs rise from each of these
intersections and all meet at the centre of
the dome.
• Up to a certain height, the space between
the ribs is covered by two layers of 6Omm
thick shells.
MATERIALS
• The inner surfaces of all the shells have a
uniform, bush-hammered, exposed
concrete surface with architectural
patterns.
• For the inner leaves, these patterns were
formed out of radial and vertical planes
intersecting the surface of the torus.
• For the outer and entrance leaves, and the
interior dome, the patterns were formed out
of longitudes and latitudes of spheres.
• The formwork was designed in a manner
that timber joists support the panels
instead of the regular pattern of the
structural steel supporting members of the
space frame .
• Full-scale mockups of the bottom surface of each of the shells were first made at
ground level and the architectural patterns marked on this surface.
81
CONCRETE
• All the ribs and shells up to radial beam level are
in white concrete.
• To avoid crazing and shrinkage cracks, a mix of
M 30 grade white concrete was designed.
• The entire quantity of white cement was
therefore imported from Korea.
• Specially graded dolomite aggregates were
procured from the Alwar mines near Delhi and
white silica sand from Jaipur.
REINFORCEMENT
• The reinforcement used in the white concrete
shells as well as the binding wires was
entirely galvanized so as to prevent the long-
term effect of rusting of reinforcement on the
white concrete.
• Sandblasting was carried out to reduce
pickling time with a view to avoiding hydrogen
embrittlement.
• The bottom formwork for one shell for each of
the leaves was first erected and aligned.
• The edge lines and surfaces of this formwork
were then used as a mock-up to decide the
length and shape of each bar in the shell.
• To avoid the impression of cover blocks on
the exposed surface of the shells, the inner
layer of reinforcement was held in position by
special steel spacers supported from the
outer formwork.
82
ANALYSIS
• Every effort has been made to make the temple energy efficient.
• Natural ventilation and lighting has been used in the building.
• Water body present shows the leaves of lotus flower and make the building so
there great of temperature inside the building as compare to outside.
• Parks and open spaces with appropriate species of plants, noise reduction
barriers along boundary.
• There‟s no ramp to access the temple.
• Structure consists of 9 radial grids based on arcade construction making it a
column free.
83
CHAPTER- 5
CONCLUSION
The objective of this research were to study about significance of domes and
vaulted roof construction, shell construction in modern era, study evolution of
domes, and vaulted roof since ancient times , to study about various materials
and techniques used for such constructions in a sustainable and useful way, to
study how it can be used in Indian context, to study structures where it can be
used has been achieved satisfactorily.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Now our days construction of domes and vaults is rarely found in India due to lack of
awareness of their advantages and techniques used in construction which are easy ,
sustainable and efficient so places where these can be used for construction are:-
• Coastal areas
• Sauna & beauty centre
• Hotel
• Disco & bar
• Restaurants
• Auditoriums
• Exhibition halls
• Resorts
• Stadiums
• Affordable housing
• Buildings & shelters for emergency situations( low technology dependence)
• Temporary structures like pergola & gazebo
• Railway stations
• Libraries
• Retractable areas
• Temporary exhibitiob halls
• Marriage gardens
• Casinos
84
• Protective sheilds
• Planetarium
• Airports
• Art galleries & museum
• Opera houses
• Theatres/performing arts
• Mosues
• Stupas
• Refugee camps
ONE OF THE TECHNIQUES THAT CAN BE USED

IN INDIA IN A USEFUL MANNER IS
RETRACTABLE ROOFING
• A retractable roof is a roof system designed to

roll back the roof on tracks so that the interior
of the facility is open to the outdoors.
Retractable roofs are sometimes referred to
as operable roofs or retractable skylights. The
term operable skylight, while quite similar,
refers to a skylight that opens on a hinge,
rather than on a track.
• Retractable roofs can be used in

residences, restaurants and bars, swim
centres, sports stadiums open marriage
gardens and other facilities wishing to
provide an open-air experience at the push
of a button.
EXAMPLES OF RETRACTABLE ROOFS IN FOREIGN
• The higher expense of rigid large span domes made them relatively
rare, although rigidly moving panels is the most popular system for
sports stadiums with retractable roofing. With a span of 126 meters,
85
Pittsburgh's Civic Arena featured the largest retractable dome in the

world when completed for the city's Civic Light Opera in 1961. Six of
its eight sections could rotate behind the other two within three
minutes, and in 1967 it became the home of the Pittsburgh Penguins
hockey team.
• The first domed baseball stadium, the Astrodome in Houston, Texas,

was completed in 1965 with a rigid 641 foot wide steel dome filled
with 4,596 skylights. Other early examples of rigid stadium domes
include the steel frame Superdome of New Orleans and the cement
Kingdome of Seattle. Stockholm's 1989 Ericsson Globe, an arena for
ice hockey, earned the title of largest hemispherical building in the
world with a diameter of 110 meters and height of 85 meters.
• Montreal's Olympic Stadium featured a retractable membrane roof in

1988, although repeated tearing led to its replacement with a non-
retractable roof. The SkyDome of Toronto opened in 1989 with a rigid
system in four parts: one that is fixed, two that slide horizontally, and
one that rotates along the edge of the 213 meter wide span. In Japan,
the 1993 Fukuoka Dome featured a 222-meter dome in three parts,
two of which rotated under the third. Ōita Stadium was built in 2001
as a mostly fixed semi-spherical roof 274 meters wide with two large
membrane-covered panels that can slide down from the center to
opposite sides.
86
SOME OF THE MATERIALS THAT ARE LESS COSTLY AND CAN BE

USED FOR SUCH CONSTRUCTION
• MATERIALS
FIBRE REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE BLOCKS
HYDRAFORM CEMENT STABILISED EARTH BLOCKS
 FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE (FRC)
Fibre plaster was used as a structural element on the dome built by

Magaia (2003). It was used to resist the tension stresses induced in the
dome, and it was placed on the inside and outside surfaces of the dome.
The fibres used in Magaia‟s plaster were sisal fibres, which over time
may deteriorate due to moisture ingress and may loose their strength.
It is a composite material made with hydraulic cement, aggregates of

various sizes and discrete discontinuous fibres. There are two types of
fibres that can be used in FRC. The first types of fibre are low-modulus,
87
high-elongation fibres. These include nylon and polyethylene. These

fibres are capable of absorbing large amounts of energy and are used to
control cracking in plastic concrete. They do not improve the strength of
the concrete. The second types of fibre are high-strength, high modulus
fibres. These include steel, glass and asbestos. These fibres add
strength and stiffness to the concrete.
 HYDRAFORM CEMENT STABILIZED EARTH BLOCKS (CEB‟S)
A 7MPa (1 015 psi) HydraForm Splitter Block was specified to be used

in the walls and dome roof of the structure. The dimensions of these
blocks were 75mm (2.95 in.) high by 110mm (4.33 in.) thick by 220mm
(8.66 in.) long.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
The HydraForm Training Manual (2004) explains the procedures used

to create compressed earth blocks (CEB). CEB‟s are made by mixing
soil and cement in predetermined ratios. This mix is placed into a press
and a brick is extruded vertically under a distributed pressure of 10 Mpa
(1 450 psi) using a diesel driven, hydraulic block making machine. The
blocks are then cured for approximately 72 hours (Agremènt, 1996).
According to Uzoegbo (2003) the 58blocks achieve about 80% of their
28 day compressive strength in this time.
SOME OF THE TECHNIQUES THAT CAN BE USED FOR

CONSTRUCTING LOW COST DOMES AND VAULTS
 ECOSHELL DOME CONSTRUCTION METHOD (RCC DOME)

The quickest method of constructing a reinforced concrete dome is to
use an inflatable balloon formwork. The formwork is attached to a
foundation ring beam and is then inflated. Two types of air forms can
88
be used. The first type is inflated and construction workers enter the
air form through an air-lock. When they are inside they spray an
insulating layer, attach reinforcing to the insulation and then spray a
concrete (Shotcrete) layer onto the walls of the air form to form the
structure. The second type of air form is inflated and the insulation
and concrete are sprayed onto the outer surface. This method of
construction is less costly as it does not require an airlock, but it
cannot be used on very large domes.
NUBIAN TECHNIQUE
These techniques were used in arid

regions (shortage of wood for
formwork) to build domes and vaults
without any formwork. Today these
techniques are being used in India,
at the Auroville Building Centre, to
construct low cost as well as
aesthetically pleasing housing. The
technique used to construct domes
involves a tracing arm that is put in
89
the centre of the structure and

used to trace the shape of the
dome. The dome is built in rings
using a thin layer of earth mortar
that is very sticky (high clay
content) and prevents the bricks
from sliding off each other.
90
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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DISSERTATION REPORT

TOPIC: - ‘DOMES, VAULTS AND SHELL

GUIDE: - AR. VIRESH JHALANEE

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING

It is to be understood that the undersigned does not necessarily enclose or

I also declare that the work embodied in the present dissertation is my

I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to my guide AR. VIRESH

This Dissertation is completely dedicated to my parents and my

2.8 VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

2.9.14 VARIOUS SHAPES AND VARIETIES

2.9.15 STAR DOME

2.9.2 MONOLITHIC DOME

2.9.22 MATERIAL USED IN CONSTRUCTION

2.9.23 STEPS OF CONSTRUCTION

2.9.24 PROFILE AND SHAPE

2.9.27 COMPARISON WITH CONVENTIONAL

2.10 DISASTER SURVIVING DOMES

2.12 INTERIOR LAYOUTS OF DOME HOUSES

2.14 LIVE CASE STUDY

3.12.1 OYSTER BAR IN GRAND CENTRA TERMINAL (US)

3.13 LIVE CASE STUDY

4.3.2 SURFACES OF TRANSLATION

4.3.3 RULED SURFACES

4.3.4 DEVELOPABLE AND NON DEVELOPABLE SURFACES

4.9 LIVE CASE STUDY

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS

• To study evolution of domes, and vaulted roof since ancient times.

• To study how it can be used in Indian context.

• To study structures where it can be used.

• Have high span to depth ratios.

• How they are more resistant in resisting natural calamities.

• Famous structures with these construction typology adding to their beauty.

• Comparative study of these construction in India and foreign countries.

• Advantages and disadvantages of these.

• Costing will not be studied in depth.

DOMES, VAULTED ROOF & SHELL

THEIR TYPES ADVANTAGES &

LITERATURE AND LIVE

 Coffer- It is an architectural series of sunken panels.

COFFER CUPOLA PENDENTIVE

SQUINCH THOLOBATE WHISPERING

 Also known as bulbous dome.

 It is low pitched shallow dome.

 Also known as domical vaults, cloister vaults, or coved

CROSSED- ARCH DOME

 Rather than meeting in the centre of the dome, the ribs

 CAN BE CONSTRUCTED IN VARIOUS MATERIALS

 In architecture it is a piece of construction used for

 The curvature of pendentives is that of a sphere with a diameter equal to the

VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

MODERN TIMES DOMES

 These are upper portion of geodesic

 The panelized technique allows the builder to

PRE- FABRICATED DOME

 These are permanent structures made from pre-

CONCRETE & PLASTIC DOME

 Generally for such domes they start with a steel

VARIOUS SHAPES OF GEODESIC DOME

VARIETIES OF GEODESIC DOME