Tnau 2528
Tnau 2528
Tnau 2528
NORTH AMERICA rl
An Historical, Economic and Regional
Geography
By LL. RODWELL JONES, Ph~D., B.Sc., and P. W.
BRYAN, Ph.D. With 104 Maps and Diagrams.
Third Edition, Revised. Demy 8vo. 21S. net.
SOUTH AMERICA
An Economic and Regional Geography
By E. W. SHANAHAN, M.A., D.Sc. With 50 Maps
and Diagrams. Second Edition, Revised. Demy 8vo.
0145. net.
T
HE obje.ct of this book is to provide advanced students, '
and especially students of geography, with a.. re.asoned
account of the world's climatic types. It is not intended
to exempt the student from the reading of original works, but
to give a foundation on to which he or she may build. Without
entering into the physics of meteorological processes, with which
the student is expected to be already familiar, effect is as far
as possible related to cause, and, since the book ~s intended
primarily for geographers, prominence is given to the human
aspect and the practical application. In short, the book attempts
to be .reasoned and not merely descriptive, hence the arrange-
ment adopted is not regional but is based on climatic types,
with a view to emphasizing the essential similarity of environ-
°ment in regions similarly situated and climatically allied. Par-
ticular attention is paid to the normal type, the regional peculi-
arities of the more important areas being dealt with separately.
after the general description. The classification followed departs
only in matters of detail from those in general use, but the bound-
ary lines adopted are not always coincident with those genera!ly
recognized; the reasons for these departures are set out in some
detail in Chapter III.
Except in matters of treatment and presentation the book
makes no other claim to originality, and the author acknowledges
his indebtedness to a mass of climatological literature much too
large and varied to be listed in. detail. Generally this is
acknowledged in the text or in foot-notes, but since the book
is intended only as a text-book for students, chapter and verse
are not always given in the references. The object in view in
quoting references is rather to allow the student to follow up
a particular line 'of inquiry should he wish to do so, and this
purpose is effected by means of a. short guide to further reading
at the end of each chapter; but it sometimes happens that an
interesting side-track is exposed in the tex,t which it is impossible
to pursue further and in such ca~es the way is pointed out in
a foot-note. In general only those books and journals are
quoted which would be readily accessible to a student in the
library of the university or college.
vi CLIMATOLOGY
For the sake of uniformity th~ same 'general order has been
followed in the description of each climatic type, but different
types lend themselves to most satisfactory treatment in different
ways; thus the arrangement is sometimes by seasons and
sometimes by elements.
When controversial topics arise it is not always feasible to
give due consideration to all views held, and generally one ex-
planation only, the one that appears most satisfactory to the
author, is given. .:The last chapter, in particular, dealing with
the evolution of climate, covers such an enormous subject in
such a short space that it is impossible to do more than provide
a bald outline of the sequence of events. In the present in-
adequate state of our knowledge there are inevitably numerous
apparent contradictions of fact and divergences of opinion among
authors as to the explanations. Limitation of space has forbidden
full treatment of these and it has been necessary to ignore the
difficulties in attempting to present a consecutive account.
The Fahrenheit scale of temperature is used throughout and
rainfall is expressed in inches, sihce students are generally more
familiar with these units. Often the decimal points are ignored,
temperature and rainfall figures being rounded off to the nearest
degree or inch, for except when dealing with very small rainfall
amounts or very small temperature variations these are of little
'significance; moreover, they give a misleading impression of
exactitude which, in point of fact, does not exist, especially
w}.len dealing with mean values.
It is assumed that the student is equipped with a good modern
atlas containing the usual maps of annual and seasonal tempera-
ture, pressure and rainfall, vegetation maps, etc., which are not,
therefore, reproduced in the book.
The author wishes to express his gratitude to Mr. L. C. W.
Bonacina for kindly reading Chapter IV and for offering valuable
suggestions and criticisms, and to Dr. H. A. Matthews for gener-
ous assistance and for undertaking the reading of the proofs.
A. A. M.
READING, 1931
CONTENTS
CHAP • . PAGE
ix
x CLIMATOLOGY
FIG. PAGE
35 COLD WEATHER RAINFALL AND STORM TRACKS II3
36 DIURNAL RANGE OF TEMPERATURE, JANUARY II4
37 MEAN DAILY RELATIVE HUMIDITY, JANUARY II4
38 MEAN TEMPERATURE, MAy • II5
39 MEAN MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE, MAy • II5
40 HOT WEATHER RAINFALL (MARCH-MAy) IIi
41 WEATHER ON 14TH MAy, 1897 II8
42 WEATHER ON 3RD JULY, 1889 II8
43 ANNUAL MARCH OF TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL IN INDIA 120
44 ST~AMLlNES DURING MONSOON • 125
45 MONSOON RAINFALL 125
46 RAINFALL AT HUE AND MADRAS. 130
47 ADVANCE OF THE MONSOON RAINS INTO AUSTRALIA 133
48 TRANSITION OF CLIMATES IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA AND VICTORIA 140
49 YEARLY MARCH OF TEMPERATURE IN MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATES 141
50 RAINFALL CONTROL OF VEGETATION AND CROPS IN SWANLAND 154
51 RAINFALL REGIMES IN EASTERN MARGIN WARM TEMPERATE
CLIMATES 160
52 ANTARCTIC DEPRESSION UNFAVOURABLE TO INLAND RAINS. 162
53 ANTARCTIC DEPRESSION FAVOURABLE TO GOOD INLAND RAINS 162
54 RAINFALL REGIMES IN THE GULF ATLANTIC STATES 167
55 RAINFALL REGIMES IN COOL TEMPERATE CLIMATES 182
56 MAXIMUM, MINIMUM AND MEAN TEMPERATURES AT CAMBRIDGE 184
57 PRINCIPAL TRACKS OF DEPRESSIONS IN WESTERN EUROPE 188
58 CYCLONE TRACKS, NORTH AMERICA 191
59 TRACKS OF CONTINENTAL DEPRESSIONS AND OF TYPHOONS 198
60 CHIEF STORM TRACKS, JAPAN * 201
61 ApPROXIMATE POSITIONS OF SUMMER ISOTHERMS IN POLAR
REGIONS 225
62 NORTHERN LIMIT OF PRODUCTIVE DATE-PALM 246
63. MECHANISM OF UP-VALLEY WINDS IN MOUNTAINS 251
64 MEAN HEIGHT OF SNOW LEVEL IN THE INN VALLEY IN N ORTRERN
TYROL 257
65 ALTITUDE AND GROWING SEASON IN THE EASTERN ALPS 259
66 EVIDENCE FOR CLIMATIC ZONES IN PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS
TIMES. 272
67 LAND AND SEA DURING THE EOCENE 278
68 LAND AND SEA AT MAXIMUM GLACIATION 278
69 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS DURING THE CONTINENTAL PHASE 284
70 'CLIMATIC CONDITIONS DURING THE MARITIME PHASE 284
71 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS DURING THE FOREST PERIOD 285
72 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS DURING THE PEAT-BOG PHASE 285
CLIMATOLOGY
CLIMATOLOGY
CHAPTER I
THE MEANING AND SCOPE OF CLIMATOLOGY
T
HE subject of climatology is intimately interwoven with
the affairs of everyday life. This industrial era, in
which a large percentage of the population does its
daily work under cover from the elements, certainly feels the
controlling hand of weather' less than an earlier agricultural
age, but the climatic control of its daily life and habits is prob-
ably as great to-day as it ever was. The agriculturist is still
almost entirely at the mercy of the weather and climate, but
the industrialist's dependence, though less direct, is not less real,
and often the site-area of an industrial concentration itself de-
pends on local climatic advantages, as Lancashire well knows.
CLIMATE AND TRADE. Climate limits the choice of crops and
therefore the local production of food; and climate determines
the site for the cultivation of those other foodstuffs and raw
materials of industry which modem life demands; this climatic
control of production and requirements is one of the bases of
the world's trade. Furthermore climates, in general, change
from north to south, and the products of different climates move,
therefore, chiefly along meridional routes, although much deflected
by economic factors; climate therefore controls the direction as
well as the existence of trade routes. The great wind belts, too,
are determinants of ocean routes, for steam power has diminished
but not removed the obstacle of a head wind and current, and
the same clockwise swirl of air and water in the North Atlantic
which led Columbus to America on the trades and back on the
westerlies still aids much of the steam shipping in these waters;
round the world with the' Roaring Forties' is almost as uni-
versal for the steamship to-day as it was for the' windjammers'
of fifty and a hundred years ago. The development of air lines
is insisting again on the importance of air currents, and a depend-
ence even greater than that of the sailing ship is forced on the
aeroplane or airship.
CLIMATE AND DAILY LIFE. In every climate the life habits
1
2 CLIMATOLOGY
of the natives have been regulated, often after many bitter
experiences, in accordance with prevailing conditions. Nature
enforces obedience to certain rules of diet, clothing and behaviour
by native and visitor alike, the neglect of which is fraught with
serious consequences. The adoption of many native methods
and habits has always been a wise procedure for immigrant or
conqueror, and this has ultimately led to his absorption into the
life of the zone. Thus, in the long run, climate triumphs over
) extraneous introductions and a certain continuity of character
is assurtd ,which reflects the individuality of the zone.
CLIMATE AND RACE. Controversy centres round the discus-
sion of the extent to which the physical and psychological char-
acters of the inhabitants of different climates can be attributed
directly to the climate. Is the dark pigment of the negro's
skin the result of centuries spent in an environment of torrid
heat? Can the dim light of the equatorial forests be held re-
sponsible for the dwarfing of the pygmies? There is no doubt
that many of these characters are racial and hereditary, for the
'black man ' does not become noticeably less black in a tem-
perate environment, and the pygmy does not grow appreciably
taller when transplanted from his native forest. The' yellow'
race shows little or no climatic control and is found from the
Arctic (Esquimaux) to the Equator (Malays) and from arid climates
(Gobi) to humid (Java).
The relative importance of heredity and environment provide
a fruitful subject for inconclusive debate, but it must at least
be admitted that there is a certain selective influence at work.
For the' black' races are limited in the natural state to tropical
climates, and in general they do not thrive- beyond their limits,
whije the gradual paling of complexion and hair polewards in
Europe is an incontrovertible fact which cannot be devoid of
significance.
CLIMATE AND CHARACTER. Psychologically each climate tends
to have its own mentality, innate in its inhabitants and grafted
on its immigrants. There appears to be a direct relationship
between mental vigour and changeability of climates; all the
world's great civilizations are now in regions experiencing abrupt
and often unexpected changes of weather; the temperate zone
governs the tropical zone by virtue of its infinitely greater energy
and initiative. In U.S.A., where other factors are presumably
uniform, there is a remarka:ble difference in the output of table
and prominent men between the northern (temperate) and
southern (sub-tropical) States .. The enervating monotonous
climates of much of the tropical zone, together with the abundant
and easily obtained food-supply, produce a lazy and indolent
MEANING AND SCOPE 3
people, indisposed to labour for hire and therefore in the past
subjected to coercion culminating in slavery.
CLIMATE AND COLONIZATION. It is increasingly clear that
colonization, as distinct from occupation and exploitation, can
only succeed when the climate of the colony is somewhat similar
to that of the. parent country. North Europeans succeed best
in Canada, South Europeans in Brazil; Spaniards colonized the
Argentine but Scots and Welshmen are needed in Patagonia and
the bleak Falkland Islands. This is a general principle which
has held true throughout history; the 'Barbarian~' of the
Steppes, accustomed to a continental climate, were rapidly
converted to the ways of India on reaching the plains through
the North-Western gates and lost their individuality, just as the
, Shepherd Kings' soon became Egyptian in an Egyptian climate..
The Roman Empire exceeded its climatic limits in the coloniza-
tion of Britain and Germany, and was glad to retire, leaving
little in language or literatur~ to bear witness of its occupation.
France, especially southern France, Italy.and Spain, on the other
hand, were climatically somewhat similar to Rome, and it was
here that Roman culture left a lasting mark. Conversely the
Teutonic peoples found a climatically suitable outlet for their
colonizing activity in Britain, but were beyond their climatic
range along the Mediterranean in Italy and Spain.
This aspect of colonization is to-day one of the most interesting
and important applications of climatic study. Three well-known
examples, briefly enumerated, will serve to illustrate this : -
I. The climatic difficulties, particularly the impossibility of
sustained manual labour in the moist heat of Queensland, which
provide the most formidable obstacle to the 'White Australia'
policy (see p. 14). .
2. The moderation of an equatorial climate by altitude on
the East African plateau, which has made possible the establish-
ment of real colonies here (see p. 37).
3. India, with its excessive heat and moisture from the
tropical monsoon, which is one of the danger-points in the British
Empire, because it cannot be settled by Europeans, but must
be ruled by a transitory autocracy of British officials whose
real home is elsewhere.
CLIMATE AND HEALTH. The governing and policing of depend-
encies and the prosecution of trade and industry call for the
presence of white overseers in climates which are unsuitable for
white occupation. Of such pioneers climate has taken a heavy
toll of life and health, while even among the native population
the death-rate in certain climates is extremely high. Climate
was at one time accorded full blame for such appalling death-
4 CLIMATOLOGY
rates, but it is now clear that germ-borne and insect-borne
diseases are potent influences, and that insanitary conditions
and overcrowding of a native population, together with an ill-
balanced dietary, are factors predisposing to ill-health. Con-
sequently the tendency has been to rebound to the other extreme
and to exonerate climate from all blame. But it is clear that
by encouraging decay, by nourishing swarms of insect life, by
lowering man's resistance to disease, and in a host of other ways
climate is at the bottom of this ill-health; and it is clear that
the maint~nance of health can only be accomplished by an enor-
mous expenditure of labour and money on hygienic precautions
and the treatment of disease. There is, of course, another side
to the picture, and certain climates possess undoubted pathological
virtues. Mountain air, because of its clear, dry, rarefied nature,
is frequently recommended for diseases of the lungs; desert air,
equally clear and dry, but less rarefied and therefore not so
trying to the heart, is beneficial for heart complaints. The
tonic effect of a sea-voyage is nqt entirely imaginary, and sun-
light, which may be sought with more chance of success in some
climates than others, is credited with considerable medicinal
virtues.
THE DATA OF CLIMATOLOGY. It is a common definition of
climatology that it deals with average weather conditions; and
it is clear that averages, to be of value, must be based on careful
observations over a considerable period of time. These are the
raw materials of climatology, these observations of temperature,
rainfall and other climatic elements ",bich ha'Te been collected,
mostly during the last fifty years, in nearly all the civilized
and many other parts of the world. This miscellaneous collection
of data is of very unequal value, especially +0 the geographer;
many of them have little or no biological significance, while others,
such as rainfall, temperature, humidity and sunshine, are geo-
graphical influences of the first magnitude.
The climatologist demands accuracy and reliability in climatic
figures, a reliability which is only achieved by records over a
long period of time; for this purpose thirty-five years is con-
sidered the minimum, this figure being based on a fairly well-
established cycle of climatic variation which runs its course in
about this period. In thirty-five years, therefore, a station may
be considered to have experienced all types of weather which
are likely to occur there, and the mean of the observations may
be taken to reflect average conditions. But owing to the in-
completeness, as yet, of meteorological organization, there are
huge areas on the face of the earth where records are not avail-
able for anything approaching this length of time, and in fact
MEANING AND SCOPE 5
there remain wide expanses for which no data exist at all. In-
complete data, extending over "a few years only, may serve a
useful purpose as affording samples of the climate, though they
should always be treated with caution, but where no data exist
at all the geographer must be able, by applying, the general
principles of the science, to deduce the climate of the place from
a variety of observed responses. The nature of the relief, the
vegetation, the habits of the people, their architecture and their
occupations will be attuned to the prevailing rainfall and tem-
perature conditions, and it is the response rather than.,th~ cause
which the geographer wishes to know. .
CLIMATOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. The attitude of the geo-
grapher herein differs somewhat from that of the meteorologist,
for the latter will try to convert these observations into average
figures for temperature, precipitation, etc., while the geographer
is more usually concerned with the reverse process, the trans-
lation of average figures into certain biological responses.
He will develop the habit of thinking in such terms as these,
and a wet-bulb temperature of 80°, for example, will not be a
figure merely, but will convey a picture of stifling heat with all
work in the open air at a standstill.
Figures may be looked upon as a convenient shorthand
method of describing climatic environment, and are, therefore,
of incalculable value to meteorologist and geographer alike; but
valuable as such average figures are, to r<?ly too fully on them
is to miss much that is important in climatic study, especially
when climate is being considered as a geographical influence.
Accurate and detailed figures frequently have a real value,
because they represent conditions which are critical, as, for
example, the Is-inch isohyet in U.S.A. which in general defin.es
the limit of cereal cultivation. But such values are not always
of universal application; to attempt cereal cultivation with
IS inches of rain on the South African plateau would be to court
disaster.
CLIMATOLOGY AND METEOROLOGY. Mean values, such as
mean monthly temperatures and even mean daily maxima and
minima, tend to obscure those extremes of heat and cold which
may have such disastrous sequels for plants, animals and even
man himself, especially when these are existing near the limits
of their natural range. Hot and cold waves, thunderstorms
and tornadoes, droughts and floods are events which may occur
rarely in the annals of any area, but their effects are so far-reaching
that they deserve careful mention among the more prosaic facts
of mean temperatures, rainfalls and humidities.
A very significant difference between the climatic belts which
1
6 CLIMATOLOGY
lie equatorwards and polewards of the mid-latitude high-pressure
belt is to be sought in the striking differences in the nature of
those two great air currents; the steady uneventful progression
of the trades provides a striking contrast with the swirling,
turbulent, eddying rush of the westerlies; climate is the control
in the former, weather in the latter.
There are, then, certain climates in which a proper apprecia-
tion of life conditions can only be attained by a study of weather
types; not only the normal succession of everyday weather,
but aJ.so .those rarer, but mo,re moving types which may be
infrequent, but which may have consequences of vital import-
ance. Moreover, in some climates certain weather types occur
with such regularity as to be valuable elements of climate, whose
frequency and distribution are worthy to be recorded in the
same way as rainfall and sunshine amount. Yet in the de-
scription of the climate of a country, weather types are usually
split up into· their component parts and recorded as isolated data
of each element. Weather types are the integrals which go to
make up the climatic whole and there is a danger of their losing
their individuality unless climate is carefully examined, as it
were microscopically, to appreciate its texture. Average figures
create an illusion of steadiness and uniformity which is seldom
justified by the facts; the study ·of. weather types provides the
corrective.
NEED FOR SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT. While it is true that
climatology is primarily descriptive and lacks, or rather dispenses
with, the careful analysis of causes which is essential in meteor-
ology, there is much to be said for an analytical method of
approaching the subject. Such a method has two practical
r~commendations: in the first place the understanding of a
phenomenon is a valuable aid to memory, and in the second
it enables intelligent anticipation of similar results where similar
causes are at work. The structure of the science being revealed,
its outward form is the easier to remember, and the parts unseen
may the more accurately be supplied from one's knowledge of
the general plan.
FACTORS AND ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE. The climate of a place
is defined by a number of elements, or,component parts, such as
the temperature and humidity of the air, the rainfall, the wind
velocity, the duration of sunshine and a host of others of less
importance and less significance to man. These elements are
the results of the interaction of a number of factors, or deter-
mining causes, such as latitude, altitude, wind direction, distance
from the sea, relief, soil type, vegetation, etc. A clear distinction
sh'6uld be made between elements and factors, as defined above,
MEANING AND SCOPE 7
and the use of the tetIns sholild be carefully restricted. The
distinction is not always easy; for example, wind direction is a
factor of great importanr:e in determining climate, yet in some
t·
respects it is an element climate; wind velocity is undoubtedly
an element, y~t maya "'V act as a factor, for it may control
precipitation by the rate at which it brings up supplies of moisture
from the sea (see p. II9)' The !ength of day, i.e. the duration
for which the sun is above the horizon, is a factor since it helps
to determine temperature; but the d~ration of actual sunshine
is an element with far-reaching effects on plant and aflimal life.
Factors and elements of climate. are clearly of two kinds,
the first mathematically determined and therefore cqpstant, the
second variable and unreliable. Among the former is latitude,
a. factor which determines the length of day throughout the
year, a matliematically controlled and ther:efore reliable element.
Latitude also determines the intens~ty of insolation, and this,
together with the length of day, influences .the duration of sun-
shine and the temperature, elements which, however, being also
influenced by other and variable factors, such·as.prevailing wind,
marine influence, etc., are not constant. Ocean curcents provide
an example of the other group of variable factors which exert
fluctuating influences on the temperature, rainfall and .sunshine
of adjacent coasts.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER .READING
For the relation of climate to health and human activities reference
should be made to R. de C. Ward's Climate, considered especially in Rela-
tion to Man, 2nd ed., 1917; E. Huntington's Civilisation and Climate,
3rd ed., 1924; and The Human Habitat, 1928, by the same author.. .see
also G. Taylor, • The Frontiers of Settlement in Australia', Geog ..Rev.,
1926; G. T. Trewartha, • Recent Thought on White Acclimatisation in
the Tropics " Geog. Rev., 1926. .
CHAPTER II
THE ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE
OLAR RADIATION. Radiation from the sun consists of rays
are added together for the period of growth they give a measure
of the accumulated temperature. The experiments showed that
wheat required 1,960 day degrees between germination and
ripening at Rothamsted, but in Canada the requirements are
considerably less on account of the longer duration of daylighU
ISOTHERMS. The distribution of temperatures can be ex-
pressed graphically by means of isotherms, lines joining places
with the same temperature, but in the great majority of isothermal
maps it must be borne in mimI that the effect of altitude has
been eliminated by reduction of all temperatures to cQrre.spond-
ing sea-level temperatures by means of a formula. These maps
therefore show the combined effects of the other factors, latitude,
continentality, etc., and are of great value in the study'of climate;
but to obtain the approximate temperature of any place from
the map an allowance must'be made for its altitude. For bio-
logical distributions the actual temperature is of greater signifi-
cance than the sea-level figure, which has only a theoretical
value; but maps constructed on this basis are little more than
relief maps and become extremely complicated and confused
unless drawn on a large scale.
A much clearer conception of isothermal lines is obtained if
they are considered. as the lines oj. intersection of isothermal
planes with the surface of the sphere. For example, the July
isotherm of 80° passes near Mombasa and is met again at Cairo,
while between the two is Port Sudan where occurs the isotherm
of 90°. Somewhere about 3,<roo feet above this latter station
there must exist a surface with mean July temperatures of 80°,
in fact the isothermal surface whose edges meet the ground at
Cairo and Mombasa. This isothermal surface is continuous and
could be flown along by an aeroplane taking off at Momba~a,
passing over Port Sudan at a height of about 3,000 feet and
landing at Cairo. About one-third of the way along this route
the Abyssinian highlands rise into layers of air with mean July
temperatures below 80° and thus intersect the isothermal surface,
but since isotherms are reduced to sea-level values the 80° isotherm
does not appear at this point on the map.
As will be shown later the decrease of temperature with
altitude, although variable, is approximately 1° F. for each
330 feet of ascent, while the decrease with latitude is still more
variable but, except in the vicinity of the Equator, averages
about 1° F. for each degree of latitude (approximately 328,000
feet). The ver~ical decrease of temperature in mid-latitudes is
therefore about 1,000 times that of the horizontal; that is to
1 J. F. Unstead •• CllIDatic Limits of Wheat Cultivation,' Geog. ]ourn.,
1912.
I2 CLIMATOLOGY
say, the inclination of the isothermal surfaces is, on an average,
-about I in I,OOO.
ISANOMALOUS LINES. Another interesting and informative
method of representing temperature conditions is by the method
of differences. The difference between the mean temperature
'6
4 6
2 4
o
~"J
v~ 2=-f
F
~Vf:\
80° _Q.. / ~A
o M~ J'J MAOIIlI.~
~r)- itU·~
Q)..
~ N
0 ~\ A
~ k~ ID~rnA
F
A -... t:.J N
c!'s
o~ ~%' ~S\
5
50°
Q ~
30" ~
.~
20°
.+
-~
(:'
t...
~
~M
0\\
.'
~
If,
0 10:;
10 ~w,
\F
l
-to"
Relative Humidity
FIG. 4.-Climographs
(A/It' Griffith Taylor)
'7
B
Upper Circulation
r0rth,m Bruit.
N.E. Trades Southern limit
26° N.
3° N .
25° N.
5° N .
35° N.
11° N.
30° N.
loON.
Equato'ial North,rn limit }
Calms Southern limit 0° 3° N . 7° N.
{Northern limit 3° N .
S.E. Trades Southern limit . 25° S. 28° S. 25° S. 20° S.
It will be noticed that all the belts are north of their natural
position, a fact which is explained by the greater amount of land
in the northern hemisphere, and whose consequences are far-,
reaching. It results in warm air and water (from currents)
finding their way across th~ Equator into the northern hemi-
sphere, thus increasing its temperature at the expense' of the
southern, and strengthening the Gulf Stream and the Ruro Siwo
at the expense of the Brazilian and East Australian currents
(see p. 46). Other important consequences of this will be
described later, especially in connection with the climates of
West Africa and Central America.
THE POLAR FRONT OF CONVERGENCE. By contrast with the
equatorial front there meet, along this line, air currents of very
different natures, the warm wet westerlies of equatorial origin
and the cold heavy air gavitating out from the poles. Along the
plane of contact eddies are set up, and patches of the warmer,
lighter westerly circulation penetrate into the heavier polar air
and so rise swirling upwards. Thus are born the greater number
of cyclonic storms which form such a characteristic feature of the
climates of the' temperate' zones. Since these cyclones, together
with anticyclones and their varietal forms, account for nearly all
the weather experienced in certain parts of this zone, certain
properties of these need to be fully examined before their effects
can be appreciated.
r. Anticyclones are generally much less active than cyclones i
they may persist for days or weeks on end, bringing settled weather,
whereas cyclones are hardly ever in the same place on the weather
maps for two consecutive days. They usually move at about
I8 miles per hour in Western Europe, but in N. America their
speed is greater (about 25 m.p.h.); they move faster in winter
than in summer. Their movement is nearly always easterly
(towards E., N.E. or S.E.), following the prevailing wind direction:
Well-developed anticyclones do not as a rule alternate with tMse
28 CLIMATOLOGY
.. .
rapidly moving cyclones, though they are. much better developed
in North America than in Europe.
2. Anticyclones are characterized by quieter weather condi..
tions than cyclones, with much smaller wind velocities, for the
pressure gradient in the latter is nearly always much steeper than
in the former.
3. No general distinction can be made between the tempera-
tures of the two opposite systems as wholes, each type sometimes
brings hot weather, sometimes cold, but certain temperature
conditions can be correlated with certain parts of each system.
These are explained by the direction of the winds circulating in
them. In the south and south-east sectors of a cyclone in the
northern hemisphere the winds are southerly and usually warm,
in the north and north-west they are northerly and usually cold;
while in an anticyclone the north-east is the cold sector and the
south-west the warm one. Exceptions to this general rule are,
however, introduced qy the distribution of land and sea; for
example, in the British Isles the winds in the north-east sector of a
cyclone are usually cold in winter, because off a cold continent, but
in summer these winds are hot. An important contrast should be
noted here between Western Europe and the most densely popu-
lated parts of North America, i.e. the eastern seaboard. In the
former the west winds of the south-west sector are warm in winter
(because marine) and in the latter warm in summer (because
continental). Conversely, the east winds of the north-east sector
in Europe are cold in winter and hot in summer, while New
York is cooled by an east wind in summer.
4. Similarly with regard to the rainfall there is no fixed law
as to distribution. The south-east sector is usually wettest
because here warm wet winds are travelling towards colder
latitudes, while the colder winds of the north-west sector are dry
since they are moving to warmer latitudes and increasing their
moisture capacity. But if the south winds have come over land
and the north winds over sea their rain-bearing values will be
reversed. Cyclones entering the Mississippi basin across the
Rockies bring little or no rain on their advancing edge, since the
trajectory of the wind brings it over dry land; but if the cyclone
enters from the Gulf of Mexico there will probably be heavy
falls in front of the centre from the winds coming off these warm
seas.
CYCLONES AND THE POLAR FRONT. The majority of the
cyclones of temperate latitudes originate, as has been already
described, along the' polar front' or line of discontinuity between
the cold polar winds on the one hand and on the other the warm
cii~ulation of the westerlies. Families of cyclones originate along
ELEMENTS 29
this line each characterized by fL 'warm front' or ' steering line'
on its advancing edge where the warm air rides over the cold, and
a' cold front' or' squall line ' in rear, where the eddy of cold air,
swirling round the vortex, thrusts itself under the warm air,
forcing it upwards. The cold front is much more steeply inclined
than the warm front and the disturbances associated with it are
more violent, gusts of northern air with squally showers are
characteristic. The pocket of warm air, thus included in the cold,
rises because of its lighter weight and eventually ceases to exist
as a surface current: but it is present in the upper air and can
be traced at the surface of the ground by the lower barometric
pressure with which it is associated. The plane of discontinuity
between the two currents will be a zone of cloud, for the cold air
will ch.ill the warm and compel the condensation of its moisture.
According to the altitude of this plane of discontinuity the clouds
will change in type, on the approach of a cyclonic centre, from
cirrus to alto-stratus and finally to nimbus with copious rain as
the 'discontinuity layer approaches lower and lower.
If the observer is standing in such a position (A-B, Fig. 9)
that the tongue of warm air in passing by him is still in contact
with the ground, he may experience a brief period of fine warm
weather, , the eye of the storm', which will be followed by squally
showers as the cold front arrives. If the observer is stationed at
D (Fig. 9), the passage of the cyclone will not bring the central
area of fine warm weather, for the plane of discontinuity will be
entirely overhead; but the clouds will change from cirrus to
CLIMATOLOGY
nimbus, with rain, steady and persistent at first,' but squally later
as the cold front passes overhead. An observer at F will be
beyond the active reach of the storm centre and will only see,
away to the south, a bank of cloud passing slowly from west to
east.
POSITION OF THE POLAR FRONT. The position of the polar front
is well worth tracing on account of the important meteorological
phenomena associated with it. It should be clearly realized that,.
like the Horse Latitude front of divergence, the polar front is not
in a vertical plane, but is inclined at a low angle (probably about
a third of a degree) to the horizontal. Small variations in the
altitude of the front can therefore produce considerable differences
in the position of its line of intersection with the earth's surface.
Its usual position does not follow the parallels of latitude, .but is a
--
',--
,~ ~ e(V' -I- ~
--
"" Or
...... :-- .«- .'j;
./ J ,V
I--""
~ 0.'1
~J
\
"
\
(,eV n
~a su 10 Soo
i""'o ~ ~
~ to~ o\~ n)
Their name, in fact, refers to the dark' green forests, the basis of
a local lumber industry, which make such a striking feature in the
surrounding prairie. The higher land of the Sahara traps the
rain-bearing win4s to make altitude oases suell as Dar-Fur which
gets its water from the Jebel Maria. The in<:rease of rainfall is
explained by the cooling of the air by (r) Forced ascent up a
slope and (2) by contact with the cold surfaces 4)f higher altitudes;
consequently the effect is most pronounced Where the high land
opposes a barrier to rain-bearing winds, i.e. where the rainfall is
orographic, and least marked in regions of calms where the rainfall
is convectional. Further, the moisture capatity of air is not a
simple function of temperature, and the .change of capacity of
warm air on cooling is, degree for degree, greater than that of
cool air; hence the ascent of air in tropical latitudes results in
FACTORS 39
heavier rain than a similar ascent in temperate clim~tes.. Th~
temperature lapse, also, is steeper in low latitudes than III hIgh, so
that a gi:ren ascent brings about a greater coolirlg· . !he heavie.st
rainfalls III the world are recorded under such cc>ndItIons, Kaual 1
in the Hawaiian Islands, has an average rainfall of 47 6 inches and
Cherrapunji, in Assam, has 450 inches.
RAIN SHADOW. Hawaii lies in the belt of the N.E. trades,
wJ:ich,. coming across a warm sea, bring more tpan 1:1-0 inches to
HIlo on the N.E. coast and perhaps 180 inches to the hIgher slopes.
But this excessive rain mus1::be compensated elsewhere and there
is a compl~mentary zone of deficient rainfall in leI'! of the high land.
Here the conditions are reversed, the air is pein~ warmed by
descent and, in addition, is passing from the co}d hill-tops to the
warmer plains, its capacity for moisture is inc;reased and little
rain falls. Hilea, on the lee side of Hawaii has (mly 35 inches and
the result is the desert of Kau. The Western Ghats, opposed for
five months to the constant S.W. monsoon, h~ve 250 inches in
places on their western slope, while many stations on the eastern
slope have 25 inches or less. The effect of mountains is thus to
bring about not so much an actual increase of rainfall as a re-
distribution.
RATE OF INCREASE OF RAINFALL WITH ALTITUDE.· The
increase becomes noticeable before the mountains are actually
reached,as is shown by the figures for the following stations, all
at about 65 feet O.D. on the Gangetic plain 2:
• Dacca, 100 miles from Khasi Hills 78 'inches
Bogra, 60 92
, 110
. Mymensing,' 30
Sylhet, 20 , 15 0
This fac~ is a warning against attempts to e&timate accur~tely
the rate of Illcrease with altitude, for it is cleaf that a multItude
of oth~r factors ~re in operation. The height of mount~ins behind
a partIcular statIOn, by enforcing the ascent of tiPper aIr currents,
may give that station a rainfall out of all proportion to its height
above sea-level. Again, distance from the sea, temperature of the
rain-bearing currents, the temperature of the land surface, the
steepness of the slope and the presence or absence of gaps in the
crest all have an influen~e on the precipitation at different levels:
On the South Downs behind Bognor and Brighton ,3 where the
chalk ridge is unbroken, the rate of increase is about 2 per cent.
per 100 feet, but on the discontinuous greensand hills behind
1 Climatological data, Hawaiian Section 1922 quoted by S. S. Visher
in Climatic Laws, 1924. "
2 H. F. Blandford, The Rainfall of India. Quoted by Hann.
a M. de C. Salter, Rainfall of the British Isles, J9 2 1.
CLIMATOLOGY
"
Cranleigh it is only about I per cent.; 1:he air currents go round;
not over the hills. On the steeper slopes of the.Welsh mountains
the figure is considerably exceeded (4 or 5 per cent.) and in tropical
climates it is much higher still. . .,
ZONE OF MAXIMUM PRECIPITATION: The i~crease of precipi'-
tation is not maintained indefinitely up a slope; there comes a
level at which the rate of increase slackens and even,tually ceases,
while higher still there is an actual decrease. There is, then, a zon~
of maximum precipitation whose altitude varies slightly from
place to place, is lower in tropic than temperate zones, in humid
climates than in arid, in the cold season than the hot, in the wet
season than in the dry. In Java it appears to occur at about
3,300 feet, in the Western Ghats about 5,000 feet, in the Sierra
Nevada behind Los Angeles about 5,000 feet, and in the Alps
about 7,000 feet, while in the British Isles this zone is probably
never reached. The explanation of the decrease above the zone
of maximum precipitation is to be found in the decreased absolute-
humidity at high altitudes; temperature is lower and the mois~
ture capacity of the air is less, consequently there is less available
for condensation. All' interesting example of seasonal variation
of this zone is quoted by Hann from Swerzow. In the Tian Shan
the zone of maximum winter snowfall is about 7,000 to 9,000 feet,
and here are the coniferous forests, while the zone below is devoid
of forests because of its aridity. In summer the zone of maximum
precipitation rises above the coniferous forest and the plentiful
'summer rain nourishes a rich grass which provides pasture for the
flocks and herds which the Khirgiz maintain here in winter,
safely above the zone of heavy snow.
MOUNTAINS AS CLIMATIC DIVIDES. By interfering with the.
free flow of air currents and by influencing the distriht;ttion of
rainfall and temperature mountains tend to coincide with import-
ant climatic divides. The Dinaric Alps separate the extreme
continental climate of the Hungarian plain, with January tempera-
tures below freezing, from the warm Adriatic littoral with January
temperatures of 50°, It would never be imagined at Fiume that
such low temperatures could exist so near at hand, but unpleasant
confirmation is supplied when the passage of a depression to the
south draws off some of the cold heavy air over the lip of the
Hungarian basin down into the Adriatic as the icy , Bora'. The
Alpine-Himalayan mountain system throughout its length pro:
~ides a climatic divide of the first magnitude, excluding polar
influences from the lands to the south and tropical influences from
the lands to the north. The winters of Siberia, Turan and
China are disproportionat~ly cold, those of India are dispropor-
tionately warm; Multan (January temperature 54°) and Shangh'ai
FACTORS 41
(January temperature 38°) are on the same parallel. The
Sacramento Valley, cut off by the coast ranges from the cooling
influence of the sea, has mean July temperatures in the neighbour-
hood of goO, while San Francisco records only 57°. The contrasts
in rainfall are just as marked, roo inches and winches occur with-
in 200 miles of,each other on the west and east slopes of the.
Andes respectively in southern Chile and Argentina.
The north-and-south grain of America and the east-and-west
grain Of Eurasia offer an interesting comparison of climatic
results. In North America there is no barrier to the free meri-
dional movement of air, for the Gulf-Hudson Bay divide is below
1,000 feet and the plains offer no obstruction. The low pressure of
cyclones over the southern states can therefore draw huge
stotes of icy air from the great Canadian reservoir down to the
very shores of a tropical sea. In Asia, on the other hand, the
warm tropical air of India is kept separate from the Siberian cold
bY' a well-nigh impassable bar;rier. The contrast does not stop
there; for the direct result of the great Siberian well of cold is
to generate a huge anticyclone, the source of the winter monsoon.
In America.this cannot exist to the same degree because of mix-
ture. with warm air from the Gulf. In summer the heated south
of North America is tempered by northern influences, while in the
enclosed basin of India the unmitigated heat sets up an intense
low pressure which is the focus of the summer monsoon. Thus it is
the disposition of the relief, rather than the relative sizes of the
continents, which accounts for the feeble development of the
monsoon in America as compared with Asia.
I;NFLUENCE OF LAND AND SEA ON CLIMATE. Next to the
variation of insolation with latitude, the distribution of land and
water over the surface of the earth is the most important control
of climate. A variety of physical effects combine to make water
much more conservative of heat than land; slower to warm up,
slower to cool down, it has a moderating influence on temperature
which may be felt at considerable distances inland. The distance
to which marine influence penetrates will depend on the prevailing
wind direction coupled with the facilities which the relief offers for
free entry of ocean winds. Canada and the northern United
States, for example, lie in the belt of the prevailing westerly
winds, but marine influence is restricted by the Cordilleras to
a narrow coastal strip in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon
'and California. The East coast is a lee shore and the climate is
continental right up to the seaboard. Marine and continental
climates in this part of North America are clearly and sharply
differentiated, the coastline being simple and uniform, but iI}
Western Europe the intimate intermingling of gulf, bay and
CLIMATOLOGY,
inland sea with islands and peninsulas, t<>gether with the absence
of marked relief features athwart the path of the winds, allows
the penetration of marine influences for hundreds of miles into the
continent. The complexity of the coastline· and of continent'al
relief in Europe has its,sequel in a complexity of climates, whiCh
contrasts strangely wr1h such a compact 'continent of uniform'
relief as, for example, Africa. (The differences between Vlarine.
and' continental climates may conveniently be grouped under.
three headings: (I) Rainfall, (2) Temperature, and (3) Pressure'
and Winds. .
CONTINENTAL AND MARINE RAINFALL. The oceans are the
chief sources of atmospheric moisture, and it is to be expected
that humidity and' rainfall will be greatest where the direction
of the prevailing wind is on-shore. 'i The sudden decrease of rainfall .
inland along the w~stern mountain divide of both Americas in the
zones of the westerly winds is an indication of the narrow fringe
of oceanic climates there, just as the gradual eastward diminution
of rainfall in Europe in these latitudes shows its great extension
here. Rainfall in marine climates is chiefly orographic and usually
fairly adequately distributed throughout theyear, rainfall in con-
tinental climates is chiefly summer rain resulting from convec-
tional overturning set up by the high summer temperatures.
CONTINENTAL AND MARINE TEMPERATURES. The diurnal
variation of temperature of sea surfaces is almost a negligible
amount, and even the annual variation is extremely small;
within the tropics it seldqm exceeds 10°, in ,mid-latitudes it
reaches 20° or 25°, but these figures are only exceeded where the
oscillation of boundaries between currents brings a certain place
now under the influence of a warm current, now of a cold. Fluctu-
ations of the Gulf Stream and the Labrador current are responsible
for a yearly range of surface temperature of over 50° off the coast
of Maine, but this is local and climatically ineffective, expeci-
ally as the wind is here off-shore. The variations of air tempera-
ture over the water surface are thus kept very small and present
strong contrasts with the ranges recorded over the land. The
uniform temperatures of winds blowing off the sea, together with
the greater humidity of the air which impedes insolation by day
and radiation by night, results in:
I. A diminution of the daily range of temperature.
2. A diminution of the annual range of temperature.
3. A delay in the attainment of the daily and yearly maxima
and minima. These are features characteristic of marine climates
and are illustrated in Fig. 14, which shows temperature curves for
three stations, all situated in approximately the same latitude.
Jt will be noticed that the annual range at Valencia is less than
FACTORS 43
IS°, that the hottest month is August and the coldest February.
At Semipalatinsk the range is over 70°, the maximum is reached
early in July and the minimum early in January. .
It is interesting to compare the northern and southern hemi-
spheres in respect 'of the continentality of their climates; the
northern hemisphere contains most of the land, the southern is
essentially a sea hemisphere. In the northern 'hemisphere the
32° isotherm for January comes down to latitude 35° N. in China,
while nearly all of Asia north of 40° N. has a mean January tem-
perature below freezing. North America is slightly more favoured,
but even here the 32° isotherm extends south of 40° N. in the
Mississippi basin.
In the southern hemisphere, none of the three southern
continents reach the 32° July isotherm, although the tip of
Tierra del Fuego reaches 55° S. At the other extreme the summer
--
80 80
70 <
70
y ~
60 ,.... 60
50 ya enc a
40
~J
~
I£. ~~
~'\" - 50
40
30
20
10
r-
IN.~~
~
·s
,;;;;
W
\
'" ,I
1\
\
30
20
o
o ~ ~ o
J F MA MJ J A SON 0
FIG. ,14.-Yearly March of Temperature in Continental and Marine Climates
temperature of Tierra del Fuego is only 50°, but in Asia the 50°
July isotherm reaches 70° N. In·the absence of a great continental
mass in high latitudes there can be no great reservoir of cold air
in the southern hemisphere such as exists in Siberia and Canada to
supply the' Cold Waves' and' Northers' of the United States
and the' Buran' of Siberia. Compared with these the' Southerly
bursters' of Australia and New Zealand and the < Pampero' of
the Argentine are relatively mild.
Fig. IS shows the mean annual range of temperature and alsq
emphasizes the contrasts between the two hemispheres. Nowhere
in the southern hemisphere does the range exceed 40°, but in the
northern hemisphere huge areas in Canada have more than double
that figure and in Siberia more than treble.
CONTINENTAL AND MARINE PRESSURE AND WINDS: LAND
AND SEA BREEZES. The difference in behaviour of land and
water towards diurnal and annual temperature changes bege~s
44 CLIMATOLOGY
a, difference of pressure which results. in periodic diurnal and
seasonal winds known as land and sea breezes and monsoons.
The heatihg of the land during the·day causes an ascent of ~ir
over the land and an indraught of oceanic, air; the descent.of
air cooled by radiation over the land at night causes an expulsion
of land air out to sea. Land and sea breezes are most notice-
able and regular where tern_perature changes are most regular
and particularly in equatorial climates. In Java the nativE!
fishing industry depends on its regular occurrence, the boats
start out at night with the land breeze and return about noon
with the sea breeze. •
In the belt of the westerlies the cyclonic disturbances fre-
~III~IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII ~.~
40
Akassa
40
Athens
70
60 ~ 60
50 ~IIIIIII"IIIIIIIIIII"~
40-:7-"'~UJ.IW.ww.:UJ.LJ.L.u.w.LJ.W.jJ~",- 50______~~~~wu~------
40
30 Paris 30
20
10
60 o
50
40--------~~~~~-----
30
20
10
o
fO
-20
-30
-40
Planetary
Controls
0;0
40
30
20
10
Wind Direction
.
Warm Currents . Types (cf. p. 68)
. t ClimatIc . r)
Letters indica e . all Regime (cf. FIg. 2
Cold Currents . . dica tes Ramf
Shading m . t
FIG. 24·-Schematic Distribution of Climatic Types on an Idea1 Contmen
5
70 CLIMATOLOGY
F.Desert climates. Less than IO inches of rain.
I. Hot deserts. No cold season, i.e. no months below
43°·
2. Cold deserts. With cold season, i.e. one or more
months below 43°.
G. Mountain climates.
The generalized distribution of these types is given in Fig. 23
and the schematic distribution on an ideal continent in Fig. 24·
CHAPTER V
EQUATORIAL CLIMATES
OT CLIMATES IN GENERAL. As defined by the mean
::·t::=::J~0.::c.::J20'
70 . . . . .- - _. . . . . .
~
70~--.
~
J F M A M J J A SON 0 J F M A M J J A SON 0
Bolobo Lagos
)
FIG. 2s.-Annual March of Temperature and Rainfall in Equatorial Climates
-- -
---- ': Gambia
Bismarkburq
Io
:':s!i:<,:-::
10
Cartagena
--- -
_, ... J
~rqetown __
....
Mobaye
5 "
.N_'::'v'::i::::
" \ '5 Bogota
--
• oN ......
Para
.1!IIIIIIl! r" '0 " ,',' ,',: ~-: ,j
Mwanza c
.c
,I:
' 0
-.- --
--
o "' . . (quitos
--
Banana
Loanda
--- 5 ~ ~',
<f)
i:-', '
c'
.
... ..II1II
--
Sta, Anna de Sobradinho
1o ' 10
----
JFMAMJJASOND
Ft.Johnson
Leaui
.-
_1
'5: ',',
JFMAMJJASOND
long
Dry
Season
. ,,', 5
_Cochabamba
JFMAMJJASOND --
,
Regional Types
THE AMAZON BASIN, open to the east, and offering free acc~ss
to the trade winds, lias the widest expanse of uniformly heavy.
rainfall to be found anywhere in the wbrld, Para has 87 inches,
Manaos 66 inches, and more than 70 inches probably falls over
an area of more than 2 million square miles; but recording stations,'
are unfortunately few. 1 Westwards, as the Andes are approached,
the rainfall is heavier still since the easterly winds are forced to
ascend; Iquitos has over roo inches annually. This terrific pre-
cipitation (nearly 3,000 cubic miles a year) ensures an abundant
supply of water, and the discharge of the Amazon far surpasses
that of any other river. The double rainfall maximum which one.
expects to find is not recognizable and, as far as can be ascertained
from the scanty records available, a summer rainfall is general.
Most of the basin lies south of the Equator and the important
southern tributaries have a southern hemisphere regime with a'
marked dry season in August and September when the level of
the main river falls. In March and April these southern tribu,
taries flood and the level of the Amazon may rise as much as 40
feet, converting the whole basin into a vast swamp.
Separated from the Amazon basin by the Andean divide is·
another area of heavy rain, the west coast of Colombia, washed .
by the warm waters of the equatorial counter-current, which.
receives more than roo inches annually, and, in places, as much as
300 inches occurs; Buenaventura has 28r inches.
THE CONGO BASIN. Much of the Congo basin h. s an equatorial
climate, but the rainfall is considerably less than in the Amazon
basin, for the entry of the easterly winds into the Congo basin is
obstructed by the plateau of East Africa and they have lost"
much of their moisture before their ascent in the zone of calms.
However, 50 inches occur over a very large area (d. 70 inches or
1 While heavy rain is general, there appear to be " blind spots" where
the precipitation is remarkably small; Fonteboa (lat. 3° S.) records only
12·7 inches as the mean of observations kept from 1910 to 1919.
EQUATORIAL 8I
80 inches in the Amazon) and provides an adequate supply for the
river's discharge, which is the second largest in the world (Congo
average annual discharge 4I9 cubic miles, Amazon 528 cubic miles).
Thanks to the symmetrical arrangement of the Congo basin on
either side of the meteorologi<;al Equator, the river floods twice a
year, in May and December, these being the times when the
northern and southern tributaries respectively have their maxi-
mum precipitations. At no time does the level fall so far as to
cause serious inconvenience to navigation.
THE GUINEA LANDS, also, although between 5° and 10° N.,
have a climate which is virtually equatorial, but in which a certain
monsoonal influence is an essential constituent. The key to this
climatic province lies in the existence of the great land mass of
West Africa, always subjected to intense insolation. Even in
winter the southern Sahara and the Guinea lands are hotter than
the sea, consequently the doldrum belt never moves south of the
Equator but swings between the coast in January and 10° or
15° N. in July. In July the S.E. trades are drawn across the
Equator as a S.W. monsoon, and in January the belt of calms
lies over the coast, though even then the prevailing wind is
south-west. From June to November 75 per cent. of winds on
the Gold Coast are from the south-west, and from -December to
May 64 per cent. Thus the coastal lands never experience the
benefits of the N .E. trade wind to which they would be entitled
by virtue of their latitude, for these hardly ever penetrate south
of Freetown. From here northwards the coast is moderately
healthy, but" the south coast has earned the reputation of the
'White man's grave'.
Both winter and summer conditions bring rain to the coast
lands, Akassa (144 inches) and Lagos (72 inches) have the
double maximum, but in Liberia and Sierra Leone, w:here the coast,
backed by the Futa Jalon Highlands, is at right angles to the S.W.
wind, the regime is distinctly monsoonal.· Freetown (175 inches)
and Konakry (170 inches) have single maxima in July or August,
corresponding to the greatest vigour of the S.W. monsoon. The
most important rain here is, in fact, orographic rather than
convectional, and the same is true in Kamerun where again the
coast is at right angles to the S.W. monsoon and is backed by
high land. Kamerun Peak rises above 13,000 feet and on its
western (Le. windward) slope more than 400 inches of rain faU
in a year. -
There is a narrow strip of littoral east of Cape Three Points
where the rainfall suffers a startling diminution. In the midst of
a region with 80 inches or more this area has less than 40 inches,
and in places as little as 20 inches. The rainfall along the coast
82 CLIMATOLOGY
from west to east is as follows :-Axim 81 inches, Sekondi 40
inches, Cape Coast Castle 33 inches, Accra 27 inches, Christians-
borg 21 inches, K witt a 22 inches. But these peculiarly low
figures hold only for a narrow strip; Aburi, 30 miles behind
Accra, has 45 inches, and Kumasi, IOO miles further inland,
has 58 inches. The cause of this phenomenon is obscure, but
it is probably to be explained by the pull of the Guinea current
which causes the upwelling of cold water in lee of Cape Three
Points, thus decreasing the moisture capacity of the winds pass-
ing on-shore over it. At the same time the change in direction
of the coast makes the winds more oblique to the coastline.
The lower humidity reacts on temperature and Kwitta, becaus~
drier, is 5° hotter than Axim during the heavy rains.
The equatorial climates do not extend completely across
Africa, t)l:e eastern plateau having a continental type of climate
much modified by two influences, viz. its altitude and the prox-
imityof the Asiatic and Abyssinian monsoons. Much !_:educed
though the rainfall is, it still retains the typical double maximum
over much of this area. The resultant vegetation is grassland
(altitude savanna) and it forms a natural continuation of the
tropical savannas with which it is better described (see p. I02).
There is a return to equatorial conditions in the coastal
lowlands behind Pemba and Zanzibar, where, however, the effect
of the monsoons is clearly felt (d. p. 129). Zanzibar has a double
rainfall maximum, but with monsoon winds; Tanga shows a
tendency to a third maximum of rain in July between the normal
equatorial maxima which occur in April and November.
Monsoonal Variety
Situated between the two great monsoon foci of Asia and
Australia, the East Indian islands present a variety of the equa':
torial climate into which modifications are introduced by the
seasonal wind changes.
PRESSURE AND WINDS. In January (Fig. 27, a) there is a.
difference of pressure of 3 mm. between roo N. and IO o S. and the
so-called' West Monsoon' is at its height. By April (Fig. 27, b),
the isobars are more or less symmetrically arranged about a low
pressure trough just south of the Equator in South Celebes and
north New Guinea; light breezes and calms are now the rule.
By July (Fig. 27, c) the pressure difference is about 3 mm. in the
opposite direction and the so-called 'East Monsoon' is at its
height. By October or November (Fig. 27, d) there is a return to
the symmetrical arrangement about a low-pressure trough with
light and variable winds focusing on Celebes and New Guinea.
EQUATORIAL
Such, in broad outline, is the scheme of winds-two periods of
steady air flow (the monsoons) alternating with two periods of
indefinite circulation at the changes-over. But in actual practice
there is no such simplicity, for In the first place the change-over
of the monsoons is not simultaneous throughout the archipelago,
but follows the sun; for example, the south-east monsoon prevails
south of the Equator in April, but is not established north of it
until May. In the second place, so complex is the intermingling
of land and water and so varied is the relief that local influences
profoundly modify the circulation and even in places render it
completely unrecognizable.
The velocity of the monsoon is greatest and its direction most
constant in the west, over the open Indian Ocean, where friction
and interference are least; but even at its height, land and sea
breezes and mountain and valley winds are nearly always able
to make themselves felt in spite of the prevailing wind. The
direction and force of the wind depends largely on the direction
and strength of the relief; where the air flow is impeded by
mountainous islands set across its path (e.g. Java during the east
monsoon), the wind is 'stowed' and concentrated in gaps and
on the high plateaux where the velocity is greatly increased.
Warmed by descent on the leeward side, these winds have a
foehn-like nature, their dry heat doing considerable damage to
the more sensitive crops, especially tobacco. Such a wind is the
'Koembang' of Java, and the' Bohorok' which visits the plains
of Deli, Sumatra, during the east monsoon.
On the whole, winds in the East Indian Archipelago, though
extremely complicated, are regular and reliable at any given
locality, even to their diurnal variations. Once the local pecu:
CLIMATOLOGY
liarities, numerous though they are, are thoroughly mastered, the
general absence of strong winds favours shipping on the seas and
, agriculture on the islands. High wind velocities are very rare
and only the most northerly islands are visited by typhoons.
There are, however, local disturbances peculiar to limited areas,
such as the 'Sumatras' of the Malacca Straits, sudden squalls
with violent thunder and lightning and heavy rain which occur,
always at night, during the south-west monsoon (the East Monsoon
of the Dutch East Indies).
RAINFALL. Several factors combine to make the East Indian'
islands one of the largest areas of uniformly heavy rain in the.
world. They are most of them mountainous, they rise from a very
warm sea, they lie in the equatorial belt of ascending air currents
and they stand in the path of a double monsoon. Less than
40 inches is an extreme rarity, 80 inches is more the rule and ISO
inches is by no means unusual, while 268 inches is recorded from
Craggan in the mountains of Java. The air is so near the satura-
tion-point that practically any ascentional movement gives rise to·
precipitation at once. The ascent is brought about in one of two
ways:-
1. Local heating effects which give rise to local showers and
thunderstorms, especially during the calms which accompany the
changes of the monsoon. At this time of the year there is gener-
ally to be recognized a regular diurnal migration of the belt of
clouds. In the morning it lies in the low valleys where the tem-
perature is inverted, but the mists quickly vanish before the early
sun and the mornings are clear and fine. The moisture is carried
upwards by the ascending currents of daytime and condenses as
cumulus cloud with a flat base coinciding with the level of the
saturation temperature. Rising higher, the cumulus becomes.
cumulo-nimbus and thunder showers follow in the afternoon;
Buitenzorg is the most thundery place on earth. '
2. Forced ascent giving orographic rain, especially characteris-
tic of the monsoon months, distributed, naturally, on exposed
slopes and increasing with altitude up to about 3,000 feet. These
rains are more continuous than the other type, they give the
greatest daily amounts and account for most of the floods. They
do not, of course, possess the same regularity of diurnal incidence.
SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION. Thus we have a combination of
equatorial and monsoon regimes. The former would tend to give
a typical double maximum, but such is not often recognizable
owing to interference by'the latter. The double maximum may,
however, be identified fairly clearly at several stations in the
_immediate vicinity of the Equator, e.g. Pontianak and Padang.
At southerly and easterly stations in this zone there is a tendency
EQUATORIAL
for the maximum at the earlier change of the monsoon (April)
to exceed that at the later change (October), e.g. Manokwari.(see
Fig. 28), Tondano and Bandoeng, while at northerly and westerly
stations the opposite obtains, e.g. Penang (see Fig. 28), Kuta
RaJa, Pontianak. The autumn' maximum, in fact, tends to pre-
dominate over the spring maximum in each hemisphere. Any
departures from this formula, and they are the rule rather than
the exception, are accountable by exposure to one or other mon-
soons, and numerous interesting examples of compound rainfall
regimes occur. Still further from the Equator a single maximum
becomes the rule, a season of distinctly lower rainfall appears (e.g.
Batavia), becoming progressively more and more marked until there
is an actmil dry season, e.g. Koepang, Timor (see Fig. 28). It is
to be noted, however, that the dry season is July to September (Aus-
tralian type) even north of the Equator (e.g. Menado, Celebes), the
Asiatic type with the dry season from January to March being
practically limited to the north of Sumatra and the Chinese Sea.
In other words; the east monsoon is the dry season, the rains
coming more particularly from the west monsoon. This is easily
understood when it is realized that these islands are much nearer
to the Australian than the Asiatic monsoon centre; the east
monsoon is thus a descending wind, passing overland from the
Australian high pressure, and is therefore doubly dry, while the
west monsoon is an ascending wind passing almost entirely over a
warm sea towards the Australian low and is fully saturated. The
importance of a passage over water as a source of moisture is
well illustrated by a comparison of the figures of Koepang, Timor,
whose monsoon travels over Northern Territory, with Toeal in
the Kei Islands, whose monsoon comes over the Gulf of Carpen-
taria; the former has five months with less than I inch of rain,
the latter none.
Summarizing, we may say that there are four rainfall regimes
represented, the last two of which are more properly tropical :-
1. Double maximum with the earlier one predominating (in
the south and east).
2. Double maximum with the later one preponderating (in
the north and west).
3. Single maximum with dry season July to September
(Australian type).
4. Single maximum with dry season January to March
(Asiatic type).
TEMPERATURE. As would be expected in a thoroughly marine'
equatorial climate the sea-level temperatures are monotonously
high (about 80 0 throughout the year) and humidity is constantly
excessive. The highest monthly averages of wet-bulb tempera.:
6
86 CLIMATOLOGY
ture at Batavia are in the neighbourhood of 76° and the mean
maximum about 79°. These do not appear excessive when com-
pared with,. say, Hanoi, whose June mean is 80° and which reaches
83° in the heat of the day, but there is no relief throughout the
year. The conditions at Batavia, then, though always enervating
and unpleasant, are never unbearable, and moreover they can
be avoided by retreat to near-by hill stations. The temperature
decreases steadily with altitude and it is the hill station which
has made the energetic Dutch colonization possible. Night
frosts are experienced on the high plateaux, especially in the dry
season when nocturnal radiation is excessive and inversions occur,
but not on the mountain tops where air movement is freer. The
annual variations of temperature are so small as to be of more
82
80
78
J JFMAMJJASOND
IloilO (Philippines) 2. Penang ( Straits Settlements)
"~
82
80l _____------------~
80
781-
7 8 :
FIG. 28.-Temperature and Rainfall Regimes in the East Indies. For explana-
tion, see text
DUALA 4° N. roo E. 26 80 80 So 79 79 77 75 75 76 76 78
YAUNDE 4° N. 12° E. 2,461 74 74 74 72 72 71 70 7 1 7 1 7 1 72
LULU'ABURG 6° S. 22° E. 2,034 76 76 76 77 77 76 77 76 76 76 77
NEW ANTWERP 2° N. 19° E. 1,230 79 80 79 78 79 78 77 76 77 77 78
MOMBASA 4° S. 40° E. 50 80 80 S2 81 78 77 75 76 77 78 79
ZANZIBAR 6° S. 39° E. 56 83 83 83 81 79 78 77 77 78 79 81
PARA. 1° S. 49° W. 42 78 77 78 78 79 79 78 79 79 79 80
MANA.OS. 3° S. 60° W. 144 80 80 80 80 80 80 81 82 83 83 82
IQUITOS . 4° S. 73° W. 328 78 7 8 76 77 76 74 74 76 76 77 78
GEORGETOWN 7° N. 58 °W. 6 79 79 80 81 81 80 81 82 83 83 82
NAIROBI 1° S. 37° E. 5.495 64 65 66 65 63 61 59 60 63 66 64
ENTEBBE 0° 32oE . 3,84 2 71 71 71 70 70 69 69 69 69 70 70
QUITO 0° 79°W. 9.35 0 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 54
BOGOTA. 5° N. 74°W. 8.730 58 58 59 59 59 58 57 57 57 58 58
COLOMBO 7° N. 80° E. 24 80 80 82 83' 83 82 81 81 81 81 80
SINGAPORE. 1° N. 104° E. 10 80 80 81 82 82 81 81 81 81 81 81
BATAViA 6°
, S. 107° E. 23 78 78 79 80 80 79 79 79 80 80 79
FOR'f DE KOCK. 0° 101° E. 3,5 00 69 69 70 70 71 70 69 69 69 70 69
PADANG 1° S. 100 0 E. 3 79 80 79 80 80 79 79 79
79 79 7f.!
BANPOENG . 7° S. 108° E. 2,3 66 72 72 73 72
72 72 72 72 72 72 72
SOERABAJA. 7° S. 1I3° E. 16 79 79 79 80 80 79 79 79 80 80 89
KUTA RAJA 6° N. 95 E. Coast -
0
-
- - - - - - - - -
P,ONTIANAK 0° 109° E. 10 78 79 79 79 80 80 80 79 79 79 78
MENADO 1° N 125° E. 28 77 77 78 78 79 79 79 80 So 79 79
EQUATORIAL
RAINFALL
80 80 3,8 16'9 12'5 9'1 7'0 6'0 4'5 2,6 2'3 5'7 5'0 9'4 13'5 94'5
81 81 0,8 I I '5 II'9 17'9 14'0 19,8 15'8 15'5 13'8 13'6 II'4 14'0 17'3 17 6 '5
2,6 6'5 10'0 8,6 17'0 18,6 10'1 9'3 19'3 24'7 10,6 6'5
79 78 4'0 143'8
80 79 5'7 0'5 1'3 2'4 3'5... 7'2 10'2 2'2 0'9 0'9 2'4 2,8 0,8 35'1
,
79 7 8 4'7 1'9 3'7 8'0 8'9 12'0 21'5 29'3 27'2 20'7 16'9 6'3 2,6 159'0
73 7 2 3'7 1'6 2'7 5'9 9'1 8'1 4'5 2,6, 3'3 7,6 8'9 5'9 2'0 62'2
7'2 5'4 7'9 6'1 3'1 9'2 0'1 2'5 6'5 6,6 9'1 6,6 60,8
77 77 1'5
I
5,6 6,6 2,6
78 78 3,8 4'1 3'5 4'1 6'2 6'1 6'3 6'3 6'3 9'3 66'9
80 79 6'5 0,8 0'9 2'3 7,8 13'7 3'6 3'5 2'2 1'9 3'4 5'0 2'2 47'3
83 80 6'1 2,8 2'2 6'1 14'1 10'7 2'0 2'4 1'7 2'1 3,6 7'5 5'4 60'2
79 78 2'7 12'5 14'1 14'1 12,6 10',2 6'7 5'9 4'5 3'5 3'4, 2,6 6'1 96:2
81 81 3'0 8'3 8'0 8'1 8'4 6,6 3'9 1,8 1'3 1'4 4,6 4'5 .8'2 65'1
9,8 12'2 6'5 10'0 6,6 4,6 10 3'1
7 8 77 4'0 10'2 7'4 8'7 7'2 8'4 II'5
81 81 4'<1 7'9 4,6 7'2 6'0 II'I II'7 9'9 6'5 3'1 2'9 6'7 11'1 88'7
63 63 6'4 1'9 4'2 3'7 8'3 5'2 2'0 0,8 0'9 0'9 2'0 5,8 3'5 39'2
70 70 2'7 2,6 3,6 5'8 9,8 8'5 5'1 3'0 3'0 3'1 3'5 4'9 5'1 '5 8 '0
5~ 55 0'7 3'2 3'9 4,8 7'0 4,6 1'5 1'1 2'2 2,6 3'9 4'0 3,6 42'3
58 58 1,6 ' 3'7 3'5 4'5 9,6 6'5 3'2 2,6 3'3 2'9 8'4 9,6 5,6 63'4
80 81 3'2 3'3 1'9 4'3 9'7 10'9 7'3 4'4 3'2 4,8 13'4 II,8 5'1 80'1
80 81 2'3 9'9 6,6 7'4 7'6 6'7 6,8 6,8 7'9 6,8 8'1 9'9 10,6 95'1
79 79 1,8 13'0 12,8 7,8 5'1 4'0 3'7 2,6 1'7 2'9 4'5 5'5 8'5 7 2 '1
69 69 1,8 9'2 7'0 9'2 10'2 7'6 5'6 3,8
6'4 6'4 9'0 9'0 IO'4 94'0
79 79 1'0 13'5 9'9 14'0 12,6 13'0 II,8 13'7 16'1 20'0 20'7 19'4
I I '9 177,6
72 72 1'0 7,6 7'1 9,6 9'0 5'2 3'6 2,6 2'3 3,6 6'7 8'9 8'5 74'7
80 79 2'0
- -5'9 - 3'5 3'5 4'2 6'1 3,6 4'3 4'4 6,8 7'2 7'2 8'3 65'0
8
7 79 2'2 IO,8 7'9 9,8 10,8 10'7 8'7 6'3 8'9 8'4 14,8 15'7 13'2 12 5',?
78 79 2'3 18,6 14'4 10'3 8,0 6,6 6'5 4'9 3,8 3'4 4,8 8,6 14'7 104'6
CHAPTER VI
TROPICAL CLIMATES
EYOND the limits of the swing of the equatorial rainfall
Marine Type
RAINFALL. Near the poleward margin of this type rain is
derived almost entirely from the trades, but stations nearer
the Equator receive. orographic rain from the trades for part of
the year and convectional rain from the low-pressure belt of
calms for the remainder. In having no dry season the rainfall
regime agrees with the equatorial, although from different causes,
and it produces similar reactions. Much of the east coasts of
Brazil and Africa, most of Central America and the windward
slopes of islands in the trade-wind belt enjoy a rainfall of over
50 inches and are heavily forested. Havana, on the latitude of
the driest part of the Sahara, has over 50 inches and the driest
month claims nearly 2 inches.
JFMAMJJASOND
10
5
0 _ _" .
5
o . . . .~~~~.I ..
10
5
o ......-1111111!1
FIG. 29.-Rainfall Regimes on Trade Wind Coasts
J F M A M J J A S 0 N D
- - - - - - - - - - -
Northern Hemisphere I I I I 2 4 16 25 25 15 6 3
Southern Hemisphere 26 22 23 9 4 0 0 0 0 I 4 II
the changes of the monsoon, i.e. there are two annual maxima.
Fig. 30 shows the distribution of these storms and their most .
frequent track~: It will ·be seen that there are six principal
centres in which about 90 per cent. of tropical hurricanes originate
and these lie in the belt of calms at its furthest limit. Here is
found the necessary combination of conditions, viz. : -
I. a}lm air which allows intense heating of the lower layers,
thus giving rise to a condition of instability followed by rapid
inversion.
Continental Type
In continental interiors and on leeward coasts a very different
type of climate is experienced. Here the trades are dry winds
and the season of their dominance is the dry season. Normally
there is a single rainy season and a single dry season of greater or
less duration; this marked seasonal incidence, judged by' the
vegetational responses it invokes, is the criterion of the climatic
type. .
THE DRY SEASON. After the rains the soil is saturated, the
air is moist and the nocturnal fall in temperature produces a
copious dew, but under the drying influence of the trades the
effect of the past rains is quickly obliterated, grass and shrubs
begin to wither and die down, the soil becomes dust, woodwork;
cracks, the rivers dwindle and the level of water falls in ponds
and lakes. Relative humidity is low (60 to 70 per cent.) and
may fall as low as IO per cent. when strong winds blow from
the deserts, such as the Harmattan of West Africa. This wind
has a'humidity of less than 30 per cent. and it often penetrates
into the humid coastal zone, where it is much appreciated in
spite of its heat; for its dryness is invigorating and it cools
by promoting evaporation. Here it is known as 'the doctor'
because of the improved health and· comfort which it brings,
but the dryness which suits man is inimical to plants, and trees
and crops may be dried up and ruined. Inland, where it blows
almost constantly in the dry season, the heat and dust associated
:with it are trying in the extreme, the skin dries and cracks, and
chills and colds are rife because, in the drier air, the greatly· in-
TROPICAL 95
creased diurnal range of temperature places a severe strain on
the constitution.
The natives take advantage of this dry season to burn the
bush and to prepare for cultivation; other bush fires are less
intentional, but the smoke of these fires, together with the dust
which the hot, dry wind often brings, fills the air and turns a
bright cloudless sky into a dark haze through which the sun
shows red and dull.
TEMPERATURE. Under cloudless skies and in the dry air
much higher te_mperatures are recorded than in the equatorial
zone. Mean temperatures of over 90° for the warmest month
are frequent, while daily maxima at the height of the hot season
JFMAMJJASOND J F M A M J J A SON 0
90'
85 85
80
75
70
5
L_____~. . . .~__~o
5 '
Cuyaba Zomba
FIG. 31.-Annual Match of Rainfall and Temperature in Tropical Continental
Climates
Regional Types
AFRICA. North and South Africa present a striking contrast
in the latitudinal extension of their tropical climates; north of
the Equator the strip of savanna between forest and desert is
only about 600 miles wide, but south of the Equator it stretches
through more than double this width and, on the eastern side,
of the continent, almost down to its southern extremity. In
7
I02 CLIMATOLOGY
North Africa the extent of the tropical climates is the extent
of the swing of the equatorial rainfall belt, for the trade winds
have come overland all the way and bring no rain; the margin
of the desert is therefore sharply defined and runs almost due
east and west. In the southern half of the continent, bn the
other hand, the trades come over the sea, the continent is narroW'
and offers a high barrier to the passage of the winds, the eastern
side is therefore well watered and a belt of forested coastline
backed by savanna extends nearly the length 6f the continent.
NIGERIA AND THE GUINEA LANDS. Behind the coastal forest
belt the S.W. monsoon of the wet season (see p. 8I) alternates
with the N.E. trades of the dry season, the latter often stre1).g-
thened and blowing out from the desert as the hot dry harmattan,
sometimes temporarily bringing Saharan conditions, with humidi-
ties as low as 20 per cent., right down to the coast. A some-
what similar climate extends right across Africa as far as the
headwaters of the Nile and it is from the summer rains that
the White Nile gets some of its water. But the regularity of
the discharge of the White Nile, which is so important for Egyptian
agriculture, follows from its drainage of the lakes of the great
plateau where the regime is equatorial.
EAST AFRICA. There is no real dry season here but two
maxima occur (see Nairobi and Entebbe) , one'in February to
May, known as' the maize rains', the other in October to Decem-
ber, known as (the millet rains " but except locally round Lake
Victoria the rain is below normal (Nairobi 40 inches). Further
east the rainfall is still less (Makindu 20 inches) and near the
coast there is virtually desert (Kismayu I5 inches) which becomd
more and more complete to the north-east in Somaliland.
The whole region is affected by the proximity of the two
monsoon centres of Abyssinia and India, which receive much
of the rain which would otherwise fall here. In the northern
hemisphere winter the winds are north-east, reinforced trades
blowing parallel to the coast. They would not normally bring
much rain, but in actual fact they bring practically none, for
the African continent develops a high pressure of its own which
deflects these winds and gives them a direction which is actually
off-shore; not until the coast changes direction at Mombasa is
20 inches recorded in winter. In summer there is a strong air
flow to the focus of the Indian monsoon and winds are south-
west, again parallel to the shore, and the only rain which falls
is from the branch of this current which is drawn off to the
Abyssinian focus. It is during the change-over in May and
June, that this coast gets its rain (see Mogadiscio): Kismayu has
more than half its rain in these two months.
TROPICAL I03
TEMPERATURE
Station. Lat. Long. Alt. (ft.) ] F M A M ] ] A S 0 N
-- - - - - - - - - - - -
HONOLULU. 21° N. 158° W. 38 7 1 71 7 1 73 75 77 78 78 78 77 75
PORT AU PRINCE 19° N. 72°W. 120 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 81 s,r 80 78
KINGSTON 18° N. 76° W. 24 77 77 77 78 80 81 82 82 82 .81 79
KEY WEST 25° N. 82 0 W. 22 69 71 73 76 79 82 84 84 82 79 74
COLON 9° N . 79° W. 36 80 80 80 81 81 80 80 80 80 80 80
RIO DE JANEIRO 23° S. 43° W . 201 78 78 77 74 71 69 68 69 70 71 73
•
ST. HELENA 16° S. 6°W. 1,900 64 65 66 65 63 60 58 57 57 58 59
DURBAN 30° S. 31° E. 25 0 76 77 75 71 68 64 64 65 67 69 72
KAYES 14° N . I2°W. 197 77 81 89 94 96 91 84 82 82. 85 83
BATHURST
MONGALLA
13° N. 17oW. 6 74 75 76 76 77 80 80 79 80 81 79
5° N. 32° E. 1.140 80 82 83 81 79 77 76 76 77 78 79
.
GONDOKORO 5° N . 31° E, 1,500 83 85 86 84 81 79 78 77 78 78 79
MOGADISCIO 2° N. 45° E. 59 77 79 81 82 8ci 77 75 76 76 77 76
LIND! 10° S. 40° E. 268 82 81 81 81 80 77 78 77 78 79 81
FORT JOHNSTON 15° S. 35° E. 1,55 8 79 77 78 77 73 69 68 71 75 80 82
SALISBURY 18° S. 31° E. 4,85 6 70 69 68 66 61 57 56 60 66 71 7 1
CARACAS 10° N. 67°W. 3.1 19 65 65 66 68 70 69 68 68 69 68 67
CUYABA 16° S. 56° W . 54 1 81 81 81 80 78 75 76 78 82 82 ii2
ASUNCIQN 25° S. 58° W . 383 81 80 78 72 67 63 64 66 70 73 76
MEXICO CITY 19° N. 99° W . 7AIl 54 57 61 64 65 64 62 62 61 59 56
PUEBLA. 19° N. 98°W. 6,9 87 54 57 61 64 65 64 63 63 62 61 58
OAXACA . . 16° N. 97°W. 5,080 63 66 70 73 74 72 70 70 69 67 66
SUCRE . 19° S. 64 °W. 9,190 55 55 56 54 51 49 49 52 56 56 57
TROPICAL r07
RAINFALL
77 79 5'9 1'2 2'5 3'7 6'5 9'4 4'1 2'7 5'4 7'3 6·6 3'4 1'3 54'1
78 79 4'9 1'0 0·6 1'0 1'2 4'3 4'1 1'7 3'7 4'1 7'5 3'1 1'0 33'9
70 77 14'4 1'9 1'5 1'3 1'3 3'5 4'3 3'4 4'5 6·8 5.6 2'3 1'7 3 8 '1
79 80 1·6 3'7 1·6 1·6 4'3 12'4 13'3 16'0 14.8 12'5 15'1 20'7 11'4 12 7'4
7 6 73 10'1 5'0 4'5 5'3 4'2 3'2 2'3 1'7 1'7 2·6 3'3 4'1 5'5 43'4
61 61 8·8 3'0 3.8 4'9 3'9 4'2 4'1 4'0 3'7 3'0 1'9 1'7 2'0 4 0 '2
74 7 0 12'9 4.6 4'9 5'4 3'4 1'9 1'2 1'2 1'7 3'2 5'1 5'0 5'1 4 2 '7
77 85 19'2 - - - - 0·6 3'9 8'3 8'3 5.6 1'9 0'3 0'2 29'1
75 7 8 7'2 .- - - - 0'2 2'9 10'9 19·6 10'0 3'7 0'2 0'1 47.6
79 79 6'9 0'1 0·8 1'5 4'2 5'4 4.6 5'2 5.8 4'9 4'3 1·8 0'3 38 '9
80 81 8'7 0'1 0·8 2'0 3'5 6'5 3'9 5'0 4'9 4'4 4'7 1'9 0'4 3 8 '1
77 7 8 6'9 - - - 7'0 2'2 3'5 2'0 0·6 0'5 0'7 0'4 - 16'9
82 80 5'7 6'1 4'1 7'5 4'7 0'1 - 0'3 0'5 0·6 0'7 1·8 4.8 32'0
79 7 6 13'0 8'5 7'0 4'0 2'9 6'3 O~I - 0'1 0'2 2'1 1'9 6'4 33'5
70 65 14.6 7'5 7'4 4'5 1'0 0'5 - - 0'1 0'3 1'1 3'7 5.8 3 1 '9
65 67 4'0 0'9 0'3 0·6 1·6 2·8 4'0 4'3 4'2 4'1 3.8 3'3 1·8 3 1 '7
81 80 6·6 9.8 8'3 8'3 4'0 2'1 0'3 0'2 1'1 2'0 4'5 5'9 ·8'1 54.6
80 7 2 18'0 5'5 5'1 4'3 5'2 4'6 2'7 2'2 1·6 3'1 5'5 5'9 6'2 5 0 '9
54 60 10'9 0'2 0'2 0'5 0·8 1'9 3'9 4'5 4.6 3'9 1,6 0'5 0'2 22·8
54 61 11'0 0'4 0'3 0'4 1'1 3'5 6·8 5.8 6'0 5'5 2'5 0'9 0'4 33'6
4 '3 0'1
I::
69 II'O 0'1 0'2 0·6 1'4 3'4 6'3 3'7 4'5 9 2'1 0'3 27'0
54 8'0 6'5 4.8 3.6 2'0 0'2 0'2 0'2 0'2 0'9 1'3 2'7 4'6 27'2
CHAPTER VII
TROPICAL MONSOON CLIMATES
LTHOUGH in matters of detail the monsoon climates
Th(~
Cold Season
JANUARY PRESSURE AND WINDS. The main centre of the
1 The terms' summer' and' winter' monsoon are used here in prefer-
ence to ' South-west' and' North-east' because these directions are only
true over limited areas, the so-called South-west Monsoon, for example.,
blowing up the Ganges valley is a south-east wind.
IIZ CLIMATOLOGY
Asiatic high pressure in January, exceeding 30'5 inches, is
centred over Mongolia, and from it cold, heavy air is dispersed;
but very little of this reaches India, and such air as dQes descend
{rom the plateau is well warmed adiabatically in its descent of
the Himalayas. India, therefore, never experiences those waves
of intense cold which visit China, even as far south as Canton.
A secondary high-pressure system is over Kashmir and the
Punjab (see Fig. 34), from which centre pressure decreases fairly
uniformly southward to the low-pressure belt ,now south of the
Equator. It is this Punjab high pressure which controls the
'prevailing wind direction and causes north-west winds down
the Ganges valley, recurving to north-east in the Carnatic and
becoming almost easterly in Cochin. In Sind and Gujarat
winds are north-easterly; still controlled by the Punjab high
pressure, and in Central India they are light and variable. But
nowhere during the Cold Season are the winds strong or constant
in direction, light breezes being characteristic. Under this anti-
cyclonic regime the air is dry, fresh and invigorating, the sky is
clear and of a perfect blue and this is the most pleasant time of
,the year.
RAINFALL. The stability of the air during the Cold Seasop,
and the off-shore direction of the wind are factors unfavourable
to rainfall, and this season is, with few exceptions, a dry one.
These exceptions are (r) the tip of the peninsula and Ceylon,
and (z) along the foothills of the Himalayas and the margin of
the plains in the Punjab and extending into the United Provinces.
Rainfall in these two areas is fundamentally different in origin,
that of Ceylon being c~y-ec;.lional, that of the Punjab cyclonic.
Owing to its low latitude, Ceylon is not far removed from
the equatorial rainfall belt, and slight northward aberrations of
this bring rains to the island and to the tip of the peninsula.
This rainfall is particularly heavy on the east side of the island,
on which the N.E. monsoon impinges, moisture-laden from a
long journey over the Bay of Bengal. ,
The rainfall of the Punjab and the United Provinces is
,associated with shallow depressions whose nature and origin
still provide something of a mystery. Some have been traced
from the Mediterranean winter storm-track via Palestine and
Afghanistan, others may originate locally in the highlands to
the west of India. The Asiatic high pressure persuades them to
take a course well to the south, and the Himalayas later restrict
their movements and steer them into the plains. They travel
eastwards bringing one or two inches, of rain to the northern
plains and heavier falls to the higher slopes of the mountains;
Peshawar receives more rain at this time than from the i;)l,lmmer
TROPICAL MONSOON II3
monsoon, Murree receives 6 inches in January and February
and Simla 7 inches, while heavy falls of snow occur higher up,
this being the chief time of renewal in the zone of permanent
snow in the Western Himalayas. Southwards this rain extends
into Rajputana, Central India and the Central Provinces, but
the amount dec_reases markedly in this direction and the storms
become more violent; frequently they are accompanied by
thunder and hail which does much harm to crops. They die
out eastwards and bring very little rain to the Ganges valley.
Small in amount though this rain is, it is of the greatest
importance to the wheat and barley crops of the Punjab, and
g;ea~ distress is caused by its occasional failure. The comparative
FIG. 34.-Mean Pressure and Winds FIG. 35.-Cold Weather Rainfall (Jan.
(January) _ and Feb.) and Cold Weather Storm-
The length of the arrow is proportional to the tracks
steadiness of the wind. .
lightness of the fall increases its value inch for inch, as run-off
is slight-. and a high proportion is available for crops.
The barometric gradients of these storms 'are very slight, but
remarkable temperature changes are experienced during their
passage. The approach of the storm is heralded by a shift of
the wind to the south-east, bringing a current of warm, moist
air, whose temperature is further raised by the liberated heat
of condensation and by the blanket of cloud. With the passage
of the storm centre the wind veers to north-west and the tem-
perature may drop as much as 20° in 48 hours. The trajectory
of this north-west wind brings it froin the snow-clad slopes on
to the plains, and the temperature is further lowered by evapora-
tion. It is during these cold waves in rear of depressions that,
temperatures below freezing are recorded in the Punjab, and it
CLIMATOLOGY
is under these conditions that severe damage is frequently done
to fruit and crops.
COLD SEASON TEMPERATURE. Latitude is the principal con-
trol of temperature at this time, the January isotherms being
directed almost due east and west; the mean temperature of
day in Ceylon is about 80°, in the Punjab about 50°. But more
significant is the. diurnal range of temperature, strikingly related
to marine influence through the medium of relative humidity.
The thermometer often reaches 80° in the Punjab during the
day, while frosts at night are common occurrences, and fires1are
lit every evening well into February. This rapid nocturnal
radiation of heat is the direct result of the anticylonic conditions
:By now the heat is terrific, shade temperatures of 120° are fre-
quently recorded in Sind, and Jacobabad, which has the evil
reputation of being the hottest station in India, records a mean
daily maximum. above lI~o.
The heat and glare of the sun, the wafts of suffocating heat
reflected from the hard-baked ground or from walls compel
all outdoor life to cease while the sun is above the horizon,
and interior~ are only kept bearable by shutting all windows
and doors to keep out the stifling heat, and by the use of tatties,
matting sprinkled with water through which air is drawn and
cooled in passage by evaporation. Outdoor exercise is taken in
what is by courtesy called' the cool of the evening', but sun-
FIG. 4I.-Weather on 14th May, 1897 FIG. 42.-Weather on 3rd July, 1889
J F M A M J J A SON 0 J F M A M J J A SON D
85
80
75
70
Bombay
75
55
Jacobabad (Quetta 1
mulates as the humid currents come pressing inland and the pro·
cess is repeated.
EFFECT OF THE RAINS ON TEMPERATURE. The immediatE
effect of the rains is to lower the temperature, both by conduction
and evaporation, and to make the climate of the plains endurablE
again. The mean temperature at Bombay in May is 85·8°, and
in July 8r'4°, a fall of more than 4°; at Nagpur there is a fall
from 95° in May to 8r'7° in July, more than r3°, and falls of 6° 01
'}O are usual. Fig. 43 gives some idea of the relief which this droI=
TROPICAL MONSOON I21
of temperature affords .. The line of the temperature curve in
April and May for Bombay and Nagpur may be continued in
imagination to a hypothetical maximum in July, such as would
be reached were it not for the cooling effect of the rain. An
approximation to this 'typothetical curve is seen in the graph
for Jacobabad which receives only just over 3 inches of monsoon
rain. The curve continues to rise into June, when the mean
temp.erat!-lre reaches nearly to TOOo, and eV'en here there is a
'slight depression of the crest of the curve when the rains come.
At Quetta (whose climate is, of course, not monsoonal) there is
practically no June-September rain and therefore no cooling effect.
The curv~ continues to rise until a normal maximum is reached in
July, ne.atly 80° in spite of the altitude (5,502 feet). This flat-
tening of the top of the temperature curve in the rainy season has
been observed also in tropical climates, where rainfall, as here,
coincides with the overhead sun. Physiological comfort is not
increased to the extent that might at first sight be anticipated,
since the decreased temperature is coincident with increased
humidity; moist heat replaces dry heat and nights, in particular,
are oppressively sultry. Just as the arrival of the rains depressed
the temperature, so their withdrawal, three or four months
later, is often accompanied by a reassertion of the upward
tendency of the temperature graph, and a second maximum is
frequently attained in September or October. At Bombay the
temperature rises from 80·9° in September to 82~4° in October,
but this check in the fall of temperature is not so universal as the
earlier check, to the rising thermometer. The .hot sun beating
down on the saturated ground, .after the rains have left, draws up
mists and vapours from the swamps, with their attendant fevers
and rheumatism which, to an appalling degree, sap the energies of
the Indian peasant. The prevalence of irrigation works, tanks,
wells, canals and paddy fields increase the humidity and provide
greater space for the breeding of mosquitoes.
DATE OF THE' BURST '. The average date of the burst of the
monsoon in Malabar is June 3rd, at Bombay the 5th, in the Central
Provinces the TOth, in Bengal the I5th, in the Eastern United
Provinces the 20th, and at Delhi about the 30th; but its arrival
may be delayed as much as three weeks. By the end of the month
the rains are well established everywhere, maximum falls are
generally recorded in July and August and by the first week in
September the rains begin to diminish. The monsoon current
appears to be a shallow one, since the course it takes is profoundly
influenced by the shape of peninsular India, whose relief is not,
in fact, extremely mountainous. Coming from the sQuth-.west"
the air-flow divides into two branches, an Arabian Sea branch and
122 CLIMATOLOGY
a Bay of Bengal branch, and it is the relation between the courses
taken by these currents on the o'ne hand and the relief of the l~,nd
on the other that determines the distribution of rainfall at ~his
season. The rainfall is due almost entirely to ascent of m<;>istm:e-
laden air, and this ascent is due to one of three causes :-
(I) Relief-whereby there appear striking contrasts between
windward stations and stations in the rain shadow in
lee of mQuntains.
(2) Convection-whereby there is a tendency to afteriroon
storms. '.
(3) Cyclonic storms-which give the most evenly distributed
rainfall of the three. ,
ADVANCE OF THE MONSOON. The two currents into which
the monsoon divides (see Fig. 44) may be treated separately' and
the rainfall due to each described in turn. The goal in each ca.:_se
is the low pressure of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, culminating in the
intensely low pressure over Sind. But the heart of the system
varies in position from day to day and so influences the trajectory
of the winds and the courses of cyclonic storms. .
THE ARABIAN SEA BRANCH expends its full force on, the
Western Ghats which stand directly athwart its path. Here'it
must rise through a height of from 3,000 to 7,000 feet and the
resultant precipitation is enormous. More than 30 inches fall in
June along the coastal plain and more than 40 inches in July;
higher up the slopes the rainfall is still heavier, Mahabaleshwar
(4,540 feet) records an average of over IOO inches in July and over
250 inches during the five months of the monsoon. Here rain
falls, on an average, on rr6 out of the 122 days in June-September
and nearly 2! inches fall on each rainy day,-more than London
gets in the whole of July. But these heavy falls are experienced
only along a narrow strip, in fact along the western slopes; for
after crossing the summit the wind descends the eastern slopes as
a foehn wind. Thus there exists a remarkable rain shadow
immediately in lee; Gokak, only 65 miies from Mahabaleshwar,
has only 22 inches a year; Dhulia has 22 inches; Bellary has only
IS inches, of which only 9 inches fall in June-September and only
I'3 inches in July. The rain shadow effect is still more pronounced
in the south where the mountains are higher, Tinnevelly, in lee of the
CardaII!Q.I!!,Hills, which rise to Io,ooofeet, has less than I inch inJ uly
an«only 2'7 inches from June to September. At their northern
end the Western Ghats decrease rapidly in height and the rainfall
decreases coincidently (Surat 40 inches, June-September). At thE
same time the contrast between windward and leeward ceases tc
exist, as there is no obstacle to the rain-bearing winds; 40 inche~
v of Irain from the monsoon is recorded far inland, while 30 inche~
TROPICAL MONSOON 12 3
Rainfall Variation,
J F M A M J J A SON 0
30
J F MA MJ J A soN 0
25
20
15
10
5 ...........
Hue Madras
FIG. 46.-Rainfall at Hue and Madra.s
placed Carnatic coast (p. 127) this rain would appear to be due
to cyclones associated with the retreating trough of low pressure,
but two other influences are at work :-(1) The higher temperature
of the sea with consequently greater moisture content of the
winds, and (2) the occurrence of typhoons. These typhoons
reach great violence in the Philippines which lie across their
favourite track; they are most frequent in September, Octol!er
and November, i.e. at the change of the monsoon, and add appre-
ciably to the autumn rainfall here, e.g. Baguio (see p. 17).
Chiefly owing to its more mountainous hinterland Hue (102 inches)
has more than double the rainfall of Madras (50 inches).
The great bend of the coast in the Gulf of Tongking brings its
northern shore at right angles to the summer monsoon, and the
more normal regime returns with a rainy season from May to
October and a maximum in July. But from this point northwards
the climate shows a strong continental influence, especially in
winter, and the effects of continental cyclones are felt. The
mean temperature range at Hanoi is 22° and extreme temperatures
exceed 100° and fall below 40°. These extremes ally the region
with sub-tropical China rather than with tropical Annam, and it
is more properly considered under that head (see p. 168).
October
~ ':"" ~.,., ~~5"
November
.:
.,:
•••. :
December
. : ' . : ••.•• • • • •
.
January
. .3
':'1
has more than 30 inches in January and well over 100 inches in
the four months January to April.
The temperature at the height of the wet season everywhere
exceeds 80°, and reaches goO round Pilbarra, where the air is
clear and the sky almost cloudless. But it is in the somewhat
cooler but more humid localities further north that the heat is
particularly oppressive; the wet-bulb temperature exceeds 80°
in January over a considerable area round Wyndham (see Fig. 3,
p. 14)·
TROPICAL CYCLONES. The weather of northern Australia
during the rainy season is essentially cyclonic, the monsoonal lows
moving slowly south-eastward from the low-pressure centres of
Pilbarra and Cloncurry in obedience to the drift of the upper
air currents. More rarely rain-bearing cyclones travel south-
westward along the north-west coast of Western Australia, again
following the drift of the upper air. As a rule, though not
invariably, the depressions are of feeble intensity; but occasionally
there occur tornadoes, similar to those of the United States, highly
9
134 CLIMATOLOGY
localized, but very violent. In addition to the regular procession
of monsoonal lows there are two provinces subject to invasion by
tropical hurricanes; these are : -
I. The Queensland coast.
2. The northern coast of Western Australia.
The former group originate in the neighbourhood of the
Solomon Islands and travel south-westwards towards the Queens-
land coast. Usually they swing round to the south and thep. to
the south-east before reaching the coast, though their outer fringes
may bring rain to coastal stations, but when they do reach the
coas~ they often do considerable damage and bring torrential rain;
36 inches have fallen in 24 ttpurs at Crohamhurst and 20 inches
has freq~ntly been recordGd from stations in the coastal strip.
The west-coast hurricanes, known as ' Willy Willies'; appear
off the north-west coast and follow a track similar to that of the
monsoonal lows, recurving round the Pilbarra low and coming
inland in the neighbourhood of Onslow and the mouth of the
Fortescue River. This track is determined by the drift of the
upper air, by the repUlsion of the high pressure which lies 'above
the West-Australian current and by the attraction of the Pilbarra
low. In Northern Territory and Kimberley they give east winds
gradually veering to the north, but where the centre of the storm
strikes the coast great damage is to be expected and copious
rain results. Once it has left the sea, its source of moisture, the
cyclone rapidly loses its violence, but brings valuable and welcome
rain along its track to the Great Australian Bight. In both
localities the storms are restricted to the hottest months of the
year and reach a maximum in late summer. Between 1877 and
1912 they were distributed as follows : -
Station.
1 Lat. '1 Long. A1t.(lt.) J F M .A- M J J A
_s_i~ N
D
I-
Yr.
-
Ra.
- _- - - - - _-
J F M A M
--
J J
------ ------
A S 0 N D
_- -Total.
--
0 0'9 1'0 0·8 0'5 0'7 1'4 5'1 4'7 2'3 0'3 0'1 0'4 18'1
55 75 4
2 0'4 0'3 0'4 0'2 0·6 2·6 8'3 7'3 3'2 0'3 0'1 0'3 24'0
63 7 8 3
77 81
10 0'1 0'1 - - 0'7 19'9 24'0 14'5 10·6 1'9 0'4 - 72 '4
60 77 34 1'0 0·6 0'5 0'4 0'7 2'9 7. 6 7'0 4'7 0'5 0'1 0'4 26'2
60 77 3 1 0'7 0·6 0'4 0'2 0·6 4.8 12°1 11 06 7° 1 2°1 0°2 0°2 4 006
72 79 14
0°1 0°2 0°5 2°0 13°7 49°4 53°7 4 2 °5 24° 6 II06 5° 0 0°6 20 3° 8
1°1 5° 8 4° 6 1 06 35° 1
7 1 82° 20 0°1 0°1 0°2 5"5 3°3 5°7 4°7 0°4
81 79 4 15°7 14° 8 8 °7 2°5 1°2 0°4 0°2 0°1 - 0 08 3°4 10°0 57° 8
88 77 27 5°1 4°9 2 °7 0°9 0°4 0°3 0°5 0°1 0°5 0°5 1°1 3° 0 20°0
T
HE WARM TEMPERATE CLIMATES. Situated in the lati-
tude of the oscillating front of divergence which divides
the spheres of influence of the trade winds and the
westerlies, these climates are characteristically transitional in
nature, enjoying for part of the year a climate which is typically
, tropical' in its constancy and for part of the year weather which
in its changeability is more closely allied with the temperate
zone. In the simplest form the warm-temperate (or sub-tropical)
climates derive their summer influence from the east and their
winter influences from the west; summer is therefore continental
on western margins and marine on eastern; winter conversely
is marine on western margins and continental on eastern. But
since the westerly-. circulation is less constant than the easterly
the continentality of the eastern margin winter is less pronounced
than that of the western margin summer. Clearly eastern or
western marginal situation must be a fundamental criterion of
subdivision of these climates.
This ideal simplicity is, however, not always realized, owing
to the disturbing influence of the continental masses on the
planetary wind circulation. Especially is this the case on the
eastern margins of large land masses where the trade wind of
summer is distorted into a monsoon and the westerlies of winter
are reinforced to become outflowing winds of a markedly con-
tinental nature. This interfere,nceis least marked in the southern
hemisphere owing to the small size of the land masses, and it
is here that the simplest form of eastern margin sub-tropical
climate is found. Both the great land masses of the northern
hemisphere generate monsoons and in the Eurasian block this
brings about so profound a modification of these climates as to
justify the creation of a monsoonal sub-type.
Percentage of Rain in
Cape Town 8 27 45 20
Knysna 22 21 25 32
Port Elizabeth 17 25 24 34
Durban 34 24 9 33
7 7 7 7
"Harsnam
"Bendigo.
n
D
·Balmoral
77
"Ararat
53
'sallarat
90
85
80
/ - \
75 /
70
/
/ /V
~ F-"
-
........
'\ N
\
65
60
a .......-:: It= 1'" 1\ ~ ~......
..2- ;7' /!/ \ \
55
50 l?' ~
45
:§._. d r\-
40
.~
FIG. 49.-Yearly March of Temperature in Mediterranean Climates
a. Funchal (Insular)
b. Mogador (Oceanic)
c. Nice (Marine)
d. Mosul (Continental)
Spain
The climate of the Iberian Peninsula is a curious variety in
which the Mediterranean type is struggling against the effects
of continentality. The size of the peninsula is sufficient to
produce app:eciable monsoons which supersede the planetary
winds. In wmter the temperatures on the plateau are abnormally
low, in places below 40°, and frost is common; the resultant'
land monsoon partially excludes rain-bearing winds and the
winter fall of rain on the plateau is well below normal.
In summer temperatures .are abnormally high, Madrid,
though more than 2,000 feet above $ea-level, has a July mean
of over 75°. The days are excessively hot and dusty, the fierce
rays of the sun scorching through the thin air. Strong con-
vection is thus set up, and a steady flow of air, strengthened
by day, moves in towards the c~ntre of the plateau. Yet this
inflow of air brings no rain, July and August being almost com-
pletely rainless; for the heat of the plateau is so great that
the moisture capacity of the air is still further increased and
the rising air is carried away by an upper current before saturation
is reached (d. Sind, p. 125). It is during spring and autumn,
when the air currents are humid, and while the land monsoon
is not strong enough to exclude them, that most of the rain
falls. This is augmented by local thunderstorms, especially in
the spring. These features, a large temperature range, strong
winds, spring rains and hot summers are steppe characters and
much of the vegetation is of the steppe type.
Chile
From Coquimbo (30° S.) to Concepcion (37° S.) the climate
of Chile qualifies as Mediterranean, the type thu'.) occurring at
rather lower latitudes than in the northern hemisphere. The
same controls are at work here as in California, viz. : -
1. The sub-tropical ridge of high pressure, swinging south in
summer and becoming an independent anticyclone over the sea
as the continental low develoDS to the east.
2. A cold current off-shore~
3. A straight coastline backed by a mountain range. The
same simplicity is therefore noticeable especially as regards the
rainfall regime, thus:-
No. of Months
Lat. Yearly Rainfall. with less than
Inches. I inch.
La Serena 4'3 9
Valparaiso 20 8
Puerto Carranza 28 5
Concepcion 53 I
Valdivia. 105 o
But unlike California, where the only gap in the coast range
is the Golden Gate, the coast ranges of Chile are low and broken,
thus permitting marine influence to penetrate much more freely
inland. Thus although on account of the cold current coastal
temperatures are low in summer (Valparaiso 69°) and maxima
are delayed, there is nothing comparable to the conditions at
San Francisco. The inland temperature gradient is also much
less steep and the longitudinal valley has nothing approaching
the furnace heat of the Sacramento-Joaquin valley. Santiago
(1,703 feet) has a January temperature below 70°. The greatest
heat, as in California, occurs under foehn conditions; with winds
blbwing down from the Sierras over 100° has been recorded at
Punta Tumbez, near Concepcion. Although in 37° S. latitude
the extreme temperatures here are considerably higher than
in tropical Chile, where conditions are not so favourable to foehn
winds.
Rainfall, low on the coast on account of the cold current
(Valparaiso 20 inches), increases up the slopes of the coast ranges
(Quilpue 27 inches), decreases again in the rain-shadow of the
. l<;mgitudinal valley (Santiago 14 inches), increases again up the
slopes of the Andes (Portillo 60 inches) and finally decreases and
WESTERN MARGIN WARM TEMPERATE I53
practically ceases at high altitudes and across the watershed
in Argentina. (All those stations are in the same latitude,
namely, 33° S.) The scanty rainfall in the valley makes irrigation
necessary for most crops and fruits, but the Andean slopes, with
their heavier rainfall and their snow, are a valuable source of
water.
With its dry bracing air and with the heat of summer tempered
by altitude and the cold current, the climate of this heart-land
of Chile is almost ideal for man; and to the advantages of health
and comfort it adds considerable agricultural and horticultural
productivity. Good crops of wheat, barley, lucerne, etc., are
grown and fruit flourishes, those va~ieties being especially gr?wn
which lend themselves to long dIstance transport. e.g. vmes
(as wine) and nuts (especially walnuts).
Cape Town
The area with a Mediterranean climate in South Africa is
very small-from the Olifants River in the north to the Breede
River in the east-but small as it is its importance is great owing
to its suitability for wheat and fruit growing. As in California,
Chile, Morocco and West Australia, the summer temperatures of
the coastal zone are kept down by a cold current (the Benguela
Current), off which blows the prevailing wind. Cape Town has
a January mean below 70°, but temperatures are higher inland
and a shift of the wind to this quarter means a marked rise in
temperature, especially when winds blow off the high plateau.
These winds, known as Berg Winds (see also p. 236), are especially
characteristic of the winter months when there is a strong anti-
cyclone on the plateau and low pressure out to sea from a cyclone
passing to the south. As a result of adiabatic heating their
temperature may exceed rooo, the winter temperature thus tem-
porarily exceeding those of midsummer. They are analogous to
the Santa Annas of California and are equally damaging. They
occur on all sides of the plateau edge, but the season of their
occurrence varies from place to place.
Less than 6 inches out of a total of 25 inches falls in the six
summer months at Cape Town and four months each have less
than I inch. The depressions of winter generally pass south of
the continent, and it is the south-west wind in rear which brings
most of the rain. The rainfall is extraordinarily variable within
small distances, different stations within Cape Town itself record-
ing means of 18 inches and 40 inches. There is a marked increase
on. hill slopes; parts of Table Mountain have 80 inches while
over 200 inches is recorded in small areas near by.
154 CLIMATOLOGY
Australia
Swanland and the south Australian littoral may be included
among the Mediterranean climates, but Adelaide is much less
characteristic than Perth. Swanland is subject to controls
almost identical with those of Ca-pe Town and the climates and
resultant cultivation are very similar in the two cases. The
west Australian plateau is, however, much lower and less steep-
sided than the South African and there is no 'Berg Wind'.
In Australia, too, the climatic type has a much wider extension,
the Is-inch isohyet cutting off the corner of the continent from
Geraldton in 28° S. on the west coast (cf. 33° S. in S. Africa)
to Esperance on the Bight. The rainfall, too, is extremely
reliable.
Dairies _
Wheat IZZZl
Oranges •••••
Vines YVv.
Apples AU.
TEMPERATURE
RAINFALL
Yr, Ra, J F M
D
- - -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
-
A M
--
J J A S
-_
0 N D Total.
60 63 14 2,8 3'1 2'3 2'0 2°2 1'3 0,8 r05 2'4 3'3 3,6 3'1 28'4
61 65 13 3'4 3:6 3'4 2'0 1'1 0'4 0'1 0'1 1'2 4'0 4'7 3,'2 27'2
56 62 ;8,
4'1 3'5 2'9 1,8 0,6 0'2 0'2 oor 0'5 2'4 3'4 3,8 23°5
52 60 20 3,6 3'5 3'4 2,6 2'0 q'8 0'2 0'2 1'4 3'3 4'3 4'1 29'4
56 64 20 ' 5'!' 4'2 4°8 2 °7 1'7 0'5 - 0°1 1'4 3'3 6'4 5'5 35"7
•
54 67 33 '1'3 1'2 1'4 1°1 0'7 0'3 0'2 - 0'3 0'5 1 °5 0'9 9'4
59 64 12 2°2 1'5 2'2 0"7 0,6 o'r - - 0'2 1 °3 2 °4 2'0 13'2
57 65 25 4° 2 3'5 3°5 2 °3 1'3 0,6 0°1 0'3 1'1 3° 1 4° 6 5°4 30 °0
46 57 28 1'7 1'4 1'9 2'2 1'7 1°1 0'7 0°8 2'4 3,8 2,8 2'1 22,6
46 60 3 J 3'2 2"7 2'9 2,6 2°2 1,6 0'7 1'0 2'5 5°0 4°4 3'9 3 2 '7
53 63 26 3'2 2"7 2,8 1 °9 roI 0'7 0'2 0°4 1,8 3'2 3'3 3'6 25'0
52 63 3 2 2'0 1"7 1'2 0'9 0,8 0'7 0°3 0'5 0,6 1 06 2,6 2,6 15°5
61 70 23 2°2 0°9 0°5 0°2 - - - - - 0'3 1 °4 2,6 8'1
49 63 34 4'3 3'3 3° 2 1 °7 1 °3 0,6 0'1 - 0"7 1 °7 3,6 5'2 25°7
49 61 29 6'2 4'6 3'5 1'5 0'3 - - - - 0'4 2'5 5°7 24'7
53 58 12 5'0 3'9 3'5 r'4 0°6 0°1 - 0'3 0°3 0'9 1,6 3,8 21 °4
51 55 II 4° 8 3° 6 3'1 1°0 0"7 0'1 - - 0°3 1'0 2'4 4° 6 22°2
46 57 27 3° 8 2'9 3'0 1,6 0°8 oor - - 0°2 0'9 2'1 4° 0 19'4
46 62 36 4,8 3'9 3°4 1 06 1°1 0°5 - - 0°8 1'4 2 08 4'4 24'7
66 56 21 - 0°1 0'2 0°6 2 06 3'2 3'2 2'1
1°2 0°5 0'3 0°2 14'2
64 61 12 - - 0,6 0°2 3°5 5°8 4° 8 3° 2 0,8 0°4 0°1 0'3 19'7
68 62 15 0'7 0,6 0°9 1'9 3° 8 4°5 3'7 3°4 2 °3 1,6 1'1 0,8 25'3
72 67 16 0°2 0'2 0'4 1 01 2,6 4° 6 3° 6 2 °9 1°1 0'7 0'3 0°1 17'8
71 64 19
, 1,6 4'9 6'9 6'5 5'7
0°3 0°5 0°7 3°3 2'1 0,8 0,6 33'9
?9 64 17 0"7 0'5 0'9 1°2 1'2 1°1 0'9 1'0 0,8 0'7 0°7 0°4 ro'r
71 63 22 0'7 0'7 1'0 1 08 2,8 3° 1 2"7 2'5 2'0 1'7 1'2 1°0 21°2
62 58 14 0,8 0"7 1°2 1'9 3'0 4° 0 4° 0 3,6 2 02 1'7 1°1 1'0 24°7
.
CHAPTER IX
EASTERN MARGIN WARM TEMPERATE CLIMATES
HE transition zone between the trade wind and westerly
Temperature. Rainfall.
Lat.
July. 6 Summer 6 Winter Total.
Jan. Months. Months.
JFMAMJJASOND J F M A M J J A S 0 N 0
4
2
0
8 8
{> {,
4 4
2 (1
0 0
e Charleston (u.S.A.)
FIG. sr.-Rainfall Regimes in Eastern Margin Warm Temperate Climates
(For explanation see text)
Regional Types:
New South Wales and Victoria
RAINFALL. The south-eastern angle of Australia from Port
Macquarie to Cape Otway enjoys uniformly distributed rains,
South Africa
The type has a very small distribution in South Africa since
the continent does not extend south of 35°, but the coastal zone
from Cape Agulhas to Port St. John's may be placed here. The
driest month at Knysna has nearly 2 inches and the wettest less
than 3'5 inches. Westward along the south coast ther,e is a
gradual passage to the Mediterranean type with summer drought
(see p. 153), northwards along the east coast to the tropical marine
type with a distinct summer maximum (Durban) and inland to a
steppe type on the plateau (Aliwal). •
Owing partly to the Agulhas current winter temperatures are
rather high; Port Elizabeth is 4° warmer in July than Cape
Town in the same latitude, while Berg winds, similar to those of
the Cape Peninsula" bring unpleasantly high temperatures at
times.
EASTERN MARGIN WARM TEMPERATE I65
TEMPERATURE
RAINFALL
D Yr J Ra,
F M A M J J A S 0 N D Total.
- ~ -- -- --
- --
-- -- -- -- ------
1,8 1'9 1:9 1'9 2'0 1,8 1'9 .1,6 1,8 2'0
76 63 3 2 2'1 1'9 22'6
0,8 r'r 0'7 r'o r'r 0,6 0,8 0'7 o'g 0'7 0,8
79 66 31 1'0 10'2
71 64 18 5'9 7'5 6'5 5'9 5,6 4,6 4'5 3,8 3'9 3'2 4'1 5'9 61'4
4,8 5,6 5'1 4,8 4,8 2,8 2'9
70 63 19 3'7 4'3 3'0 2'9 3'2 47'9
,.'
65 59 19 1'9 107 '2'2 2'3 2'2 2'1 1,8 1,8 2'4 2,6 2'2 2'3 25'5
64 59 15 2,6 3'0 3'1 3'3 4'4 4,8 5'0 4'2 3,6 3,6 3'3 2'9 43'8
60 55 15 3'3 3'1 3'3 3'9 4'7 4,8 5,6 4'5 4'0 4'r 3'5 3'2 4 8 '0
68 64 II 1'2 1'3 1,8 2'0 2'4 1'7' 1'9 2'1 2'2 2'1 2'1 1"7 22'5
69 61 21 2'7 2,8 3'2 4°5 3'5 3° 2 2'5 3,6 3'4 2,6 3'2 3'6 3808
76 66 23 4'4 3,8 3'7 3,8 1,8 o'g r'o 1 °3 1'9 4'4 3,6 4,8 35°4
75 63 28 3'7 3'2 5'3 3'1 I,d 1'5 1°0 1'5 1 06 3'5 3'4 5'3 34'9
71 61 25 3'1 2'7 4'4 3'5 2'9 2'5 2'2 2'5 3'0 3'5 3'1 3'9 37'3
71 60 27 2'0 2'2 2,6 2'2 lor 0'9 1'0 1°0 1,6 2'3 2'0 2'1 21'0
55 68 28 4'5 4'3 4,6 4'5 4'1 5'4 6°5 5'7 4'5 3'2 3,8 4°5 55"6
57 70 30 3'4 3'0 2'9 3'1 3'4 4'2 4'0 4'7 5"7 4'3 3'9 3"7 4 6 °3
52 67 29 4'7 5'2 6'4 4'9 4'4 5"4 7'0 7'1 5'3 3°5 3'7 4°9 62'5
'45 63 40 5'9 3'9 5,6 4,6 5'2 4'0 3'9 2'7 3"7 2'0 4,8 4'9 51'2
49 65 33 5'2 4,8 5'5 5'0 4'3 4'0 4,6 3'4 3°3 2,6 4°3 5"0 52 '0
48 62 3 2 4'3 4'1 4'5 3'9 3,8 4'5 5'S 5"8 5'2 5'2 3,6 4,6 55'0
46 64 37 0'9 o'g 1°2 2,6 3'9 2'7 2'0 2'4 2,6 2'5 1 °4 1'2 24°3
57 69 35 3'1 2'5 4,8 5"3 4,6 6'0 4'3 8"7 3'0 1 °3 0,8 1 °3 45°7
.
50 ·f)7 38 0'7 Oog r03 4'0 5'3 6'7 5'3 4'4 5,8 4'6 2'0 0'9 4 J '9
48 62 35 3'5 3'3 6'1 9'1 9,6 13'9 11 02 7"4 8'7 5'1 3'7 3'5 85'1
CHAPTER X
COOL-TEMPERATE CLIMA1:ES
HE quality which divides the cool temperate from the
4 4
2 2
0 0
6
4
2
0
6
4
b. Valencia
10
8
.. BIll
g. Denver -j
2 6
0 4
C. Boston (Mass.)
2
4 0
h. Peking
2
0 8
d. Vienna
6
4 4
2 2
0 0
e. Chicago j. TOKiO
FIG. 55.-Rainfall Regimes in Cool-Temperate Climates
a, b and c: Marine type; d and e.: Continental type; f and g: Steppe type; hand i: Monsoon type')
Fog is frequep.t especially near the coast, for the air is aJways
moist and a fall in temperature usually results in condensation.
Inl~nd, .under anticyclonic conditions, radiation fogs are charac-
teristic of early winter while the air is still moist.
STORMS. The pressure gradient in the normal temperate
cyclone is not, as a rule, sufficient to give rise to really dangerous
storms, but wind velocities of over 60 m.p.h. are not uncommon
in winter and do much damage to property. Some of the most
serious storms are the result of V-shaped depressions or line-
squalls similar to the Southerly Bursters of Australia, already
described. The' wind-shift line' in the trough of these depressions
is a region of great disturbance with strong squally winds and
often thunder and lightning. This is, in fact, the general form
of winter thunderstorm especially along western margins, but in
continental interiors they are generally heat thunderstorms due
to convectional overturning and are much more frequent during
the summer months and especially during the afternoon. The
number of days with thunder increases southward and inland:
Lerwick has only I day a year with thunder, Dublin 8, Kew 14,
Berlin 15, Vienna 18. Downpours of rain and hail accompany
the storms; the hail may do considerable damage to standing
crops, vineyards being especially vulnerable.
The violent tornadoes of the middle Mississippi Valley generally
occur along the trough of a V-shaped depression, but have some
connection with convection, as is shown by the fact that, though
they may occur in any month and at any time of day or night, they
are most numerous in the hottest months and just following the
hottest part of the day. Though affecting a very narrow area
only, they are one of the most violent and destructive meteorological
phenomena known.
THE SEASONS. Temperature is obviously the determinant of
season, rainfall being of very subsidiary importance in this respect.
In the extreme continental type where the annual range of
temperature is huge there are virtually only two seasons, summer
and winter, the change from one to the other being clear cut and
CLIMATOLOGY
well-defined. At Warsaw, for example, April is n° warmer than
May, and November is 10° colder than October. But in the
marine type, when the annual range is small, there is a gradual
passage extending over two or three months, the transition
seasons being spring and autumn. Owing to the considerable day-
to-day variation and the small annual range, temperatures at any
time during these seasons may revert to those of the season before,
or anticipate those of the season to follow. In Fig. 56 the five
curves represent :-
(a) Mean monthly temperature.
(b) Mean monthly maximum.
(c) Mean monthly minimum.
(d) Highest mean monthly maximum on record.
(e) Lowest...mean monthly minimum on record.
J F M A M J J A SON D
80·
:r 1'\
75
VL ~ ~ _\
70
65
I
/' V--
V l.- r-....
r'\.r\
~\
60
55
V j V r\ \\
50 <L ~ / / ~ I""-.. ~
b / / ~ 'f" ~
~ \ \~
45
F-'"
40 ./ // '\ :\. "-
~V )~
3S c
30 - -iLL ~
\
'"" '"i'-
~
25
;~ ~ .....
20
FIG. 56.-Maximum, Minimum and Mean Temperatures at Cantbridge
It will be seen that the coldest July was actually colder than
the warmest January, i.e. midwinter months may be actually
warmer than midsummer months. This unreliability of the
seasons and especially of the seasons of early growth and harvest
is a serious handicap to cultivation, for killing frosts may return
when blossom and shoot have been encouraged by weeks of
summer-like weather, or autumn fruit may be prematurely nipped
by an unseasonably early visitation of winter conditions.
January
FIG.
SUMMER.
57.-Principal Tracks of Depressions in Western Europe
.
The Azores hIgh has now spread far to the north
,
and the Icelandic low has virtually disappeared as an individl,lal
system, owing to the growth of continental lows on either side.
Winds, therefore, blow mainly from the Azores high to the
continentallow and are westerly with very little of the southerly
component; the gradient is small and the resultant wind is
generally 'light. The track of cyclones lies directly acrosS the
COOL-TEMPERATE r89
British Isles or over the seas to north and south, but they are
~ess frequent and are not as a I1.1le deep when they do occur.
There are, however, occasional thunderstorms, often of con-
siderable intensity, especially in the eastern counties which
experience their heaviest rain at this season. The amount of
rain is not large: London has 2 inches in July, but this makes
up 9 per cent. of the yearly total. Places in the West have
five times as much (e.g. Seathwaite ro inches), but this makes
up only about 7 per cent. of their yearly total. The summer
rainfall of the eastern counties comes mostly in heavy showers
(coI?-vectional) which may give r inch or 2 inches in an afternoon
-a continental feature. Evaporation and run-off are rapid at
this season and it does not appear to be nearly so wet as winter
although the statistics show that it is actually wetter.
By contrast with the January conditions the isotherms now
run east and west, but have a tendency to form loops round
the larger land areas. The South and Midlands are enclosed by
the isotherm of 62°! while London is enclosed by the 64° isotherm;
marine influence keeps the coast somewhat cooler. The highest
temperature recorded is rooo at London in the hot summer of
r9II; this, however, is exceptional and temperatures above goO
are rare, occurring only under persistent anticyclonic conditions.
AUTUMN. These anticyclonic conditions of summer persist
into early autumn, but temperature falls and the nightS"" are
'positively cold. The strong nocturnal cooling of the still moist
air causes fog and mist to form in the evenings, but these are
soon dispersed by the morning sun.
By November anticyclonic conditions have ceased to be
common, a cyclonic control is established and the winter pressure
distribution is restored. Autumn is a wet season everywhere,
for the sea is still warm and the winds off it are very humid,
while the land is growing cold, especially at night. Rainfall is
chiefly orographic and cyclonic and is therefore heaviest in the
West and at night.
Europe
In the absence of any climatic barrier on tbe European plain
there is an almost perfect gradation from the humid, mild,
equable marine type to the dry, extrejne continental type, as
the following figures for stations, all in tHe same latitude, show :-
Temperature Percentage Rain
Station. Range. Rainfall. Wettest Month. in Winter
(six months).
Utrecht 28 29 August 47
Berlin 34 22 July 43
Warsaw. 40 15 July 43
Nikolaewskoe 61 14 June 40
I9 0 CLIMATOLOGY
But south of the plain the scattered blocks of the Her-
cynian Mountains and the more formidable loops of the alpine
chain cause the transition to be more spasmodic, the western
slopes being unduly marine, the basins to leeward being pre-
maturely continental. Not only do the western edges of these
blocks receive more abundant rain than the enclosed basins
which they protect, but also they are more ' marine' as regards
their temperature range and the transition of the seasons. Steppe
conditions occur in the Hungarian basin some 500 miles west of
the general boundary of the steppe. The heart of the Balkan
peninsula is 'cool temperate continental' far into latitudes
which would normally have a Mediterranean climate and summer
rains here nourish a dense oak forest, the home of herds of swine.
Even the Plain of Lombardy, shut off from the Mediterranean
Sea by the Apennin~s, has a climate which is typically continental
and has little affinity with the Mediterranean type. There are
summer rains here, of great value in supporting good summer
pasture for dairy cattle (rare elsewhere in the Mediterranean
basin) and for the peculiar crops of the Lombardy Plain, rice
and maize. Much of the rain is in the form of thunderstorms,
often of great violence with large hailstones which batter the
crops and damage the fruit. It is quite a general practice to
insure against it.
By latitude 30° E. the west winds are parched and dry and
steppe supervenes, but the Black Sea renews their moisture and
its eastern shores, backed by the lofty Caucasus, have 80 inches
of rain in places and dense forest as a result.
The Caspian has no mountains on its eastern shore, which·
is extremely arid, but the prevailing wind here is not westerly
but northerly, determined by the Mediterranean low of winter
and the Sind low of summer. Thus the south shore is the lee
shore, and, like the lee shore of the Black Sea, it is mount~inous.
Along the south Caspian littoral, backed by the Elburz Moun-
tains, is a region with 50 to 70 inches of rain; a swamp in
winter, steamy and hot in summer. Here are dense forests
(from which the Romans obtained the tigers for the gladia-
torial games) and sub-tropical cultures, rice, cotton, sugar
and fruit. . .
This is the last of the cool temperate climates in Eurasia,
north-east of this point there is sandy desert, east of it there
is high plateau, while to the north, where the rainfall is heavier
(Saratov, Orenburg), the long winters compel their inclusion in
the cold climates. When the type reappears in North China it
clearly belongs to the monsoonal sub-type.
COOL-TEMPERATE
North AmericJ
STORM TRACKS. Unlike Europ~ the continent of North
America presents· no obvious lines of least resistance for the
penetration of cyclonic storms, which are compelled to break
across high mountains by whatever route they enter. Yet there
are certain tracks followed with some degree of fidelity, the most
important of which are shown in Fig. 58.
The northerly route, taking advantage of the Great Lakes
and the St. Lawrence valley, is generally referred to as the
, Northern .Circuit ' and is the most frequented track during the
summer when, however, storms are fewest, feeblest and least
constant. puring this time the southern states lie almost entirely
Japan
Marine influence and the warm waters of the Kuro Siwo
combine to give Japan an adequate and well-distributed rainfall
and to moderate the extremes of temperature, but the effects
of insularity are diminished by proximity to land, especially
. during winter when the prevailing influence is off the continent.
Sakhalin, separated from the mainland only by the narrow Gulf
of Tartary, shares the extreme continentality of Amuria ; Yezo is
a little-more fortunate, but has four or five months below freezing-
point; Hondo, separated by the wider Sea of Japan, has much
milder -winters, though even here the January isotherms are
some roo south of their mean latitude. Shikoku and Kiushiu
are virtually sub-tropical, there is no real winter, the January
NASHVILLE. 41 50 59 68 76 79 78 72 69 49'
CINCINNATI. 39° N . 85° W . 628 33 34 44 54 65 74 78 76 69 58 45
WASHINGTON 39° N . 77°W. II2 34 35 43 54 64 72 77 74 68 57 46
NEW HAVEN 41° N. 73° W . 106 28 28 36 47 58 67 72 70 64 53 42
BOSTON. 42oN . 71° W. 12 5 27 28 35 45 57 68 72 69 63 52 41
VALENCIA 52oN . 10° W. 30 44 44 45 48 52 57 59 59 57 52 48
ABERDEEN 57° N . 20W. 46 38 38 40
44 48 54 57 56 53 47 42
BREST 48° N . 5° W . 21 3 45 45 50
47 55 60 65 64 61 56 50
PARIS 48° N. 2° E. 405 37 39 49
43 56 62 65 64 58 50 43
BERLIN 53° N. 13° E. 196 30 33 48
38 57 63 66 65 58 49 39
MILAN 46° N . 9° .E. 49 0 32 3 8 46
55 63 70 75 73 66 56 44
BRESLAU 51° N. 17° E. 482 30 3 2 46
37 56 63 66 64 58 48 38
VIENNA. 48° N . 16° E. 664 29 33 40
50 59 65 68 67 60 50 39
WARSAW 52oN . 21° E. 43 6 26 29 46
35 57 63 66 64 56 46 36
BELGRADE 45° N . 20° E. 459 29 34 52
43 62 67 72 71 63 55 43
BUKAREST 44° N. 26° E. 269 26 3 1 41
52 62 69 73 72 64 53 40
KIEV 5ooN . 31° E. 590 21 23 31
45 57 64 67 65 57 46 34
ODESSA. 46° N . 31° E. 210 25 28 48
35 59 68 73 71 62 52 41
HOKITIKA 43° S. 171° E. 9 60 61 59
55 50 47 45 46 50 53 55
DUNEDIN 46° S. 171° E. 40 58 58 52
55 47 44 42 44 48 51 53
HOBART. 43° S. 147° E. 17,7 62 62 59
55 51 47 46 48 , 51 . 54 57
VALDivIA 39° S. 73° W . 141 60 59 54
57 51 49 46 46 49 51 53
PUNTA/ARENAS 53° S. 71° W. 92 52 51 48
44 39 36 35 37 40 44 471
ICHANG . 3 r o N . rIIo E. r67 40 43 62
51 70 78 83 83 75 65 54
ZIKAWEI. 31° N .121° E. 2~ 38 39 46
56 66 73 80 80 73 63 52
PEKING. 37° N . II6° E. 13 1 24 29 41
57 68 76 79 77 68 55 39
MUKDEN 42°N .123,° E. 144 8 14 30
47 60 71 77 75 61 48 29
CHEMULPO 37° N .127° E. 240' 25 29 36
49 59 67 73 78 69 57 4'2
NIIGATA. 36 ° N .139° E. 84 35 34 40
5f 59 67 74 78 70 59 49
NAGASAKI 33° N .130° E. 443 42 43 48
58 64 71 78 80 74 64 55
TOKIO 36° N .140° E. 70 37 39 44 55 62 69 76 78 71 60 51
MIYAKO. 40° N .142° E. 100 31 32 37 47 54 61 68 72 65 55 45
COOL-TEMPERATE 2 05
RAINFALL
~
32 49 3'7
45 3'5 4:1 3.8 3'7 3'1 3'5 4'2 3'4 3'7 4'1 3.8 44.6
46 51 5'5
15 5'2 4'5 3'7 3'2 3'2, 3.8 4,8 4'1 5'6 5'5 6·6 55'7
39 46 2'2
18 2'1 2'4 1'9 2'3 1'7 2·8 2'7 2'2 3'0 3'0 3'2 29'5
,4 6 54 2·6
20 2'4 2'2 2'1 2'4 1'5 1'3 J'9 2'5 3'4 3'1 3'7 29'1
38 50' 28
1'5 1'4 1,6 1'7 1'9 2'1 2'2 2'1' 1'9 2'3 1'9 2'0 22·6
33 48 36
1'7 1'4 1·6 1'5 1'9 2'3 3'0 2'3 1'7 1'7 1'7 1'9 22'7
36 55 43 2'4 2'3 2'7 3'4 4'1 3'3 2,8 3'2 3'5 4'7 4'3 3'0 39.8
32 47 36 1'3 1'0 1,6 1'5 2'4 2'4 3'4 2·8 2'0 1'5 1'5 1'5 22'9
32 49 39 1'5 1'3 1·8 2'0 2·8 2'7 3'1 2'7 2'0 1'9 1,8 1·8 25'4
30 46 40 1'2 J'I 1'3 1'5 1'9 2,6 3'0 2'9 1'9 J'6 1'5 1'5 22'1
34 52 43 1'2 1'3 1·6 2'3 2·8 3'2 2'7 1'9 1'7 2'2 1'7 1'7 24'4
31 51 47 1'3 1'1 ' 1,6 1'7 2'5 3'5 2'7 2'0 1·6 1'7 1'9 1·6 23'1
24 44 46 I'I 0,8 1'5 1'7 1'7 2'4 3'0 2'4 1'7 1'7 1'5 1'5 21'
31 49 4 8 0'9 0'7 1'1 1'1 1'3 2'3 2'1 1'2 1'4 1'1 1·6 .1'3 16,
58 53 J6 9.8 7'3 9'7 9'2 9·8 9"7 9'0 9'4 9'2 II·8 10·6 10·6 II6'I
, 56 51 16 3'4 2'7 3'0 2'7 3'2 3'2 3'0 3'1 2·8 3'0 3'3 3'5 36'9
6,0 54 16 1·8 '1'5 1'7 1'9 1,8 2'2 2'1 1'9 2'1 2'2 2'5 2'0 23'7
57 53 14 2'9 3'2 6'4 9'3 I5'3 17'5 15'4 13'5 7'3 5'0 4'4 4.8 105'0
50 44 17 1'4 1'2 1'7 1·6 1·6 1'2 1'2 1'2 1'1 0·8 1'1 1'4 15'5
44 62 43 0·8 1'1 2'0 4'2 5'0 6'2 7·8 6·8 4'0 3'6 1'5 0,6 43. 6
42 60 42 2'0 2'4 3'4 3'7 3·6 7'4 5'9 5'7 4'7 3'1 2'0 1'3 45'2
27 53 55 0'1 0'2 0'2 0·6 1'4 3'0 9'4 6'3 2·6 0·6 0'3 0'1 24'9
14 44 69 0'2 0'3 0·8 1'1 2'2 3'4 6'3 6'1 3'3 1·6 1'0 0'2 26'5
.)0 51 53 0·8 0'5 1'0 2·6 3'2 4'3 8·6 8'2 4'2 1·6 1'7 0'7 37"4
, 39 55 43 7'7 4'9 4'1 4'2 3'7 5'2 6'2 5'2 7'4 5'7 7'2 9'1 70 .6
46 60 38 3'1 3'5 5'2 8'1 7'4 13"2 9'3 7"3 8,6 4'6 3'3 3'3 76 '9
Iii 41 57 41 2'2 2·8 4'4 4'9 5'7 6'5 5'3 5'7 8'7 7'4 4'2 2'1 59'9
36 50 41 2'7 2,6 3'4 3'9 4'7 5'0 5'3 7'0 8'5 6'7 3'2 2'5 55'5
CHAPTER XI
COLD CLIMATES
YING within the sphere of influence of the westerly
Helsingfors . 24 19 29 31 21
Leningrad 19 19 39 27 15
Tobolsk. 19 15 51 23 II
Monsoonal Sub-typ~
ln winter the monsoonal variety differs little from the conti-
COLD CLIMATES 217
RAINFALL
~
D Yr. Ra. J F M A M J J A S 0 N D Total.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -I - - -
32 40 19 5'4 7'1 5.6 3'4 5"0 2'7 2'3 3'1 5·8 8'4 6·8 7'2 62·8
35 30 41 26 4.8 4.6 3'9 3'9 5'3 4'7 3'4 5'4 5"6 7'3 5·8 6'4 61'1
, 2 - I I 24 0·8 1·8 2'0 1'3 0·8 0'5 0'5 10'9
74 0'5 0'4 0'4 0'4 1'5
I -13 23 82 0·8 0·8 0'5 0'7 0'9 1'3 1·6 1·6 1'7 1'3 1'3 1'1 13.6
28 19 38 49 0'5 0·6 0'7 0·8 2'3 2'g 2·6 2'5 1'3 0'7 0'7 0'5 16'1
25 14 37 56 0'9 0·6 0'7 0·8 0·8 3'2 3'5 2'4 1'4 0'7 0'7 0·8 16'5
122 9 35 64 0·8 0·8 1'0 1'1 2'3 3'5 2·8 2'0 1·6 1'1 0'9 0·8 18'7
. 21 6 35 70 0'9 0'7 1'2 1'4 2'0 3'1 3'1 2'2 2'2 1'4 1'1 0'9 20'2
33 23 41 49 2'2 1·8 2'1 2'3 3'1 3'5 3'1 2·8 3'2 3'0 3'0 2'5 32.6
37 27 45 48 2·8 2'4 2'4 2'3 2·8 2'7 2·8 2·8 2'7 2·6 2·6 2'5 3 1 '4
33 19 42 56 3'7 3'2 3'7 2'4 3'1 3'5 3: 8 3'4 3'5 3'3 3'4 3'7 4 2 '7
I 44 36 45 34 5'4 4. 6 4'4 3'5 3'4 3: 8 3. 6 3'7 3'4 4'9 5'7 5'5 51 '9
37 29 4 1 37 5'4 5'0 4.6 4'3 3.6 3'6 3.8 3'7 3.8 5'4 6'0 5'4 54.6
I 37 35 42 18 5.8 4.8 4'4 3.8 3'2 3'3 3'1 3'1 5'7 5.8 5'3 5'5 53.8
41 38 43 13 6'7 5'3 4'9 3'7 3'3 2·6 3'2 3.6 4'7 6'1 6'5 6·6 57'2
3'9 3 6 45 24 9'0 6·6 6'2 4'3 4'7 4'1 5'7 7.8 9'2 9'3 8'5
J
8'9 84'3
34 28 41 3 1 4'3 3'0 3'4 2'5 2'2 1'9 '2·8 3'4 4'4 5'0 3'9 3'4 40 '2
34 29 40 25 3'3 2'7 2'3 2'0 2'0 2'1 2·6 3'0 4'5 4'0 4'0 3'1 35'5
39 34 46 3 0 1'5 1'3 1'4 1'4 1'5 2'0 2'4 2·6 2'1 2'2 1'9 1'7 22'0
32 25 41 39 1'3 1'1 1'2 1'2 1'7 2'0 2'7 2·8 2'0 2'1 1'7 1·6 21'4
35 29 44 36 1'7 1'4 1'5 1'5 2'0 2'4 3'4 3'5 3:0 2'4 2'3 2'3 27'4
23 . IS 33 47 1'5 1'1 1'0 1'0 1'2 ,1'5 1·8 2'1 2'4 2'2 2'0 1'4 19'2
32 25 40 41 1·8 1'4 1'4 1'4 1·8 1·8 2'2 2'9 2'5 2·6 2'5 2'4 24'7
30 22 39 45 1'0 0'9 0'9 1'0 1·6 2'0 2'5 2·8 2'1 1·8 1'4 1'2 19'3
28 17 39 54 1'1 0'9 1'2 1'5 1'9 2'0 2·8 2'9 2'2 1'4 1·6 1'5 21'0
22 12 33 52 0'9 0'7 0·8 0'7 1'2 1·8 2'4 2'4 2'2 1·6 1'2 o·g 16·8
25 I I 37 61 0'5 0'4 0·6 0'9 1·6 2'2 2'4 2'4 1·6 1'1 1'0 0'7 15'4
24 I I 38 68 1'1 0·8 1'0 0'9 1'4 2'0 1'7 1'3 1'3 1'2 1'2 1'2 15'2
17 6 33 68 0·8 0·6 0·6 0·6 1'3 1'7 2'2 1·8 1'1 1'3 1'1 1'1 14'2
I22 10 40 67 0'5 0'3 0'5 1'5 1'1 1'5 0'7 1'0 0·6 1·6 1·6 0'4 II'3
121 3 38 74 0'1 0'2 0'4 0'9 1'7 3.8 4'5 4'1 1·8 1'3 0'3 0'2 19'3
:-21 -4 1 12 II2 0'9 0'2 0'4 0·6 1'1 2'1 1'7 2·6 1'2 1'4 0·6 0'9 13'7
-34 -51 3 II8 0'2 0'1 0'1 0'2 0'3 0'9 1'0 1'0 0'5 0'4 0'3 0'1 5'0
14 40 64 0'1 0'2 0'3 1'2 2'2 3'5 2'4 1·6 0'5 0'2 14'7
I "306 -8 22 66 0'1 0'1 0'1 0'2
1'3 1'5
1'1 1·8 2'1 0'7 0'2 0'2 7'5
iI 0'5 0'5
39 29 4 2 40 1'3 1'0 2'2 2'9 3', 3'7 3.8 4'3 5.6 3.8 3'3 2'3 37'9
L
I
CHAPTER XII
ARCTIC CLIMATES
T
HE isotherm of 50° for the warmest month which has
been adopted as the lower limit of these climates
follows a regular course in the southern hemisphere,
encircling the globe at about 55° south latitude, but in the northern
hemisphere its course is much less regular. Being a summer iso-
therm it would be expected to extend polewards over the land and
equatorwards over the sea; actually it reaches well into the
Arctic Circle in Alaska and Siberia but is carried by the cold
currents down the coast of Labrador almost as far south as
Belle Isle Strait and through the Bering Strait as far south as the
Aleutian Islands.
The climates included within this zone might be divided by
the 32° isotherm for the warmest month into two types, namely : -
I. Tundra climates with a summer above freezing-point,
however short, during which the ground is free from snow for a
sufficient period to allow the growth of the typical tundra
vegetation.
2. Perpetual frost climates in which the growth of vegetation is
impossible. .
The former are habitable and though scantily populated
supply some interesting examples of climatic control of occupation
and habits; the latter can never be inhabited and are of little
geographical interest though they present many interesting
meteorological problems and are, of course, of vital importance
in polar exploration. The climates of the former are much
b·etter known, but in neither case have we much satisfactory
material' on which to base climatic generalizations. There are
very few stations keeping regular records and such as there are
have been established for a comparatively short time only. The
records of explorers, while providing valuable samples of polar
weather, are not sufficiently systematic and are naturally mainly
restricted to the summer months, the most favourable season for
travel and exploration. When two or l!1ore expeditions have been
engaged at the same time, e.g. the Scott and Amundsen expedi-
tions of iI9II-12, the synchronous records at different points are
~specia:Qy valuable.
220
ARCTIC ,CLIMATES 22I
90E 90'W
o· o·
FIG. 6I.-Approximate Positions of the Summer Isotherms of 32 0 and 500 in
the Polar Regions
only a few months and under these conditions erosion is slow and
ineffective; the normal geographical cycle is thus scarcely opera-
tive. The chief agents in fashioning relief are landslip and the
downhill creep of half-thawed ground on a frozen subsoil. Pools
and marshes of stagnant water lie throughout the summer,
waterlogged areas growing only sphagnum, lichen and sedges.
Where drainage is better the .tundra is a dreary stretch of lichen
and coarse grass with occasional hummocks of a brighter green
where the home of an arctic fox or snowy owl enriches the soil
with its refuse. Dwarf willows, birches and alders occur in shel-
tered hollows which are' better drained and protected from the
wind; .they seldom grow more than two feet high, but their
shoots and branches, rich in protein, provide nourishing food for,
herbivorous creatures. But it is on the sun-warmed southern
slopes, when the sun melts early and the ice-cold water drains
away from the roots, that the flower carpets of the tundra
brighten an otherwise monotonous landscape. These are veritable
garden plots bright with the blossom of campion, rock rose,
monkshood, purple saxifrage, Iceland .poppy, forget-me-not,
th~ift yarrow, geum, willow-herb and numerous other flowers
with most of which we are familiar in our own latitudes.
ANIMALS. The rhythm of the seasons impresses itself on the
animal life as on the plants; most of the birds leave at the end
of summer for a warmer land, the reindeer retreats to the margin
of the taiga, the arctic wolf follows, and other animals make
long journeys in search of winter food supply. Hibernation, a
common escape from winter scarcity, is not practised, the winter
is too long and the summer too short to build up the necessary
reserves of fat or food supply. A surprisingly large number of
aJlimals, including the musk-ox, arctic hare and lemming, brave
the rigour of winter, seeking their food in the vegetation (e.g.
reindeer moss), which is buried under only a thin mantle of snow,
since precipitation is everywhere light. The sea is a great source
of food and many animals, e.g. polar bear, derive their winter
food supply from this source; even the reindeer is said to make
sp.ift with seaweed when nothing else is to be had. But the
winter is hard and when the polar night is nearing its end, when
food is scarcest and the cold is greatest, they are reduced to a very
poor condition and numbers perish.
Insects, like plants, begin their life with the advent of summer,
mosquitoes, especially, appearing in swarms to the sore discomfort
of man and beast. The reindeer suffers most acutely, for his
antlers, at this season in velvet, are a prey to the insect swarms.
Beca:use of this the Samoyedes take their herds away from the
swamps to higher and drier ground.
CLIMATOLOGY
MAN. The life of man is a constant struggle against nature;
by necessity a food-collector he is often a fisher as well as a hunter,
for the summer is too short to store up food against the long
winter. Fishing, in fact, plays such an important part in his
life that settlement in the higher latitudes is almost restricted to
the coast. The seasonal change of habits necessitates a nomadic
existence, the summe,r home is the portable tent of skins, the
winter home a more permanent structure of earth or snow. It
should be remembered that constructional materials, especially
wood, are scarce and the native must utilize what is to hand,
hence the 'igloo' of the Eskimo. In summer the rivers and the
sea are the chief media of transport (in canoes), for much of the
land is swamp; in winter the sledge drawn by dogs or reindeer,
for the frost converts river, land and even sea into a uniform
medium.
The physical hardships and risks that man is called upon to
undergo result in a high death-rate from accident and exposure;
frostbite and snow-blindness are maladies directly attributable to
climate, but otherwise the polar regions are healthy. Cold is a
preservative and putrefactive organisms are inacthre at low
temperatures, germs and germ-borne diseases are practically
negligible risks-it is an old joke that polar explorers do not
suffer from colds until they return home. Scurvy, -once the
scourge of the lands of winter night,' is now known to be due
to a lack of the vitamins that fresh food contains, and can be
avoided by careful attention to diet.
TEMPERATURE
NEYS ORX_~
SOUTH . 61° S. 45°W. 23 32 33 3 1 27 19 15 13 15 20 25 ,
SOUTH I
GEORGIA 54° S. 36°W. 13 41 42 40 36 32 29 29 29 33 35
McMURDO
SOUND 78° S. 167° E. Coast 24 16 4 -9 -II -12 -15 -1'5 -12 -2
ARCTIC CLIMATES
RAINFALL
- -- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _- c - - -
59 - 15 10 58 0'3 0'2 0'2 0'3 0'3 0'3 1'1 0,8 0'5 0,8 0'4 0'4 5,6
20 4 23 S4 1'0 0'7 0'9 1'1 1,6 2'2 2,8 2,8 3'4 1,6 1'1 0'6 19'8.
25 13 as S7 0,8 1'0 2'S 4'3 1'1 2'4 3'S 1'7 z,o 4'1 S'4 4'2 33'0
14 I 17 49 0'4 0'5 0'7 0,6 0,6 o'S 0'9 1'1 1'1 1'1 1'1, o'S 9'1
•
23 19 28 29 3'5 1'7 2'2 2'4 2,8 2'1 2'1 2'S 4'0 6'3 3'4 2'7 3S'7
32 30 36 17 0,6 0'7 0,6 0'5 0,6 0'7 1'1 1'3 1'3 1'4 1'1 0'7 10,6
28 2S 32 15 1,6 1'5 1'2 0'9 o'S 0,6 0'9 0'9 1'9 1'7 1'3 1'2 14'2
II 6 18 44 1'4 1'3 1'1 0'9 0'5 0'4 0,6 0'9 1'0 1'2 1'0 1'5 II,8
28 24 33 27 2'7 2,6 2'1 1,6 1'4 1'5 1,8 2'0 2'4 2'5 2'5 2,6 25'7
13 6 21 42 0'3 0'2 0'3 0'3 0'5 0,6 1'2 1'7 1,6 1'2 0'5 0'4 8,8
-16 -28 I 77 0'1 0'1 -
- 0'2 0'4 0'3 1'4 0'4 0'1 0'1 0'2 3'3
43 46 43 9 12'0 9'7 11'3 11'3 9'4 9'2 9,6 8,6 9'3 9'9 9'9 10'0 Il9'4
42 44 41 II 2,6 ,2'5 2'7 2'9 2,8 1,6 1,6 I'S 1'3 1'3 1,8 2'2 24'0
28 31 24 20 1'5 1'5 1,8 1'7 1'3 1'2 1'2 1'4 1'0 1'0 1'4 0'9 IS'9
37 39 35 13 3'3 4'1 5'1 5'3 5'5 5'0 5'5 5'1 3'4 2,6 3'4 2'9 S1'2
14 25 I 40 - - - - - - - - - - - - -
CHAPTER XIII
DESERT CLIMATES
HE sole criterion of the desert climate- is aridity, but
Hot Deserts
To all intents and purposes the hot deserts are the trade-wind
deserts, by far the most extensive being the Sahara, which, with its
direct continuation ·the Arabian desert, covers in all an area of
more than three million' square miles. Australia and North
Africa are unfortunate in having their greatest width in these
add latitudes, but North America is favoured in narrowing
rapidly south of 30° N. where the Gulf of Mexico actually functions
as a source of supply of humidity to the surrounding lands.
South Africa and Australia are unfortunate in presenting their
steepest slope to the east and consequently suffeJ;"ing from a long,
arid western slope; South America is better arranged, the· profile
being reversed, and enjoys a long, well-watered eastern slope, its'
tropical desert being confined to a comparatively narrow strip
between mountain ,and coast: ' .
Wherever the trade-wind deserts come down to the western
seaboard the coast is washed by a cold curreht,-the Equator-
seeking return current on the east side of each of the oceanic
anticyclonic swirls, reinforced (see p. 48) by the upwelling of
cold water from below as the off-shore winds skim off the surface
water. The chilling influence of these currents has a profound
effect on the climate of a somewhat narrow coastal strip. Here
is found a peculiar marine variety of the desert climate, with cool
summers, a marked diminution in temperature range, both
.annual and diurnal, a greater humidity and more mist and cloud.
It is best seen in the Atacama and Kalahari deserts, but it may also
be clearly recognized in Southern California, Rio de Oro and
perhaps Western Australia. In contrast with this the normal
hot desert is typically continental, with dry air and a huge
diurnal range of temperature and a considerable annual range.
The isothermal maps bring this point out quite clearly, the iso-
therms running parallel to the coast through a considerable range
of latitude.
Inland the temperature rises fairly rapidly, and except wh~re
~limate is complicated by relief, there is a steady and somewhat
DESERT CLIMATES z37
rapid passage to the Saharan type. Windhoek, 400 miles inland,
has a mean annual tem,perature 7° hotter than Swakopmund,
9-lthough it stands more than 5,000 feet higher, and the hottest
month at Windnoek is more than IO o hotter than at Swakopmund.
When the wind'gets into the east these higher temperatures extend
towards the coast .and it is under these conditions that the
maxima are reached at coastal stations; the temperature at
Ca.~ Juby, for exal1?-ple, only exceeds 80° when the harmattan
bfows 'off the Sahara. '
'Thus in general the temperature extremes of the marine type
are much less severe than.in the continental type shortly to be
described;but the higher humidity makes them more uncomfort-
able to endure; particularly one misses the cool, refreshing
nights of the Sahara which are such a pleasant relief after the
burning heat of the day.
HUMIDITY AND RAINFALL. The presence of the cold current
~erves to increase the aridity since on-shore winds arrive cool,
and being warmed by contact with the land, hav~ their moisture
capacity: increased. In addition, Peru, South-west Africa and
South California lie in lee of high land, so that easterly (land)
winds are descending winds and therefore dry. These two influ-
ences, added to the normal high pressure of the latitude, ensure
that virtually no rains falls. The whole of the coast from Arica
to Caldera has, on an average, less than r inch of rain a year,
the mean at Swakopmund is 0'7 inches. Western Australia'and
Rio de Oro are unsheltered by high land to the east and further-
more the cold currents are less powerful, the aridity is therefore
slightly less; the Australian coast records IO inches as far north
as z6° S. (d. 3Zo in Chile and South-west Africa).
Very rarely a storm invades the desert and brings a short and
sometimes heavy shower of rain; Iquique had zt inches in a few
hours on zznd June, I9II. Showers such as this, spread over a
number of otherwise rainless years, serve to give Iquique an
annual average of 0'05 inch and definitely establish winter
as the 'rainy season '.
The scantiness of the rain is the more· striking in view of the
high humidity which prevails as a result of off-sea winds. At
Walflsh Bay themean relative humidity in January is 85 per cent.
and in July 77 per cent.; along the coast of Peru and North
Chile it is generally about 70 per cent. and seldom falls below
50 per cent.; at Cape J uby it is 8z per cent. in January and 9I
per cent. in July. Fog, mist and heavy dew are everywhere
characteristic and often persiste~t features. Iquique in winter is
clol1dj,er~ than England and the seaward slopes are often shrouded
for days 'on end with dense fog through which the sun cannot
CLIMATOLOGY
penetrate. The condensation is often .considerable, 'clothing may
be saturated, the ground i~ wet as after rain and the dried-up
branches of the tamarisks drip on to the desert soil.
The mists form over the cold waters near the coast as the air
flows landwards and roll up to the coast and up the slopes of the
land. Sometimes they lie at sea-level but more often the base of
the mist rises on meeting the land and hangs at about 2,000 feet
to 5,000 feet above it. In Peru there is a belt of vegetatio~ at
5,000 feet nourished by almost perpetual mist. The level tends
to rise by day and sink to sea-level during the night, following the
diurnal motion of the air. They do not sutvive far inland in the
face of the desert conditions, in South-west Africa not more
. than 70 miles; in Peru and Chile they fail to cross the Coast
Ranges and from the desert of the longitudinal valley one can
watch the heavy vapours rolling over the crest of the ranges but
melting away at once in the dry desert air beyond.
In view of the close relationship between these mists and the
sea breezes it might be expected that they would be most numerous
during summer and during the heat of the day, at which tim~s the
sea breeze is strongest; but actually winter is, in most places, the
foggiest season and night the foggiest time. The explanation is
to be found in the close balance between factors making for con-
densation and factors causing re-evaporation, and especially the·
greater heat in summer of the desert interior which is therefore
better able to dissolve the mists. In some places the coast may
be actually cloudier in summer than in winter (e.g. Callao), but
this never applies to the hill slopes which are comparatively
clear at this season. The uncondensed moisture passes over the
longitudinal valley to the Cordillera beyond and condenses there;
on these slopes summer is the cloudiest season and actual rain
may fall at about 8,000 feet. The scanty rainfall, in so far ,as it is
due to the same causes as the mist, has, like the mist, a winter
maximum along the coast, but a summer maximum on the Cor-
dillera; the latter is a tropical regime and very valuable for
irri~ation.
Cold Deserts
Only Eurasia and North America are wide enough, in inter-
mediate latitudes to bring about deserts, but Patagonia, in spite
of ~he narrowness of South America, is virtually desert becaus~
DESERT CLIMATES 24 I
of the completeness of the screen which the Andes provide against
the Brave West Winds. The last has certain maritime traits
which call for separate treatment, but the other two have strong
points of resemblance and can be considered together.
, Three contributory factors account for their aridity:-1. The
distance from the sea. 2. The basin form with surrounding
highlands. 3. The intensity of the anticyclone that covers them
in winter. In consequence few rain-bearing winds penetrate and
these must descend into the basins and are thus warmed and
dried.
The desert stretches from the Caspian Sea to the Khingan
scarp, but it is not continuous since numerous mountain groups
form altitude oases which break the desert up into a number of
more or less isolated basins, usually basins of inland drainage,
often at considerable altit"ude above sea-level. In America fhe
same climate appears in the Great Basin where the relief type is
reproduced with great fidelity. •
Such rain as falls round the Caspian and Aral seas is winter
rain (Merv 92 percent., Teheran 86 per cent., Quetta 82 per cent.),
showing that this region is a degenerate Mediterranean climate;
such rain as falls in Gobi and Takla Makan is summer rain (Urga
88 per cent., Kashgar 77 per cent.), showing that this is a degenerate
,cool-temperate continental climate.
-WINTER. The dominant influence at- tl;ds season is the con-
tinental anticyclone; in the heart of Asia its reign is absolute
and winter is a dry season; Kashgar has less than I inch in the
six winter months. But to the south and west it is disturbed by
the passage of occasional cyclonic storms bringing a little rain
and snow to Russian Turkestan and the high plateaux of Persia
and Afghanistan where snow lies throughout most of the year.
Here the rain persists into spring, in fact the spring months are
the wettest; Merv has 63 per cent. of its rain in the three
months February to April, Teheran 46 per cent. and Quetta 50 per
cent. Thus the rainy season coincides with the melting of the
snows on the mountains and the two combined cause sudden and
considerable floods, e.g. the floods of the Euphrates and Tigris
on which the ancient irrigation eIflpires depended.
In the Great Basin the rainfall is more evenly distributed, but
spring is here also the rainy season, 37 per cent. of the yearly total
falling at Salt Lake City in the three months March, April and
May.
In Turan the mean temperature of January is in the neigh-
bourhood of freezing-point (Samarkand 32°) and the ther-
mometer not infrequently falls below zero; across the Pamirs in
the Tarim desert it is colder still (Kashgar 22°). Partly thi~ is
CLIMATOLOGY
due to greater altitude, but mainly to the greater continentality;
in point of fact greater altitude is not altogether a disadvantage
and it is at the lower stations where, owing to the drainage and
settling of cold stagnant air, the lowest temperatures, both mean
and extreme, are recorded. Luktchun, in the Turfan depression,
50 feet below sea-level, has a January mean of I3°, Le. 9° colder
than Kashgar, although it stands more than 4,000 feet lower.
Warmer weather can, in fact, be found, as a rule, by ascending the
slopes, a fact well.known to the natives who take advantage of it
in many ways.
The duration of winter increases to north and east; in
Mongolia there are six months below freezing, in East.ern Turkes-
tan two or three, in northern Turan one or two, and in southern
, Turan none. The arrival of spring is everywhere very sudden, .
at'Samarkand April is lIo warmer than March and May lIo
warmer than April, at Kashgar April is I4° warmer than March, at
Luktchun 2IO. The daily range is enormous, often as much as
90°, and daily maxima are high; by June the shaded thermometer
is exceeding roo o in the heat of the day. The suddenness of this
rise of temperature is the result of the prevailing dryness. In
other climates much of the spring warmth is expended in melting
snow, warming water and drying the soil, but here there is little
snow to melt and virtually no water to warm and evaporate.
The result is that spring is actually warmer than autumn; April
is 3° hotter than October at Samarkand, 6° at Kashgar, and n°
at Luktchun.
In the Great Basin the continentality is less extreme and
autumn is warmer than spring, but the difference is only very
slight; at Boise City, for example, the April and October tem-
peratures are almost identical. .
SUMMER is almost as hot as in the Sahara; Petro-Alexan-
drovsk has a July mean of 83°, Tashkent of 8Io and LuktchJln
exceeds 90°. In the hottest hours.of July days the thermometer
ris~s above lIOO and Luktchun has recorded lISo. At the last-
narp.ed station local peculiarities of the site undoubtedly add to
the heat; the absence of cloud facilitates insolation, the bare,
dry ground is strongly heated and warms the overlying air, and
further, owing to its position in a deep depression, ascending air
must be replaced by air already heated by contact with the slopes
and further heated by compression as it sinks into the denser air
layers. Higher altitudes are, however, little cooler; even Lhasa
(lI,600 feet) has a July mean of over 70° and the temperature in
the sun is sometimes more than 140°.
The continental lows are now centred over these arid interiors
and air movement is somewhat ~ariable, but as in the hot deserts
DESERT CLIMATES 243
strong winds from allnost any point of the compass spring up by
day, carrying clouds of dust and sand which darken the sky.
The Karaburan is of this type, blowing strongly from the north-
east in the Tarim Basin. .
Patagonia
Patagonia, transitional between steppe and desert, differs from,
other cold deserts in that it is not typically continental"for on
account of the narrowness of the continent and the force and
regularity of the west winds there is always a certain marine
influence which prevents the winter temperature from falling
very low or the summer temperature from rising very high;
there is, moreover, at the foot of the Andes a ',foehn' effect which
increases the warmth and aridity, so that the isotherm of 32°
nowhere enters the continent. Owing to the dryness of the air
there is, however, a considerable diurnal range of temperature-
about ISO in winter and 20° in summer-so that temperatures
below zero are not unknown in the south and temperatures above
IOOo in the north. T~e strong wind, a characteristic feature of
the climates of these latitudes everywhere in the southern
hemisphere, increases the aridity and aggravates its ill effects by
z:aising storms of dust. Rainfall incre?ses to the north and east,
Neuquen has S inches, Bahia Blanca 2I inches, and there is a
gradual passage to the sub-tropical climates of the better watered
parts of the Pampa.
TEMPERATURE
~I
Station. Lat. Long. Alt. (ft.) J F M A 1.1 J J A S
RAINFALL
- ._ -
~
59 56 61 14 1·8 1'9 1'5 0·6 0'3 0'1 0'1 0'1 0'1 0'4 0'9 1·8 9.6
61 56 72 3 6 0'4 0'5 0'4 0'1 - - 0'1 .0'5 0'2 0'2 0'3 0'4 3'1
65 62 65 8 0'5 0'5 0'5 - - - - 0'5 0'5 0'5 0'5 1'0 4'5
68 58 78 44 Pra ctica lly Nil
72 62 n 3 2 Pra ctica lly Nil
65 58 70 27 0'4 0'2 0'2 0'2 - - - - -
- 0'1 0'2 1',3
80 77 83 13 0'3 0'2 0'5 0'2 0'1 0'1 - 0'1 0'1 0'1 0'1 0'1 1'9
63 53 73 4 6 1'2 1'3 1'3 0'9 0'2 - - - -
0'1 0·8 1'2 7'0
76 70 80 24 1'1 0'9 0·8 0'2 - .0:1 - - -
- 0'3 1'1 4'5
67 78 22 0'5 0'5 0'4 0'2 0'1 0'9 2'9 1'5 0'5 -
0'1 0'1 7.6
174
68 59 79 41 0'3 0'3 0'3 0:2 0'1 0'2 1'0 1'1 0'3 - 0'1 0'1 4'0
67 6g 66 I I Pra ctica lly Nil
64 68 67 12 Pra ctica lly Nil
61 64 62 9 Pra ctica lly Nil
59 60 58 6 - 0'1 0'2 0'2 0'4 0'30'2 0'4 0'3 - 0'2 0'1 2'3
73 77 7 1 20 0'3 o·g 0'5 0:6 1'5 2·81'7 0'7 0'3 0'1 - 0'1 9'5
66 6g 64 17 0'7 0'5 o·g 1'2 1'2 1'1o·g 1'0 0·8 0'7 0'7 0'4 10'1
80 82 70 3 2 1·8 1'7 1'3 o·g 0·6 0·60'4 0'4 0'4 0'7 O'g 1'3 11'1
33 25 44 4 8 0'9 0·6 0·8 1'1 2'1 2'3 1'1 0'7 1'2 o·g 0'7 0·8 13.6
35 28 47 47 1'0 0·8
0'3 0'4 0'9 1'2 1'1 1'1 0·8 0·6 1'0 o·g 10'1
1 37 26 49 58 0'5 0'3 0'4 0'5 .0'7 0'7 0'5 0'5 0'5 0'4 0'4 0'5 5'9
15 1 42 62 51 1·6 1'0 I·g 1'4 0'5 0'1 0'2 - 0'1 0'3 1'0 1'3 9'3
26 I I 41 73 0·6 0'3 0'5 0'7 0·8 O'g 0·6 0'4 0'5 0'5 0'4 0'7 6'9
39 30 55 60 0'2 0'4 0'5 0·6 0'2 - - 0'1 - 0'1 0'1 0'1 2'4
40 26 55 58 0'3 - 0'2 0'2 0·8 0'4 0'3 0'7 0'3 - - 0'2 3'5
33 18 56 77 - - - - - - - - ~
- - - -
1
I 8 -7 ,
28 79 - 0'1 - - 0'3 1'7 2·6 2'1 0'5 0'1 0'1 0'1 7. 6
:57 61 51 27 0'1 0'3 0'5 0'4 0·8 0·6 0·8 0'4 0'4 0'4 0'2 0'2 5'1
i
55 55 47 28 0'5 0'3 0'2 0·6 0'7 0'4 1'1 0'4 0'2 0'4 0'4 1'0 6'0
CHAPTER XIV
MOUNTAIN CLIMATES
NCREASING altitude brings about a series of quite 'well-
9,000 I/' 1\
II- I ,\
8,000
7,000 / \ .
bOOO 1/ 1/ 'I'
5,000 J J ,\
1/ 17
1\
4,000
3,000
v v \\
2,000
a . / V'..,..
17 I,
~I-
lOOO
SL
JFMAMJJASOND
FIG. 64.-Mean Height of Snow-level in the Inn Valley in Northern Tyrol
a. On south-facing slope (
b. On north-facing slope
ness of the slope and other local influences. The line, of course,
migrates up and down the slopes in summer and winter. Fig. 64
shows the migration of the line on the two slopes of the Inn
Valley in the Northern Tyrol and illustrates the magnitude of
the difference that aspect makes. The term ' snow-line' refers,
however, to the line above which the snow does not melt in
summer, i.e. to the crests of the curves in Fig. 64 and is deter-
mined mainly by two values, viz. :-the winter precipitation
which determines the rate of accumulation and the summer
temperature which determines the rate of ablation. It is a line
of some biological significance, for plants can grow where the
snQw disappears in summer (cf. the tundra), no independent lif~
being possible above this line.
CLIMATOLOGY
450.0
slopes where the conditions are more like those of the Meseta,
that of the olive 1,700 feet and of rye 600 feet higher.
The phenomenon of temperature inversion has some important
effects on vegetation and on settlement in valleys and basins.
Houses and farms avoid the valley bottoms which are cold and
foggy and subject to severe cold snaps, preferring the slopes
and the alluvial fans raised above the valley floor which occnr
where tributary streams debouch into the main valley. The
liability to late and early frosts in such ' frost holes' or ' frost
pockets' shortens the growing season and prohibits the cultiva-
tion of delicate plants. The coffee plantations of Sao Paulo,
for example, are always situated on hill-sides for the drainage
of cold air. So sharp is the line of division between air above
and air below freezing-point in some cases that the bottom of
a shrub may be nipped by the frost, but its crown may be green,
260 CLIMATOLOGY
healthy and unaffected. The so-called thermal belt of some of
the Appalachian valleys is a zone about 300 feet above the floor
of the valley untouched by frost, which retains its verdant
green through the winter, separated by a perfectly horizontal
line from the blackened frosted vegetation of the valley bottom.
THE MOUNTAIN ENVIRONMENT tends to isolation because of
difficulties of transport and intercommunication and so to self-
reliance but also to insularity and suspicion; the climate dis-
poses towards versatility since the inhabitant gains experience
of several climatic zones and usually spends a part of the year
in each. He is agriculturist, pastoralist, forester and indoor
worker in one. Physically he is adapted in some degree to the
diminished pressure in which he lives; a larger lung develop-
. ment and wider chests begin to be noticeable above about 5,000
feet and at greater heights there is a marked increase in the
number of red corpuscles (see p. 36). Usually the physique is
good, e.g. the people of the South American ' Puna' and some
of the Kirghiz, but elsewhere there is a marked degeneration,
e.g. the Mexican Indians. Cretinism, prevalent in certain valleys,
has sometimes been attributed in part to the darkness of deep
north-facing depressions whicn never see the sunlight.
Regional Types
Out of the great number of regions with mountain climates
it will be sufficient to describe three only :-
I. The Alps, an example of mouhtain climates rising from
the cool-temperate zone.
2. The High Andes, an example in tropical latitudes; and
3. Tibet, rising from the arid interior steppes.
The Alps
Chiefly because they are best known and because they are
well supplied with meteorological stations the Alps have already
been used to illustrate many of the general points of the mountain
type of climate in the foregoing pages; the more particular
characters which they owe to their position and surroundings
will be discussed below.
The most arresting feature of the winter pressure distribution
in Europe is the ridge of high pressure-the climatic backbone
of Europe-an offshoot of the Asiatic high which extends from
the Black Sea to the Meseta of Spain and continues to the Azores.
It is this high pressure which gives Switzerland its fine wint~rs,
,with clear, crisp, cold air and cloudless skies. It allows local
MOUNTAIN CLIMATES
factors full play, permitting mountain and valley winds to
develop freely and encouraging inversions of temperature and
other climatic phenomena. .
In summer, too, the Azores high sends a ridge-like extension
eastwards into Central Europe, its axis again coinciding with
the axis of the Alps; again local conditions are favourable for
the free development of the mountain climate in its ideal form.
Thus l?y virtue of their position in the planetary wind system,
as welfas 'by virtue of their relief, the Alps function as a climatic
divide, separating the cloudy cyclonic climates of Central Europe
from the sunny Mediterranean province. One may recognize
an altitude variety of the latter, with the characteristic tendency
to summer drought over most of the southern slopes in Provence
and in the Maritime Alps, but the greater part of the Alps shares .
the Central European regime with summer rain.
The climate becomes more extreme to the east in proportion
to the distance from marine influences, the change being more
than normally rapid since the relief' accelerates aridity on the
leeward slopes. There is a decrease of rainfall eastwards and
an increase in the annual range of temperature; some of the
enclosed valleys of the Eastern Alps in Austria are bitt~rly cold
in winter, especially during the night an+d during anticyclonic
weather. Klagenfurt has a mean January temperature of 20°,
the same as on the Obir, more than 5,000 feet higher, and fre-
quently the lower station is the colder by some 20°.
TEMPERATURE
RAINFALL
i';
/-
D
-
Yr. Ra.
-
J F M A
------ -- -- --
M J
-_ -_ - - -_ - - - - - - -
J A S 0 N D Total.
I 22 33 28 3'1 3'4 4·6 5'3 5'4 6·6 6'7 6'4 5'5 5'9 4'1 3'4 60'4
20 25 4'9 4'9 6'3 6·6 6'2 5"5 5.6 5'1 4·6 5'1 4·6 5'3 64'7
I II
17 27 25 5'7 6'7 6'7 8'1 7.8 11'2 12'3 10·8 8'3 7'2 4.8 6'1 95'7
'I
I'
22 37 33 3.8 4'2 3'5 3'2 3'4 3'5 4'3 4'7 5'5 5'6 3'1 2'9 47'7
i;
21
, i 1,8 2'2 2'2 2'2 2'3 4'0 4'9 5'0 3'7 2'7 2'2 2'5 35'7
I: 37 35
I ! 16 34 39 1'4 1'0 1,6 2'2 2·6 3'4 4'3 4'3 4'2 3'5 2'4 1·8 32'7
6 19 3 8 1·6 1'5 2'0 3'5 3.8 1·6 4'2 3.8 1'7 1'4 1'9 2·6 29·6
22 41 46 0'4 0'3 0'3 0'2 0'2 0'2 0'5 0'5 0'3 0'2 - 0'2 3'2
53 44 19 0·8 1'2 0'2 - 0'1 0·6 - 1·6 0'2 1'3 0,8 0'2 7'0
J I
CHAPTER xy
CHANGES OF CLIMATE
o branch of climatology has received so much attention
N during recent years as that of climatic change; geology,
botany, zoology, anthropology, m~teorology, astronomy
and other kindred sciences are daily supplying an almost over-
. whelming mass of fresh evidence Qearing on the subject; theories
as to its causes are being acclaimed, rejected, revived and modified
from day to day; few are without serious objections and none
find universal acceptance. It will only be possible here to give
an outline of the better established facts relating to the climates
of the past and to discuss briefly the means by which they may
have been brought about.
So long as the Nebular Hypothesis of the origin of the solar
system held the field, it seemed natural to suppose a certain
amount of progressive cooling of climates on the earth's surface,
and there appeared to be much confirmatory evidence in the
geological record for warmer climates in the past; but unfortu-
nately for this view some of the oldest rocks known contain records
of an Ice Age in what are now temperate latitudes and it is
clear that from very early times there have been climates of a
nature comparable with those of to-day. Life, evidenced by fossils,
has existed on the earth from before the Cambrian and probably
from a very much earlier period, from which it is apparent at
least that the somewhat narrow temperature limits of life have
not been overstepped at any time s_ince then.
EVIDENCE FOR CHANGES OF CLIMATE IN GEOLOGICAL TIME.
In the more remote periods the nature of the fossils is not of
great assistance in identifying climatic types, for most of them
are aquatic forms showing very little adaptation to climatic
conditions, but with the greater specialization of forms it becomes
possible, by Mesozoic times, to recognize differences between
boreal and tropical types. Still later, with the evolution of more
specialized land fauna and flora, much information can be deduced
from fossils as to the climatic conditions of their habitats, e.g.
the mammoth, the sabre-toothed tiger, the arctic willow, etc.
The evidence provided, by the" nature of the rocks'is mpre
satisfactory, e.g. boulder clays indicating glacial climates, salt
266
CHANGES OF CLIMATE
and gypsum deposits indicating aridity, coral limestones indicating
warm seas, coal seams which, from the absence of annual rings
of growth in the trees, have been interpreted a~ tropical forest
vegetation. Qther plants (see p. 272) did develop rings, demon-
strating the contemporary existence in other parts of the world
of seasonal changes, whi.,ch are further proved by alternations
of coarse and fine sedim'ents, resulting from seasonal flood and
low water (see p. 282), and alternations of rock-salt and gypsum.
Rock salt is more soluble in warm water than in cold, gypsum
more soluble in cold water than in warm; seasonal changes of
temperature 'res-qlt, therefore, in the crystallization from a
saturated solution of salt in winter and gypsum in summer.
Judged on such criteria as these the British Isles appear to have.
passed through many climatic vicissitudes, including tropical
rain forest in the Upper Carboniferous, sub-tropical arid' in
the Triassic, cool temperate in the Cretaceous, warm temperate
in the Eocene, and arctic in the Quarternary. .
EVIDENCE OF CLIMATIC CHANGE IN HISTORICAL TIME. There
can be no reasonable doubt that though the climates of geological
time differed in no fundamental respects from those of the present
time, the distribution of the climatic zones and their limits have
not always coincided with those of to-day. But with regard to
historic t~me (using historic in its widest sense to include the
record Of the last 7,000 years for which we have written records,
however scanty) there is less, though increasing, agreement
among authors. The evidence is collected from a great variety
of sources, few of them absolutely convincing in themselves, but
all pointing with such a high degree of accord in the one direction
that it seems impossible to escape the conclusion. Furthermore,
as will be shown later (p. 283), modern research tends to show
that much of the later 'geological time', for which climatic
oscillations are definitely proved, ~as contemporary with the
earlier 'historical time' elsewhere.
Early efforts to demonstrate these changes were stultified
by attempting to prove a gradual and progressive desiccation
-a wrong conception and one easily defeated.. At the present
moment the prevalent hypothesis, well supported by the facts,
is that of oscillation of climate above and below a certain mean;
periods of warm climate alternating with cooler, periods of dry
climate alternating with wetter. The evidence includes:-
Rainfall and other climatic records such as the meteorological
register kept by Claudius Ptolemaeus at Alexandria in the
first century and that of TYCho Brahe at Uranienborg in the
six.teenth.
Records of floods and droughts.
268 CLIMATOLOGY
Records of dates of sowing and harvesting of crops (there
are records of the wine harvest in parts of Europe since 1400).
Records of dates of freezing of harbours and rivers (winters
with ice off the Danish coast have been recorded since 1350).
Descriptions and comments on weather in contemporary
literature; usually relating only to phenomenal weather.
Legends, e.g. (The Flood' and (The Twilight of the Gods'.
Variations in width of spacing between the annual rings of
growth in trees, especially in the sequoias of California, some
of which are more than 3,000 years old.
Past distributions of plants sensitive to climatic limitations,.
e.g. the date palm and the vine.
Dead forests in lands with rainfall now inadequate for forest
'growth; peat bogs in lands too dry at present.
Evidence of settlement (e.g. ruined cities) where settlement
is now impossible because of climate, e.g. Palmyra in the Syrian
. desert which, it is claimed, must have had a population of more
than 100,000 but now has not enough water supply for 1,000.
Evidence of agriculture (e.g. wine presses and threshing floors)
where agriculture is now impossible.
Roads round dry lake basins and bridges over watercourses
now dry.
Irrigation works where rainfall is now adequate or old condutts
from sources now dry.
Records of lake levels, e.g. the Caspian Sea and Victoria
Nyanza.
Old strand lines of lakes; dried-up lakes and salt-pans.
Advance and retreat of glaciers.
Burials in Greenland: Coffins have been excavated from soil
which is now permanently frozen. The coffins were penetrated
by plant roots showing that the summel; thaw must have pene-
trated much more deeply at the time of burial.
Migrations of peoples on a large scale which may be ascribed
to, or at least correlated with, 'increasing drought of their hpme
region.
All this material must be treated with great care and cir-
cumspection, for there is a grave risk of discovering the changes
of climate for which one is seeking in phenomena really due to
other causes. Thus misrule may lead to the decay of irrigation
works and so to the abandonment of settlements; great invasions
and migrations may have their cause in personal ambition;
improvement of varieties may allow the extension of cultivation
into areas previollslyfconsidered unprofitable; irrigation works
may- alter the level of lakes and rivers; new crops may 'put old
ones, out of use; wind-blown sand may destroy oases; or a
CHANGES OF CLIMATE 269
few barren years may result in the evacuation of irrigated lands
which the desert then reclaims.
o=
=
Glaciation representing Polar Climates
Coals and Lignite representing Sub· Polar
Peat· Bogs
Rock·Salt
Deserts
and Gypsum representing .
the seas to the south through which there was a free exchange of
water between the Tropics and the Arctic. Then came the
Alpine crustal movements, culminating in the ~iocene, but
followed by a long period of readjustments and vertical move-
ments, the highest relief being probably reached early in the
Pleistocene, since when erosion has probably succeeded in lower-
ing it to some extent. The resultant refrigeration begins .to be
noticeable in the Later Pliocene rocks of East Anglia,towards the
feet above' the present level of the lake. Numerous small salt
lakes in Western Nevada, Humboldt, Pyramid, Walker, Winne-
mucca, Honey, and the Carson lakes are the remnants of another
known as Lake Lahontan.
PLUVIAL PERIODS IN NORTH AFRICA. The Mediterranean
became a much frequented track for cyclones and its shores were
well-watered, in summer as well as in" winter. Even in the
Northern Sahara: pluvial periods were contemporary with the
glacial periods in higl).er latitudes. Where now there are dry wadis,
or short streams losing themselves in the sand, there were then
continuous rivers who.se graded courses (in contrast with the
ungradell wadis) and normal fluviatile form with interlocking
spurs may still be recognized.
THE BIRTH OF THE NILE. To-day northerly winds prevail over
Egypt for most of the year, but above them are westerly ~nds
which may be met on Mount Sinai. During the pluvial periods
these westerly winds' were the surface winds and brought heavy
rain to the highlands which lie to the east of the Nile. Down
these there flowed torrential rivers which carried volumes of silt
and debris across what is now the valley of the Nile. But the
Nile did not exist then. At the present day it succeeds in crossing
the desert mainly by the aid of the Blue Nile flood waters from the
Abyssinian monsoon. The monsoon depends on the heating of
the Asiatic continent, but during glacial times a colder Asia
attracted a less powerful monsoon and Abyssinia had dry trade
winds. The White Nile lost itself in the desert and probably did
not succeed in crossing it to the Mediterranean until post-glacial
times, about I4,000 years ago, when the monsoon began to reach
the Abyssinian ·mountains. .
CHINA. But if the summer monsoon was weak the winter
monsoon was doubly strong, since the increased cold added to
the intensity of the continental high. Thus in China the glacial
periods of North-west Europe are represented by periods of
increased aridity and periods of heavy :eolian aggradation, when
the continental influence was redoubled and the winter winds
transported still greater quantities of loess from the arid interior
on to the plains.
THE SUDAN. On the equatorward side' of the trade-wind
deserts the climatic belts appear also to have shrunk towards the
Equator, so that here the desert gained on the savanna. Lake
Chad, for example, although it was once much larger, was also
once much smaller. The shrinkage was probably' glacial', the
expansion' interglacial' ; at the present day the lake is increas-
ing in £iize and in freshness-~ post-glacial recovery towards more
pluvial conditions. Similarly Lake Titicaca, occupying an
282 CLIMATOLOGY
analogous position in 16° S., is at present increasing in size and
drowning the valleys of the rivers that empty into it. There are
, fossil ergs', or'vegetation-covered dunes from Lake Chad, along
the upper course of the Niger, to the sea in Senegal, which testify
to a southward encroachment of the desert, presumably during
glacial maxima, and a northward post-glacial retreat.
THE EQUATORIAL REGIONS. The concentration of the pres-
sure belts doubtless strengthened the circulation of the trade
winds and gave rise to a deep and stormy equatorial low with
increased rainfall. The equatorial la]_(es of Africa swelled to
twice their present size, Lake Victoria was continuous with Lake
Kioga whose level was 600 feet above the present. The glaciers
on Ruwenzori and Kilimanjaro descended by 8,000 to 9,000 feet
to within 5,000 feet of sea-level, but the snow-line only descended
abol;lt 3,000 feet, a clear indication that the cause was increased
rainfall and not decreased temperature.
Qland .~
_J"
t!11llllr StonntraCks
\
300 CLIMATOLOGY
, Pangaea " 271 Portsmo1!,th (Ohio), 194
Papagayos, 104 Potatoes, 185, 262
Para, 72, 74, 76, 80 .. Po-yang, 200
Paraguay, 103 Prairie, 213, 216
Paramos, 262 Precession of the equinoxes, 269
Parana, 165, 174 . rressure and winds, 2}, et seq.
Paris, 62, 181, 182, 204 - . effect of altitude on, 36
Patagonia, 3, 49, 180, 195, 233, 234, Preston, 17
24.,0,24.,1,24.,'!, Pretoria, 17
Patiala, 125 Proterozoic orogeny, 277
Patna, 124 Provence, 261
Paulsen, A., 203 Ptolemaeus, 267, 286
Peaches, 146 Puebla,106
Peat bogs, 268 Puerto Carranza, 152
, Peat-bog phase', 285 Puge~ Sound, 191
Peking, 168, 182, 199, 20 4 Puna, 162
Pemba,82 Punjab, II2, II3, II4, II6, 124, 126
Penang, 85, 86, 87 Punta Arenas, 177, 204
P~nck, 279, 29 0 Punta del Garda, 156
Perihelion, 77 Punta Tumbez, 152
P,ermo-Carboniferous cHmates,271, 27 2, Pygmies, 2
273
Pernambuco, 47, 100, r 0 3 Qu'Appelle, 218
Persia, 128, 241 Quarternary Climates, 267
Perth (W. Australia), 14, 154, 15 6, 15 8 Quayle, 135, ISS
Petro-Alexandrovsk, 24 2, 24 8 Queensland, 3, 132, 133, 134, 161
Peru, 98, 101, 233, 238, 245, 255, 25 6, - , winds above, 24
262 Quetta, 120, 241 /
Peshawar, II2, 127 Quilpue, 152
Philippine Islands, 94, ~30, 169 Quito, 76, 78, 261
Philippson, A., 155
Phosphates, 246 Rabi crops, 127
Physical Climate, 33 Race, Climate and, 2
Physical features, effect: on climate, 51 Radiani heat, 8
Pigmentation, 2 Radiation, Solar, 7, 253
Pike's Peak, 255, 264 Ragunda, Lake, 282
Pilbarra, 133, 134 Ragusa, 143, 147
- 'low', 133,233 Rainfall, IS et seq.
- I P...fipsj-jJ..tp..... , T~Q,Jqfi, T...Qi1., T"'T.:~." ''_'lll., ?_~?_
1i''';:''''', '!fS,'l.Yl.
Pine Bluff, 174 , effect of altitude on, 39
Plateau climates, 37 - , reliability of, 18, 96, 1I0, 143, 200,
Plummer, F. E., 17 203
Pluvial periods, 280 - . seasonal distribution of, 18, 63, 64
Pluviometric Coefficient, 19 - , types of, 18, 160, 180, 181
Pneumonia, 142, 178 Rains, excessive, 17, 123, 131, 134, 166,
Polar anticyclone, 27, :;t2I, 27 6 173, 183
- bear, 227 Rainy days, 16, 143, 195
- front, 27 et seq., 22J, 27 6 Raised beaches, 284
Pomegranates, 246 Raisins, 146
Pontianak, 84, 85 Rajputana, Il3, 116, 126
Poplar, 212 . Ramah,230
Port Antonio, 91 Ramsay, 273, 289
Port Au Prince, 106 Rangoon, 136
Port Elizabeth, 139, 15 8, 164, 174 Ranns of Cutch, I19
Portillo, 152 Rasputitsa, 210
Portland (Oregon), 204 Rawson, Sir W., 16
- (Australia), 140 Red Bluff, 151, 156
Port Macquarie, 162, 163, 165, 168, 174 Red River (China), 172
Port Nolloth. 248 , Red Wall', the, 287
Port Reyes, 151 Redwoods (of California), 151
~ort St. John, 164
, Re~ • soils, 246
""ort Simpson, 203 Reindeer, 227, 228, 279
INDEX 30r
Relief, Climate and, 5, 227 Santiago, 143, I5 6
Retreat of moIJ.soon, IIO, 126 Santis, 264 .
Rheu.matil;m, 121., 1.<\2 Sao. Francisco, 1.°3·
Rhine Valley, ~70' 253 Saratov, 190
Rhodesia, 97 ' Sarmiento, 248
Rhone Valley, I45, 148; 258 Savanna, 90, 99' 101, 10 3, 144
Rice, 100, 109, .125, 12 7, 1<8,.161, 16 3, Scandinavia, 215
172, I90, ::102, 20 3 Schattenseite, 254
Riga, 61 . Schimper, A. F., 60
Rio de ] aneiro, IOO, 106 Schirmer, H., 24'7
Rio de Oro, 235, 237 Schmidt, R., lOA-
Riss Glaciation, 279 Schuchert, C., 2B9
, R<1!tring Forties ',. I, In Scilly Isles, 143, In, 17;8, 182
Robe, 140, 156 Sclerophy1l6us vl"oodland, 62
Rockhampton, 13 2 Scoto-Icelandic rIse, 4 8, 273
Rock Salt deposits, 244, '},67, 272 Screes, 244 .
'Rocky Mountain Footll~ll' type. of. Scrub,58 .
. rainfall, If)2, 193 ' Sea-breezes, 43, 74, 92, 14 2 , 154, 23 6
Roman Empire, 3, 286, i87 Seathwaite, 18, 189
Rome, 140, 141, 143, 15 6 Secondi,82
Rosario, 164, 174 Selvas, 52, 62, 7 8
Rosemary, 145 " Semipalatinsk, ,f3, 216
R~t\\.am<;',t~, ,,1- S.~=ij:.i._<:. 'LaQ~Qa.'lfs, 289
Rubber, 78, 100 Sen,egal, 44, 102
Run~off, 16, 93, 10 9, II3, <00, 232 Senegambia, 44 .
Russel, R. G., 155 Sequoias, annuiJ,1 rmgs of, 268, 270
Russian Turkestan, 241 'Settlement, Clittl ate and, 73, IOl, 103
Ruwenzori Glaciers, 282 Seville, 143
Rye, 259 Shad~tempetature, 9' .
Shangnai, 40, 168 , 169, 17 1, 197, 199,
Sable Island, z18 200
Sacramento, 140 , 151, 15 6 . Shansi, 198
- Valley, 41 Shantung, 168, 197
Sage, 145 Shaw, Sir N., 16, 52, 290
Sahara, 81, 147, 233, 235, 238, 239 , Shepherd Kings " 3. 28 5
St, Gotthard, z5 6 Shikoku, 281 .
St. Helena, 10 6 Shillong, 123
St. John's, 47.215.218 Shrinagar, 124
St. Lawrence·Valley, 19 1,214 Siberia, 216, 211. 220 ,
St. Louis, 204 Siberian' high " 51, 170 , 198, 199,209,
St. Lucia, 92 211, 21 7
Sagastyr, 223, 23 0 Siam, 130
Sakhalin, 2a1. - , c,\l\\ ~\, >.?:F>
Salinas, 244 Sierra Leone, 81. .
Salisbury, 98, 106 Sierra Nevada (Cahforma), 40, 142, 15 0
Salter, M. de C. S., 39, 20:') - - (Spain), :259
Salt Lake City, 241 Siesta, 141
Salt Lakes, 244 Si-kiang Valley, 170
Salween Valley, 26 3 Silurian climateS, 275
Samarkand, 241, 242 Simla, II3, 136
Samoa, 9I, 92 Simoom, 239 •
Samoyedes, 2z7 Simpson, G. C., 134, 228, 290
Samun, 253 Sind, II2, IIS, JI6, II8
Sanders, E, M., 173 _ 'low', 118, 122, 12 3, 12 4, 125, 128,
San Diego, 150' 24 8 190, 233
San Francisco, 4 1, 140, I'F, ISO, .151, Sion, ]., 134
15 6 Sirocco, 17, 147
San Luis Obispo, 15 6 Sitka, 207, 208, 2 13
Santa Anna de Sobradinh(), 76 Slavery, 3
Santa Annas, 150 , Smaller rains " 74
Santa Cruz, 24 8 Smyrna, 156
Santa Fe (Argentine), 164 Snake River, 244
302 CLIMATOLOGY
Snow blindness, 253 Sylhet, 39
Snowdon, 178 Szechwan, 111
Snowfall, 20, 37, 5Q,:144:182, 194,202,
20 9, 2II, 215, 224, 257 Table Mount.ain, 153
Snowline, 37, 38,257, 282 Tabora,76
Soerabaja, 87 Taiga, 60, 185, 212
SQil, effect on climate, 51 Takla MakaD, 241
- - on vegetation, 52, 186 Tamalpais, Mt., 151
- waste, 109, 143 . TamataYe, 91, 9 2
Solar climate, 33 Tanga, 82
Solar radiation, 7 Ta-pa-shan, 169
Solberg, H., 32 Tapti, River, 12 5
Solomon Islands, 134 Tarim Basin, 24 1, 243, 254
Somaliland, !O2, 128, 135 Tashkent, 242
Sonnblick, 253, 264 Tasmania, 162, 195
Sonnenseite, 254 Tasman Sea, 162
SonaTas, 150 Taylor, G., 7, 13, 3 1, 135, ISS, 228,
South Africa, 23, 97,98,139,153,164 24 6 ,290
;South Australia, 139, 140, 154 Taylor; N., Z0 3
SQuth Downs, 39 Tea, 100, 101, 109, 160, 161, 169
'. Southerly burster " 43, 159, 163 .J:eheran, 241, 24 8
'Southern Circuit " 165, 191 'temperaturt), 8 et seq .
.South Georgia, 225, 230 - anomaly, 12, 108, 177"
- Orkneys, 225, 230 - , acc~~~la+~d,ll),~,~l
Spitzbergen, 222, 223, 226, 220 - , effects of altitude on, 36
Spokane, 193 - in the sun,S, 223, 254, 262
Spruce, 186, 213 - , means of, 9, 10
, Squall line " 29 - , sensible, 13, 96, 120, 143, 159, 209
Squantum tillite, 272 - , wet bulIJ, 13
Stanovoi, 51 Tenasserim, 108, 123
, Steering line', 29 Tertiary cliI11ates, 277. 27 8
Steppes, 3, 61, 67, 139, 149, 179, 186, Teutonic peoples, 3
190, 196, 211, 212, 213, 216, 233, Texas, 167
285, 286, 287 Thayetmyo, 123
Stevens, A., 32 'Thermal belt', 260
Stockholm, 216 Thorshavn, 218
Stockwell, 269 Thunder, 84, 96, 150, 166, 183, 190
, Stowed' winds, 83 Thyme, 145
Straits Settlements, 86 Tian Shan, 40 , 2 6 3
Sub-arctic forest, 61 Tibesti Higlllands, 240, 25 6
Sub-tropical Climates, 62, 138 et seq. Tibet, 250, 262, 263
Sucre, 106 Ticino Valley, 253
Sugar, 16, 98, 161, 169, 171, 190 Tientsin, 197
Sulairnan Mountains, 110 Tierra del Fuego, 43
Sumatra, 85, 123 Tierra caliente, 100
, Sumatras " 84 1 - [ria, 78, 98, 101
GENERAL LITERATURE
A SELECTION OF
MESSRS. METHUEN'S
PUBLICATIONS
This Catalogue contains only a selection of the more important
. books published by Messrs. Methuen. A complete catalogue of
their publications may be obtained on application.