Design Manual South Sudan PDF

SOUTH SUDAN
LOW VOLUME ROADS

DESIGN MANUAL
SUDAN
ETHIOPIA
CENTRAL AFRICAN SOUTH SUDAN

REPUBLIC
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
OF CONGO KENYA
UGANDA
Volume 1
ROAD DESIGN
June 2013
i
Ministry of Roads and Bridges
Government of South Sudan
SOUTH SUDAN
LOW VOLUME ROADS DESIGN MANUAL
Volume 1
ROAD DESIGN
June 2013
ii
Foreword - ii
FOREWORD
Low Volume Roads (LVR) typically carry less than 300 vehicles per day and less than 1
million esa loading during their design life. They provide important links from homes, villages
and farms to markets and offer the public access to health, education and other essential
services. These roads also provide important links between village community centres and
the State and National road network.
Many aspects of the design and construction of roads in South Sudan have stemmed from
technologies and practices emanating from research and experience in Europe and the USA
some 40 years ago. These practices have to some extent been modified in the intervening
years, but the basic philosophy of road provision has remained the same. While these
“standard‟ approaches might still be appropriate for much of the main trunk and strategic
road network, they remain overly conservative, inappropriate and far too costly for application
on much of the country’s rural road network. In facing the major challenges of improving and
expanding South Sudan’s low volume rural road network, application of the previously
accepted “traditional” planning, design, construction and maintenance approaches cannot
provide the solution.
Many innovative practices and unconventional techniques, often developed and proved
through years of research, have not found the degree of application and implementation
that they should. Opportunities are missed that would provide better and lower cost
engineering solutions and more sustainable low volume roads.
There is a wealth of local and international information, experience and research that when
utilised, can change past practices and thinking and provide South Sudan with an
appropriate and affordable low volume road network. To benefit fully from these advances
and to see necessary improvements implemented on the ground, the Ministry of Roads and
Bridges (MRB) has developed its first comprehensive national road design manual specifically
for low volume roads. The task was completed with the assistance of a team of international
experts managed by UNPOS and commissioned through DFID’s Africa Community Access
Programme (AFCAP).
Compilation of the documents was undertaken in close consultation with a Technical Working
Group (TWG) comprising representatives of the local industry, national and state authorities.
The National and State Roads Authorities, the contracting and consulting industry, the
University, development agencies and other industry stakeholders all participated in the
formulation of the documentation. Local issues and experience on the geometric, earthwork,
drainage, pavement and surfacing design for low volume roads were discussed and
debated in detail. Of particular interest were aspects of the condition and under-development
of the existing road network; better use of local materials and scarce operational resources;
Environmentally Optimised Design (EOD); dealing with problem soils and the scarcity of
construction materials; traffic loading; works durability; testing and improvement of materials;
construction methods and the beneficial utilisation of labour based, intermediate and heavy
equipment technology options; route selection; and the essential role of maintenance.
Mainstreaming of social, cross-cutting and environmental aspects received special attention
to develop additional complementary components to the design process.
On behalf of the Ministry of Roads and Bridges and the South Sudanese sector stakeholder I
would like to take this opportunity to thank DFID, Crown Agents and the AFCAP team for
their cooperation, contribution and support in the development of the South Sudan Low
Volume Roads manual and supporting documents. I would also like to extend my gratitude
and appreciation to all of the industry stakeholders and participants who contributed their
time, knowledge and effort during the development of the documents.
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Foreword - ii
I trust that the Low Volume Roads manual will provide the essential information needed to
guide our road asset managers and design engineers in the provision of appropriate and
sustainable low volume roads.
H.E. General Gier Chuang Aluong

Minister of Roads & Bridges, RSS
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Preface- iv
PREFACE
The South Sudan Ministry of Roads and Bridges is the custodian of the series of technical
manuals and other reference documents that are written for the practicing engineer in South
Sudan. The documents describe current and recommended good practice and set out the
national standards for roads and bridges. They are based on national experience and
international practice and are approved by the Ministry of Roads and Bridges (MRB).
This Design Manual for Low Volume Roads (2013) forms part of the MRB series of Road and
Bridge Planning, Design and Maintenance documents.
It is intended that companion documents and manuals will be developed to include the
Standard Technical Specifications, Standard Detailed Drawings and Standard Bidding
Documents etc.
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Preface- iv
Manual Updates
Significant changes to criteria, procedures or any other relevant issues related to new policies or
revised laws of the land or that are mandated by the relevant national or state Ministry or Agency
should be incorporated into the manual from their date of effectiveness.
Other minor changes that will not significantly affect the whole nature of the manual may be
accumulated and made periodically. When changes are made and approved, new page(s)
incorporating the revision, together with the revision date, will be issued and inserted into the relevant
chapter.
The road sector is encouraged to not only to put into practice this initial version of the South Sudan
Low Volume Roads Manual but to feed back to the MRB Director any suggestions for future updates.
FACE
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South Sudan Low Volume Roads Design Manual Volume 1: Road design
MINISTRY OF ROADS & BRIDGES LVR MANUAL

CHANGE CONTROL
This area to be completed by the MRB Director

MANUAL UPDATE of Quality Assurance
Manual Title CHAPTER NO.

CHANGE NO.
Section
Table Explanation
Figure
Suggested Modification
Page
Submitted by: Name/Designation:
Company/Organisation Address
email: Date:
Manual Change Action
Authority Date Signature Recommended Action Approval

Registration
Chairman TWG
Director General MRB
Issued
Approval / Provisional Approval / Rejection of Change:
Director General MRB Date:
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The South Sudan MRB wishes to thank the UK Government’s Department for International
Development (DFID) through their Africa Community Access Programme (AFCAP) for their
support in developing this Low Volume Roads Design Manual. The manual will be used by
all authorities and organisations responsible for the provision of low volume roads in South
Sudan.
From the outset, the approach to the development of the manual was to include all sectors
stakeholders in South Sudan. The input from the international team of experts was
supplemented by our own local experience and expertise. Local knowledge and experience
was shared through a series of T e c h n i c a l W o r k i n g G r o u p ( T W G ) m e e t i n g s a n d
workshops. MRB wishes to thank all the individuals who gave their time to attend the TWG
meetings and workshops and provide valuable inputs to the compilation of the manual.
Finally, MRB would like to thank UNOPS and Crown Agents for their overall management of
the project
Technical Working Group Members

Individual Organisation
Jeremiah Turic Bairak TWG Chairman, MRB
Philip Marlow Waiwai TWG Cooridinator, MRB
George Duku MRB
John Kenyi Sasa MRB
Kenyatta Warille SSRA
Jasper Cook UNOPS Team Leader
Rob Petts Specialist Advisor, UNOPS
Fergus Gleeson Specialist Advisor, UNOPS
Darren Evans DFID
George Wagwe USAID
Richard Nyarsuk USAID
Mustafa Azam UNOPS
Meskerem Zewdie UNOPS
Emmanual Taban World Bank
Tony Nyakiore WFP
Emmanual Dijango WFP
Project Personnel
Individual Organisation Designation

Mustafa Azam UNOPS Project Manager
Jasper Cook OTB Engineering Ltd UNOPS Team Leader
Rob Petts Intech Associates Specialist Advisor, UNOPS
Fergus Gleeson WFP Specialist Advisor, UNOPS
Meskerem Zewdie UNOPS Project Engineer
Rob Geddes AFCAP/Crown Agents Technical Manager
Nkululeko Leta AFCAP/Crown Agents Technical Manager
John Rolt Independent Consultant Peer Reviewer
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ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS
> : Greater than

< : Less than
% : Percentage
A
AADT: Annual Average Daily Traffic
AASHTO: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
AFCAP: Africa Community Access Programme
AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome,
ALD Average Least Dimension
ARRB: ARRB Group, formerly the Australian Road Research Board
ARVs: Anti retrovirals
ASTM: American Standard Test Methods
B
BDS: Bid Data Sheet
C
CB : Clay Brick (fired)
CBO: Community Based Organisation
CBR: California Bearing Ratio
CI: Complementary Interventions
CMG : Crown Agents Core Management Group
COLTO: Commission of Land Transport Officials (South Africa)
CPT : Cone Penetrometer Test
CS : Cobblestone
CS13: Cape Seal with 13mm aggregate in first seal
CS19: Cape Seal with 19mm aggregate in first seal
CSIR: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (South Africa)
D
DBM:: Drybound macadam
DC : Design Class
DCP: Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
DCS: Double Chip Seal
DF: Drainage Factor
DFID: UK Government’s Department of International Development
DMT: Dilatometer Test
DOS: Double Otta Seal
DS : Dressed Stone
DSS: Double Sand Seal
DV : Design Vehicles
E
EDCs: Economically emerging and Developing Countries
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EF : Equivalency Factor
e.g. : For example (abbreviation for the Latin phrase exempli gratia)
EIA : Environmental Impact Assessment
EMP: Environmental Management Plan
ENS: Engineered Natural Surfaces
EOD: Environmentally Optimised Design
ERA: Ethiopian Roads Authority
esa : Equivalent standard axles
EVT : Equiviscous Temperature
F
FACT: Fine Aggregate Crushing Test
FED : Final Engineering Design
G
g/m² : Grams per square metre
GDP: Gross Domestic Product
GM : Grading Modulus
GoSS: Government of South Sudan
gTKP: Global Transport Knowledge Partnership
GVW: Gross Vehicle Weight
H
ha : Hectare
HDM 4: Highway Development and Management model
HIV : Human immunodeficiency virus
HPS: Hand Packed Stone
HQ : Headquarters
HVR: High Volume Road
I
ICB : International Competitive Bidding
ICT : Information Communication Technology
IDA : International Development Agency
i.e. : That is (abbreviation for the Latin phrase id est)
ILO : International Labour Organisation
IMT : Intermediate Means of Transport
IRR : Internal Rate of Return
ITB : Instructions to Bidders
K
km : Kilometre
km² : Square kilometre
km/h: Kilometres per hour
L
LB : Labour Based
LIC : Labour Intensive Construction
LVR : Low Volume Road
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M
m : Metre
m² : Square metre
m³ : Cubic metre
MAF: Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
MCB: Mortared Clay Brick (fired)
MCS: Mortared Cobblestones
MDS: Mortared Dress Stone
Mesa: Million equivalent standard axles
mg/m³: Milligram per metre cubed
mm : Millimetre
mm² : Square millimetre
mm³ : Cubic millimetre
m/s : Metres per second
MC : Medium Curing
MPa: megapascal (a unit of pressure equal to 1000 kilopascals (kPa), commonly used in
the building industry to measure crushing pressure of brick
MS: Mortared Stone
MPI: Ministry of Physical Infrastructure
MRB: Ministry of Roads and Bridges
MSSP: Mortared Stone Setts or Pavé
N
NBP: Non-Bituminous Pavement
NCB: National Competitive Bidding
NCT: National Competitive Tendering
NGO: Non-Government Organisation
nm : Nanometre
NMT: Non-Motorised Transport
NRC: Non-reinforced concrete
NRCP: Non-reinforced concrete pavement
O
OGL: Original Ground Level
OMC : Optimal Moisture Content
ORN: Overseas Road Note
P
PCU: Passenger Car Unit
PDM: Pavement Design Manual
Pen.: Penetration
PI : Plasticity Index
PIARC: World Road Association
PM : Plasticity Modulus
PM : Pressure Meter
PPA : Public Procurement Agency
PPP : Public Private Partnership
PSD: Particle Size Distribution
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Q
QA : Quality Assurance
R
R : Radius
RC : Reinforced concrete
Ref : Reference
RFP : Request for Proposals
RS : Road Safety
RTS : Road Transport Services
S
SADC: Southern Africa Development Community
SBL : Sand Bedding Layer
SCS: Single Chip Seal
SDMS: Surfacing Decision Management System
SE : Super Elevation
SlS: Slurry Seal
SMEs: Small and Medium Enterprises
SOS: Single Otta Seal
SOS+SS: Single Otta Seal plus Sand Seal
SS : South Sudan
SSP : Stone Setts or Pavé
SSS: Single Sand Seal
T
TBA : To Be Advised
Tc : Time of Concentration
ToR : Terms of Reference
TRL : Transport Research Laboratory
U
UK : United Kingdom
UKAID: Development assistance provided by the UK Department for International
Development
UNOPS: United Nations Office for Project Services
USA: United States of America
USAID: United States Agency for International Development
USCS: Unified Soil Classification System
USD: United States Dollar
UTRCP: Ultra Thin Reinforced Concrete Pavement
V
VI: Impinging Velocity
VAVE: Average Velocity
x
VP: Parallel Velocity

vpd: vehicles per day
VOCs: Vehicle Operating Costs
VST: Vane Shear Test
W
WBM: Waterbound Macadam
WC : Wearing Course
WLC: Whole Life cycle Costs
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GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS
Aggregate (for construction)

A broad category of particulate material including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag and
recycled material that forms a component of composite materials such as concrete and pre-
mix asphalt.
Apron
The flat invert of the culvert inlet or outlet.
Asphalt
A mixture of inert mineral matter, such as aggregate, mineral filler (if required) and
bituminous binder in predetermined proportions (Sometimes referred to as Asphaltic
Concrete or Asphalt Concrete). Usually pre-mixed in a plant before transport to site to be
laid and compacted. Expensive and usually only used on main roads. Also used as an
alternative term for Bitumen in some regions, and may be a petroleum processing product
or naturally occurring in deposits.
Atterberg Limits
Basic measures of the nature of fine-grained soils which identify the boundaries between the
solid, semi- solid, plastic and liquid states.
Basin
A structure at a culvert inlet or outlet to contain turbulence and prevent erosion.
Berm
A low ridge or bund of soil to collect or redirect surface water.
Binder, Bituminous
Any bitumen based material used in road construction to bind together or to seal
aggregate or soil particles.
Binder, Modified
Bitumen based material modified by the addition of compounds to enhance performance.
Examples of modifiers are polymers, such as PVC, and natural or synthetic rubbers.
Bitumen
A non-crystalline solid or viscous mixture of complex hydrocarbons that possesses
characteristic agglomerating properties, softens gradually when heated, is substantially
soluble in trichlorethylene and is usually obtained from crude petroleum by refining
processes. Referred to as Asphalt in some regions.
Bitumen, Cutback
A liquid bitumen product obtained by blending penetration grade bitumen with a volatile
solvent to produce rapid curing (RC) or medium curing (MC) cutbacks, depending on the
volatility of the solvent used. After evaporation of the solvent, the properties of the original
penetration grade bitumen become operative.
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Bitumen, Penetration Grade

That fraction of the crude petroleum remaining after the refining processes which is solid or
near solid at normal air temperature and which has been blended or further processed to
products of varying hardness or viscosity.
Bitumen emulsion
A mixture of bitumen and water with the addition of an emulsifier or emulsifying agent to
ensure stability. Conventional bitumen emulsion most commonly used in road works has the
bitumen dispersed in the water. An invert bitumen emulsion has the water dispersed in the
bitumen. In the former, the bitumen is the dispersed phase and the water is the continuous
phase. In the latter, the water is the dispersed phase and the bitumen is the continuous
phase. The bitumen is sometimes fluxed to lower its viscosity by the addition of a suitable
solvent.
Bitumen Emulsion, Anionic

An emulsion where the emulsifier is an alkaline organic salt. The bitumen globules carry a
negative electrostatic charge.
Bitumen Emulsion, Cationic

An emulsion where the emulsifier is an acidic organic salt. The bitumen globules carry a
positive electrostatic charge.
Bitumen Emulsion Grades

Premix grade: An emulsion formulated to be more stable than spray grade emulsion and
suitable for mixing with medium or coarse graded aggregate with the amount smaller than
0.075mm not exceeding 2%.
Quick setting grade: An emulsion specially formulated for use with fine slurry seal type
aggregates, where quick setting of the mixture is desired.
Spray grade: An emulsion formulated for application by mechanical spray equipment in
chip seal construction where no mixing with aggregate is required.
Stable mix grade: An emulsion formulated for mixing with very fine aggregates, sand
and crusher dust. Mainly used for slow-setting slurry seals and tack coats.
Black Cotton Soil

An expansive clay found widely in the North East of the country that expands and loses most
of its strength when wetted.
Blinding
a) A layer of lean concrete, usually 5 to 10 cm thick, placed on soil to seal it and provide a
clean and level working surface to build the foundations of a wall, or any other structure.
b) An application of fine material e.g. sand, to fill voids in the surface of a pavement or
earthworks layer.
Brick (fired clay)

A hard durable block of material formed from burning (firing) clay at high temperature.
Bridge
A structure usually with a span of 5 metres or more, providing a means of crossing above
water, a railway or another obstruction, whether natural or artificial. A bridge consists of
abutments, deck and sometimes wingwalls and piers, or maybe an arch.
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Camber
The road surface is normally shaped to fall away from the centre line to either side. The
camber is necessary to shed rain water and reduce the risk of passing vehicles colliding. The
slope of the camber is called the Crossfall. On sharp bends the road surface should fall
directly from the outside of the bend to the inside (superelevation).
Cape Seal
A multiple bituminous surface treatment that consists of a single application of binder and
stone followed by one or two applications of slurry.
Carriageway
The road pavement or bridge deck surface on which vehicles travel.
Cascade
A drainage channel with a series of steps, sometimes with intermediate silt traps or ponds, to
take water down a steep slope.
Catchpit
A manhole or open structure with a sump to collect silt.
Catchwater Drain
See Cutoff.
Causeway or Vented Drift

Low level structure constructed across streams or rivers with openings to permit water to pass
below road level. The causeway may become submerged in flood conditions.
Cement (for construction)

A dry powder which on the addition of water (and sometimes other additives), hardens and
sets independently to bind aggregates together to produce concrete. Cement can also be
used to stabilise certain types of soil. Cement is also sometimes used as a fine filler in
bituminous mixes.
Chippings
Clean, strong, durable pieces of stone made by crushing or napping rock. The chippings are
usually screened to obtain material in a small sise range.
Chip Seal, Single

An application of bituminous binder followed by a layer of stone or clean sand. The stone is
sometimes covered with a fog spray.
Chip Seal, Double

An application of bituminous binder and stone followed by a second application of binder and
stone or sand. The second seal usually uses a smaller aggregate size to help key the layers
together. A fog spray is sometimes applied on the second layer of aggregate.
Chute
An inclined pipe, drain or channel constructed in or on a slope.
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Cobble Stone (Dressed stone)

Cubic pieces of stone larger than setts, usually shaped by hand and built into a road surface
layer or surface protection.
Coffer Dam
A temporary dam built above the ground to give access to an area which is normally, or has a
risk of being, submerged or waterlogged. Cofferdams may be constructed of soil, sandbags or
sheet-piles.
Collapsible soil
Soil that undergoes a significant, sudden and irreversible decrease in volume upon wetting.
Compaction
Reduction in bulk of fill or other material by rolling or tamping.
Complimentary Interventions
Actions or initiatives that are implemented through a roads project which are targeted toward
the communities that lie within the influence corridor of the road and are intended to optimise
the benefits brought by the road and to extend the positive and mitigate the negative impacts
of the project.
Concrete
A construction material composed of cement (most commonly Portland cement, but
occasionally using other available cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement),
aggregate (generally a coarse aggregate such as gravel or crushed stone plus a fine
aggregate such as sand), water, (and sometimes chemical admixtures to improve
performance or for special applications).
Concrete Block Paving

A course of interlocking or rectangular concrete blocks placed on a suitable base course and
bedded and normally jointed with sand.
Counterfort Drain
A drain running down a slope and excavated into it. The excavation is partly or completely
filled with free draining material to allow ground water to escape.
Cribwork
Timber or reinforced concrete beams laid in an interlocking grid, and filled with soil to form a
retaining wall.
Crossfall
See Camber
Crushed Stone
A form of construction aggregate, typically produced by mining a suitable rock deposit and
breaking the removed rock down to the desired size using mechanical crushers, or manually
using hammers.
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Curing
The process of keeping freshly laid/placed concrete moist to prevent excessive evaporation
with attendant risk of loss of strength or cracking. Similarly with cement or lime stabilised
layers, the measures to minimise moisture loss during the initial period of strength
development.
Cut-off/Catchwater Drain
A ditch constructed uphill from a cutting face to intercept surface water flowing towards the
road.
Debris Rack or Grill

Grill, grid or post structure located near a culvert entrance to hold back floating debris too
large to pass through the culvert.
Deck
The part of a bridge that spans between abutments or pier supports, and carries the road
traffic.
Design speed
The assessed maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section of road
when conditions are so favourable that the design features of the road govern the speed.
Dispersive soil
Soil in which the clay particles detach from each other and from the soil structure in the
presence of water and go into suspension.
Distributor
A vehicle or towed apparatus comprising an insulated tank, usually with heating and
circulating facilities, and a spray bar capable of applying a thin, uniform and predetermined
layer of binder. The equipment may also be fitted with a hand lance for manual spraying.
Ditch (Drain)
A long narrow excavation designed or intended to collect and drain off surface water.
Drainage
Interception and removal of ground water and surface water by artificial or natural means.
Drainage Pipe
An underground pipe to carry water.
Dressed Stone
See Cobble Stone
Drift or Ford
A stream or river crossing at bed level over which the stream or river water can flow.
Dry-bound Macadam
A pavement layer constructed where the voids in a large single-sized stone skeleton are filled
with a fine sand, vibrated in with suitable compaction equipment.
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Earth Road
See ENS.
Embankment
Constructed earthworks below the pavement raising the road above the surrounding natural
ground level.
ENS (Engineered Natural Surface)

An earth road built from the soil in place at the road location, and provided with a camber and
drainage system
Expansive soil
Typically clayey soil that undergoes large volume changes in direct response to moisture
changes.
Filler
Mineral matter composed of particles smaller than 0.075mm.
Flow Spreader
A structure designed to disperse the flow at the outfall of a ditch or drain to minimise the risk
of erosion downstream.
Fog Spray/Seal
A light application of diluted bitumen emulsion to the final layer of stone of a reseal or chip
seal, or to an existing bituminous surfacing as a rejuvenating maintenance treatment.
Ford
See Drift
Formation
The shaped surface of the earthworks, or subgrade, before constructing the pavement layers.
Gabion
Stone-filled wire or steel mesh cage. Gabions are often used as retaining walls or river
bank/bed scour protection structures.
Geocells
Typical cellular confinement systems are made with ultrasonically-welded high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) or Novel Polymeric Alloy strips that are expanded on-site to form a
honeycomb-like structure which may be filled with sand, soil, rock or concrete. Used in
construction for erosion control, soil stabilisation on flat ground and steep slopes, channel
protection, and structural reinforcement for load support and earth retention.
Gravel (Construction Material)

A naturally-occurring, weathered or naturally transported rock within a specific coarse particle
size range. Gravel is typically used as a pavement layer in its natural or modified condition, or
as a road surface wearing course. Suitable gravel may also be used in a graded gravel seal in
appropriate circumstances.
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Hand Packed Stone

A layer of large, angular broken stones laid by hand with smaller stones or gravel rammed
into the spaces between stones to form a road surface layer.
Heavy Equipment
Sophisticated civil engineering equipment typically designed for, and manufactured in, high-
wage, low-investment-charge economies. It is expected to operate with close support and
high annual utilisation; usually designed for a single function with high efficiency operation.
Currently imported ‘Heavy Equipment’ dominates the South Sudan road sector. It is
expensive to own and operate in the local environment.
Incremental paving
Road surface comprising small blocks such as shaped stone (setts) or bricks, jointed with
sand or mortar.
Intermediate Equipment
Simple or intermediate equipment, designed for low initial and operating costs, durability and
ease of maintenance and repair in the conditions typical of a limited-resource environment,
rather than for high theoretical efficiency. It is preferable if the equipment can also be
manufactured or fabricated locally/regionally..
Invert
The lowest point of the internal cross-section of a ditch, pipe or culvert.
Labour Based Construction

Economically efficient employment of as great a proportion of labour as is technically feasible
throughout the construction process to produce the standard of construction as demanded by
the specification and allowed by the available funding. Substitution of equipment with labour
as the principal means of production..
Labour Intensive Construction

Works using large numbers of labourers with the prime objective of creating temporary or
permanent employment, often with achieving sustainable and durable infrastructure as a
secondary concern.
Layby
An area adjacent to the road for the temporary parking of vehicles.
Lime
Lime in a material derived from the burning of limestone or chalk. It is normally obtainable in
its ‘hydrated’ form (slaked) as Calcium Hydroxide. It can be used for the drying, improvement
and stabilisation of suitable soils, as an anti-stripping agent in the production of bituminous
mixes and as a binder in masonry or brick work mortars.
Local Resources
These can be human resources, local government, private, NGO, and community institutions,
local entrepreneurs such as contractors, consultants, industrialists and artisans, local skills,
locally made or fabricated intermediate equipment, local materials such as local produced
aggregates, bricks, timber and marginal materials, locally raised finance or provision of
materials or services in kind.
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Local Resource Based Road Works aim to deliver the maximum benefits to local
communities and development.
Low Volume Road

Roads carrying up to about 300 motor vehicles per day and intended to carry less than about
1 million equivalent standard axles over their design life.
Macadam
A mixture of broken or crushed stone of various sizes (usually less than 3cm) laid to form a
road surface layer. Bitumen macadam uses a bituminous binder to hold the material together.
Tarmacadam uses tar for the same purposes. Bound macadams are usually expensive for
use on LVR.
Manhole
Accessible pit with a cover forming part of the drainage system and permitting inspection and
maintenance of underground drainage pipes.
Margins
The right of way or land area maintained or owned by the road authority or owner.
Mitre Drain (Turn Out Drain)

A drain that leads water away from the Side Drains to the adjoining land.
Otta Seal
A carpet of graded (natural gravel or crushed rock) aggregate spread over a freshly sprayed
hot bituminous ‘soft’ (low viscosity) binder and rolled in with heavy roller.
Outfall
Discharge end of a ditch or culvert.
Parapet
The protective edge, barrier, wall or railing at the edge of a bridge deck.
Pavé
See Sett
Paved Road
A paved road is a road with a Stone, Bituminous, Brick or Concrete surfacing.
Pavement
The constructed layers of the road on which the vehicles travel.
Penetration Macadam
A pavement layer made from one or more applications of coarse, open-graded aggregate
(crushed stone, slag, or gravel) followed by the spray application of bituminous binder.
Usually comprising two or three applications of stone each of decreasing particle size, each
grouted into the previous application before compaction of the completed layer.
Permeable Soils
Soils through which water will drain easily e.g. sandy soils. Clays are generally impermeable
except when cracked or fissured (e.g. ‘Black Cotton’ soil in dry weather).
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Prime Coat
A coat of suitable bituminous binder applied to a non-bituminous granular pavement layer as
a preliminary treatment before the application of a bituminous base or surfacing. While
adhesion between this layer and the bituminous base or surfacing may be promoted, the
primary function of the prime coat is to assist in sealing the surface voids and bind the
aggregate near the surface of the layer. Not to be confused with Tack Coat
Reinforced Concrete
A mixture of coarse and fine stone aggregate bound with cement and water and reinforced
with steel rods or mesh for added strength.
Reseal
A surface treatment applied to an existing bituminous surface.
Rejuvenator
A material which may range from a soft bitumen to petroleum which, when applied to
reclaimed asphalt or to existing bituminous surfacing, has the ability to soften aged, hard,
brittle binders.
Riprap
Stones, usually between 5 to 50 kg, used to protect the banks or bed of a river or watercourse
from scour.
Roadbase and Sub-base

Pavement courses between surfacing and subgrade.
Road Maintenance
Suitable regular and occasional activities to keep pavement, shoulders, slopes, drainage
facilities and all other structures and property within the road margins as near as possible to
their as constructed or renewed condition. Maintenance includes minor repairs and
improvements to eliminate the cause of defects and avoid excessive repetition of
maintenance efforts.
Roadway
The portion within the road margins, including shoulders, for vehicular use.
Scarifying
The systematic disruption and loosening of the top of a road or layer surface by mechanical or
other means.
Scour - Defect:
Erosion of a channel bed area by water in motion, producing a deepening or widening of the
channel.
Scour Checks
Small checks in a ditch or drain to reduce water velocity and reduce the possibility of erosion.
Scuppers
Drainage pipes or outlets in a bridge deck.
xx
Seal
A term frequently used instead of “reseal” or “surface treatment”. Also used in the context of
“double seal”, and “sand seal” where sand is used instead of stone.
Selected layers
Pavement layers of imported selected gravel or soil materials used to bring the subgrade
support properties up to the required structural standard for placing the sub-base or road
base layer.
Sett (Pavé)
A small piece of hard stone trimmed by hand to a size of about 10cm cube used as a paving
unit.
Shoulder
Paved or unpaved part of the roadway next to the outer edge of the pavement. The shoulder
provides side support for the pavement and allows vehicles to stop or pass in an emergency.
Site Investigation
Collection of essential information on the soil and rock characteristics, topography, land use,
natural environment, and socio-political environment necessary for the location, design and
construction of a road.
Slope
A natural or artificially constructed soil surface at an angle to the horizontal.
Slurry
A mix of suitably graded fine aggregate, cement or hydrated lime, bitumen emulsion and
water, used for filling the voids in the final layer of stone of a new surface treatment or as a
maintenance treatment (also referred to as a slurry seal).
Slurrybound Macadam
A surfacing or pavement layer constructed where the voids in single-sized stone skeleton are
filled using bituminous slurry.
Sods
Turf but with more soil attached (usually more than 10 cms soil thickness).
Soffit
The highest point in the internal cross-section of a culvert, or the underside of a bridge deck.
Spray Lance
Apparatus permitting hand-application of bituminous binder at a desired rate of spread
through a nozzle.
Squeegee
A small wooden or metal board with a handle for spreading bituminous mixtures by hand.
Stringer
Longitudinal beam in a bridge deck or structure.
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Sub-base
See Roadbase.
Subgrade
The native material or earthworks formation underneath a constructed road pavement.
Sub-Soil Drainage
See Underdrainage.
Surface Dressing
A sprayed or hand applied film of bitumen followed by the application of a layer of stone
chippings, which is then lightly rolled.
Surface Treatment
A general term incorporating chip seals, slurry seals, micro surfacing, or fog sprays.
Surfacing
The road layer with which traffic tyres make direct contact. Consists of wearing course, and
sometimes a base course or binder course.
Tack Coat
A coat of bituminous binder applied to a primed layer or to an existing bituminous surface as a
preliminary treatment to promote adhesion between the existing surface and a subsequently
applied bituminous layer.
Tar Binder
A binder made from processing coal.
Template
A thin board or timber pattern used to check the shape of an excavation.
Traffic Lane
The portion of the carriageway usually defined by road markings for the movement of a single
line of vehicles.
Transverse Joint
Joint normal to, or at an angle to, the road centre line.
Turf
A grass turf is formed by excavating an area of live grass and lifting the grass complete with
about 5 cms of topsoil and roots still attached.
Turn Out Drain

See Mitre Drain.
Underdrainage (Sub-Soil Drainage)

System of pervious pipes or free draining material, designed to collect and carry water in the
ground.
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Unpaved Road
A road with a soil or gravel surface.
Vented Drift
See Causeway.
Waterbound Macadam
A pavement layer constructed where the voids in a large single-sized stone skeleton are filled
with a fine sand, washed in by the application of water.
Wearing Course
The upper layer of a road pavement on which the traffic runs and is expected to wear under
the action of traffic. This applies to gravel and bituminous surfaces.
Weephole
Opening provided in retaining walls or bridge abutments to permit drainage of water in the
filter layer or soil layer behind the structure. Weepholes prevent water pressure building up
behind the structure.
Windrow
A ridge of material formed by the spillage from the end of the machine blade or continuous
heap of material formed by labour.
Wingwall
Retaining wall at a bridge abutment to retain and protect the embankment fill behind the
abutment.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION: CONTEXT AND SCOPE OF THE MANUAL ............... 1

1.1 Structure and Layout of Manual .................................................................................... 3
1.2 Road Network Classification ........................................................................................... 4

1.2.1 Importance of road classification .......................................................................... 4
1.2.2 Road classification system ................................................................................... 4
2 LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND OWNERSHIP ............................................. 7
3 THE APPROACH TO LVR DESIGN ......................................................... 8

3.1 Design Principles, the Road Environment, Use of Local Resources......................... 8
3.1.1 Basic Access ......................................................................................................... 9
3.1.2 Full Access ............................................................................................................ 9
3.1.3 Meeting the challenges ......................................................................................... 9
3.2 Maintenance Capacity and Development ................................................................... 10
3.3 Low volume earth and gravel roads ............................................................................ 10
3.4 Low volume paved roads ............................................................................................. 12
3.5 Surface Improvement Technology .............................................................................. 13
3.6 Operational Environment ............................................................................................. 13

3.6.1 Political support ................................................................................................... 14
3.6.2 Social acceptance ............................................................................................... 14
3.6.3 Institutional capacity ............................................................................................ 15
3.7 Technology Choice ....................................................................................................... 15
3.8 Viability and Sustainability ........................................................................................... 16

3.8.1 Economic viability ................................................................................................ 16
3.8.2 Financially sound ................................................................................................. 16
3.8.3 Protection of the environment ............................................................................. 16
3.9 Road Project Implementation ....................................................................................... 16

3.9.1 Contract of works ................................................................................................ 16
3.9.2 Supervision services ........................................................................................... 18
4 SOUTH SUDAN ROAD ENVIRONMENTS ............................................. 19

4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 19
4.2 Climate ............................................................................................................................ 21
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4.3 Surface/Sub-surface Hydrology................................................................................... 22
4.4 Subgrade and Foundations .......................................................................................... 24
4.5 Traffic.............................................................................................................................. 24
4.6 Construction Materials ................................................................................................. 24
4.7 Terrain ............................................................................................................................ 26
4.8 South Sudan Construction Regime ............................................................................. 26
4.9 Maintenance Regime ..................................................................................................... 27
4.10 The Road Safety Regime .......................................................................................... 27
4.11 The Green Environment ........................................................................................... 27
5 ROUTE SELECTION AND GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION ........... 28

5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 28
5.2 Site Investigation Components.................................................................................... 28
5.3 Principal Considerations for Route Selection ............................................................ 29

5.3.1 General considerations and good practice .......................................................... 29
5.3.2 Special considerations in hilly and mountainous areas ...................................... 30
5.4 Site Investigation Procedures ...................................................................................... 31
5.5 Desk Studies .................................................................................................................. 32
5.6 Walkover Surveys and Geotechnical Mapping .......................................................... 36
5.7 Ground Investigations .................................................................................................. 36

5.7.1 General ................................................................................................................ 36
5.8 Laboratory Test Programmes ...................................................................................... 38
5.9 Investigations for Project Phases................................................................................ 38

5.9.1 Identification and general planning ..................................................................... 39
5.9.2 Pre-feasibility study ............................................................................................. 39
5.9.3 Feasibility study or preliminary engineering design ............................................ 40
5.9.4 Final engineering design ..................................................................................... 40
5.9.5 Subgrade Characterisation .................................................................................. 41
5.9.6 Earthworks........................................................................................................... 42
5.9.7 Construction materials ......................................................................................... 43
5.10 Investigations for Small Structures ........................................................................ 44

5.10.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 44
5.10.2 Assessment of the problem or need ................................................................... 44
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5.10.3 Assessment of potential structures ..................................................................... 45

5.10.4 Desk study ........................................................................................................... 45
5.10.5 Field study ........................................................................................................... 45
5.10.6 Collection of initial design data ............................................................................ 46
5.10.7 Field assessment practicalities............................................................................ 48
5.10.8 Foundation bearing capacity ............................................................................... 48
6 GEOMETRIC DESIGN ............................................................................ 50

6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 50
6.1.1 Principal factors affecting geometric standards .................................................. 50
6.1.2 How the standards are used ............................................................................... 51
6.2 The Principal Factors Determining the Choice of Geometric standard .................. 53
6.2.1 Traffic volume ...................................................................................................... 53
6.2.2 The design vehicle .............................................................................................. 54
6.2.3 Traffic composition – proportion of heavy vehicles ............................................. 56
6.2.4 Traffic composition - use of Passenger Car Units (PCUs) .................................. 56
6.2.5 Terrain ................................................................................................................. 57
6.2.6 Roadside population (open country or populated areas) .................................... 58
6.2.7 Pavement type .................................................................................................... 58
6.2.8 Soil type and climate ........................................................................................... 58
6.2.9 Safety .................................................................................................................. 59
6.2.10 Construction technology ...................................................................................... 61
6.2.11 Administrative function ........................................................................................ 61
6.2.12 Matrix of standards .............................................................................................. 61
6.3 Cross Sections .............................................................................................................. 62

6.3.1 Slopes of shoulders, side slopes, embankments ................................................ 62
6.3.2 Roadside ditches ................................................................................................. 63
6.3.3 Clear zones ......................................................................................................... 63
6.3.4 Right-of-way ........................................................................................................ 64
6.3.5 Shoulders ............................................................................................................ 64
6.3.6 Single lane roads and passing places ................................................................. 65
6.3.7 Width standards .................................................................................................. 66
6.4 Design Speed and Geometry ....................................................................................... 67

6.4.1 Stopping sight distance ....................................................................................... 67
6.4.2 Stopping sight distance for single lane roads (meeting sight distance) .............. 68
6.4.3 Intersection sight distance ................................................................................... 68
6.4.4 Passing sight distances ....................................................................................... 69
6.4.5 Camber and cross-fall ......................................................................................... 69
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6.4.6 Adverse cross-fall ................................................................................................ 69

6.4.7 Superelevation .................................................................................................... 71
6.5 Horizontal Alignment .................................................................................................... 72

6.5.1 Curve length ........................................................................................................ 73
6.5.2 Curve widening .................................................................................................... 73
6.6 Vertical Alignment ......................................................................................................... 74

6.6.1 Crest curves ........................................................................................................ 74
6.6.2 Sag curves........................................................................................................... 75
6.6.3 Gradient ............................................................................................................... 75
6.7 Harmonisation of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment ................................................ 75

6.7.1 Situations to avoid ............................................................................................... 75
6.7.2 Balance................................................................................................................ 76
6.7.3 Phasing................................................................................................................ 77
6.7.4 Junctions and Intersections ................................................................................. 77
6.8 Safety .............................................................................................................................. 78

6.8.1 Traffic calming ..................................................................................................... 79
6.8.2 Road markings, signage and lighting .................................................................. 80
6.9 Traffic Signs ................................................................................................................... 80

6.9.1 Warning signs ...................................................................................................... 80
6.9.2 Information signs ................................................................................................. 81
6.10 Road Markings .......................................................................................................... 81

6.10.1 Pavement markings ............................................................................................. 81
6.10.2 Object markers .................................................................................................... 82
6.10.3 Road studs .......................................................................................................... 82
6.10.4 Marker posts ........................................................................................................ 82
6.11 Lighting ...................................................................................................................... 82
6.12 Safety Barriers........................................................................................................... 82

6.12.1 Segregating vulnerable road users ..................................................................... 82
6.12.2 Safety audits ........................................................................................................ 83
6.13 Using the Geometric Standards .............................................................................. 83

6.13.1 Upgrading an existing road ................................................................................. 83
6.13.2 Designing a road to replace an existing track ..................................................... 84
6.13.3 Designing a new road .......................................................................................... 84
6.14 LVR Geometric Design Standards .......................................................................... 84

6.14.1 Traffic composition .............................................................................................. 84
6.14.2 Geometric design standards for LVRs ................................................................ 84
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6.14.3 Design-by-eye ..................................................................................................... 89

6.14.4 Typical cross sections ......................................................................................... 89
6.14.5 Roadside population and non-motorised vehicles ............................................ 102
7 SURFACING AND PAVEMENT DESIGN ............................................. 103

7.1 Introduction to Paving and Surfacing Options for LVR .......................................... 103
7.1.1 Types of surfacings ........................................................................................... 103
7.1.2 Basic surfacings ................................................................................................ 104
7.1.3 Stone paving ..................................................................................................... 104
7.1.4 Fired clay brick .................................................................................................. 106
7.1.5 Bituminous surfacings ....................................................................................... 106
7.1.6 Concrete surfacing ............................................................................................ 111
7.2 Choice of Pavement and Surfacing ........................................................................... 111

7.2.1 Evaluation framework ........................................................................................ 112
7.2.2 SDMS Procedure .............................................................................................. 114
7.2.3 Design of bituminous surfacing ......................................................................... 123
7.3 Paving Design Traffic Classes for LVR ..................................................................... 128
7.4 Subgrade ...................................................................................................................... 128
7.5 Design of Engineered Natural Surfaces (ENS) ......................................................... 130
7.6 Design of Natural Gravel Roads ................................................................................ 131

7.6.1 Overview............................................................................................................ 131
7.6.2 Design principles for gravel roads ..................................................................... 133
7.6.3 Maintenance ...................................................................................................... 133
7.6.4 Design method .................................................................................................. 133
7.6.5 Minimum thickness required.............................................................................. 134
7.6.6 Gravel loss......................................................................................................... 134
7.6.7 Total thickness required .................................................................................... 135
7.6.8 Pavement and materials .................................................................................... 135
7.6.9 Determination of CBRdesign ................................................................................ 136
7.6.10 Crossfall and drainage ...................................................................................... 137
7.7 Structural Design of Paved Roads ............................................................................ 138

7.7.1 Design methods ................................................................................................ 138
7.7.2 Design method for bituminous surfaced roads .................................................. 138
7.7.3 Use of the design charts .................................................................................... 140
7.7.4 Non bituminous surfaced roads......................................................................... 142
7.8 Pavement Drainage and Shoulders ........................................................................... 147

7.8.1 Sources of moisture entry into a pavement ....................................................... 147
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7.8.2 Permeability ....................................................................................................... 148

7.8.3 Achieving effective internal drainage ................................................................ 148
8 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS ............................................................ 154

8.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 154
8.2 The Use of Locally Available Materials ..................................................................... 154
8.3 Construction Material Requirements ........................................................................ 155

8.3.1 General material types ...................................................................................... 155
8.3.2 Common embankment fill .................................................................................. 156
8.3.3 Subgrade and improved subgrade .................................................................... 156
8.3.4 Roadbase and sub-base ................................................................................... 157
8.3.5 Lateritic roadbase gravels ................................................................................. 158
8.3.6 Material requirements for sub-base .................................................................. 159
8.3.7 Material requirements for gravel wearing course .............................................. 160
8.3.8 Road surfacing aggregate ................................................................................. 162
8.3.9 Block or paving stone ........................................................................................ 163
8.3.10 Aggregates for structural concrete .................................................................... 164
8.3.11 Filter/drainage material ...................................................................................... 164
8.4 Material Improvement ................................................................................................. 165
9 ROAD DRAINAGE ................................................................................ 167

9.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 167
9.2 Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards ........................................ 168

9.2.1 Design standards and storm return period ........................................................ 168
9.2.2 Methods of design ............................................................................................. 170
9.2.3 Departures from standards................................................................................ 170
9.3 Hydrology: Estimating Maximum Flow for Drainage Design .................................. 171
9.4 Components of External Drainage ............................................................................ 171

9.4.1 General principles ............................................................................................. 172
9.4.2 Sources of water ............................................................................................... 172
9.4.3 Road surface drainage ...................................................................................... 172
9.4.4 Side drains......................................................................................................... 172
9.4.5 Erosion control in the side drain ........................................................................ 175
9.4.6 Mitre drains or turnouts ..................................................................................... 178
9.4.7 Wet lands........................................................................................................... 180
9.4.8 Interceptor, cut-off or catch-water drains .......................................................... 181
9.4.9 Chutes ............................................................................................................... 183
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9.5 General Erosion Control ............................................................................................. 183

9.5.1 Identifying and assessing potential erosion problems ...................................... 184
9.5.2 Mitigation measures to control erosion and scour............................................. 185
9.6 Particular Drainage Problems in Severe Terrain ...................................................... 188

9.6.1 Road Construction along valley floors ............................................................... 189
9.6.2 Freeboard .......................................................................................................... 190
9.6.3 Flood plain scour and embankment protection ................................................. 190
9.6.4 Cross drainage and tributary fan crossings ....................................................... 191
10 EARTHWORKS AND ROADSIDE SLOPE DESIGN AND

STABILISATION ......................................................................................... 195
10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 195
10.2 Cut-slopes ................................................................................................................ 195
10.3 Embankments.......................................................................................................... 196
10.4 Cut-fill Cross Sections ........................................................................................... 197
10.5 Roadside Slope Instability ..................................................................................... 198
10.6 Instability Types ...................................................................................................... 198

10.6.1 Above-road instability ........................................................................................ 200
10.6.2 Below road instability ......................................................................................... 200
10.6.3 Embankments on soft and organic soils ........................................................... 200
10.6.4 Embankments in an expansive soil environment .............................................. 202
10.7 Slope Protection and Stabilisation ........................................................................ 202

10.7.1 General approaches .......................................................................................... 202
10.7.2 Slope drainage .................................................................................................. 205
10.7.3 Retaining walls .................................................................................................. 205
10.8 Bio-engineering ....................................................................................................... 207

10.8.1 General .............................................................................................................. 207
10.8.2 Key factors......................................................................................................... 207
10.8.3 Preparation ........................................................................................................ 208
10.8.4 Recommended techniques................................................................................ 209
11 MAINTENANCE .................................................................................... 211

11.1 What is Maintenance? ............................................................................................ 211
11.2 What is the Essence of Road Maintenance? ........................................................ 211
11.3 What Maintenance needs to be done?.................................................................. 212
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11.4 Regular Maintenance .............................................................................................. 213
11.5 Occasional Maintenance ........................................................................................ 215
11.6 Maintenance Implementation Options .................................................................. 216
11.7 In Summary.............................................................................................................. 220
Appendices:
Appendix A: Traffic Design Considerations

Appendix B: Laboratory Testing of Soils and Rocks
Appendix C: Marginal Materials
Appendix D: Expansive Soils
Appendix E: Ground Investigations
Appendix F: Design Compliance
Appendix G: Complimentary Interventions
Appendix H: Spot Improvements
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1 INTRODUCTION: CONTEXT AND SCOPE OF THE MANUAL

This Low Volume Roads Manual promotes rational, appropriate and affordable designs for
low volume roads in South Sudan. In doing so it aims at making cost effective and sustainable
use of Local Resources. These can be human resources, local government, private, NGO,
and community institutions, local entrepreneurs such as contractors, consultants, industrialists
and artisans, local skills, locally made or fabricated intermediate equipment, local materials
such as local produced aggregates, bricks, timber and marginal materials, locally raised
finance or provision of materials or services in kind.
The Manual reflects local experience and advances in low volume road technology gained in
the region and elsewhere.
Application of appropriate design standards for low volume roads in South Sudan aims to
optimise whole service life construction and maintenance costs and meet requirements to:
 Improve the economic and social well-being of rural communities and access to
social and other services;
 Facilitate inclusion of different ethnic and other groups in society;
 Develop the road network in a cost-effective and sustainable way;
 Lower road user costs and promote socio-economic development, poverty reduction,
trade growth and wealth creation in rural areas;
 Protect and manage non-renewable natural resources and reduce import
dependency.
This manual is intended for use by roads practitioners responsible for the design of low traffic
earth, gravel or paved roads throughout South Sudan. It is appropriate for roads which, over
their design life, are required to carry an average of up to about 300 motor vehicles per day,
and less than about 1.0 million equivalent standard axles (Mesa) in one direction. The Manual
complements and links to the latest versions of other existing South Sudan Government
reference documents focusing on High Volume Roads:
 Drainage Design Manual;

 Bridge Design Manual;
 Geometric Design Manual;
 Pavement Design Manual;
 Site Investigation Manual.
It is intended to be complemented by separate volumes focusing on LVR, dealing specifically
with Technical Specifications, Drawings and appropriate level Bidding Documents and other
related issues for these secondary and minor routes.
The client for the low volume road works could be the MRB, a State or other Road Authority.
The client could also be a local level administration, private enterprise, NGO, development
agency, community organisation or cooperative. Road works, whether undertaken by a
contractor, through an in-house capability or by community will require a design. This design
will work towards satisfying a national standard set for a particular type of road. The degree of
sophistication of the design will in general increase as the standard of the road increases.
However, this does not mean that unpaved earth or gravel roads are any easier to design
than a first generation low volume sealed/paved road. Often it is quite the contrary.
The road design engineer is normally supported by a team of individuals, with varying
specialities, and equipped to deal with all aspects of the road design. The job of the design
team is to provide a robust technical design (geometric, drainage, structures, pavement and
ancillary works) and to reflect this in the instructions to bidders, conditions of particular
1
application, the specifications, the bills of quantities and the detailed drawings. The design
team should also include (or consult) environmentalists and sociologists for additional
specialist inputs, as well as ensure that the designs are robust in initial cost, maintenance
and Whole Life Cycle Cost (WLC) terms.
The general approach to the design will be guided by the client and will build on
information and data collected during the project pre-feasibility and feasibility stages. The
client will have a budget in mind for the works, the location and route will be known in
outline, and the preferred approach to the works will also be known, for example labour,
intermediate or heavy equipment- based. The client may also have views and guidance on
apportioning works and contract size, technical issues, social, environmental and time
constraints. The job of the road design engineer will then be to develop the project within
and around these boundaries and limitations, whilst at the same time alerting the client to
issues, constraints or challenges that may limit or require adjustment of expectations.
The approach to the design of low volume roads follows the general principles of any good
road design practice. There are, however, subtle differences from the traditional road design
practice. This manual sets out to provide the design engineer with the requisite tools that will
provide the client with an optimised design based on the financial, technical and other
constraints that define the project.
Optimising a design requires a multi-dimensional understanding of all of the project elements
and in this respect all design elements become context specific. The design team therefore
needs to be able to work with consideration and understanding of issues outside their
normal areas of expertise and to understand implications of their recommendations or
decisions on all other elements of the design.
The successful design of low volume roads relies on:
 A full understanding by the design engineer of the local environment (natural,
operational and social);
 An ability to work within the demands of the local environment and to turn these
to a design advantage;
 Recognition and management of risk;
 Innovative and flexible thinking through the application of appropriate engineering
solutions rather than following traditional High Volume, high cost thinking related to
road design;
 A client who is open and responsive to innovation;
 Realistic assessment and arrangements for maintenance needs and capacity.
There is an onus on the design engineer to provide a road that meets the expected level of
service. Design engineers are traditionally conservative and build in factors of safety that
cater for their perceptions of risk and extremes of caution. This approach prevents the
application of innovation, uses scarce or inappropriate resources and results in high
financial costs for the client and the country. There is also often a temptation to provide or
upgrade roads to a future level of service not justified by the economic or other project
projections or road user requirements. This type of approach absorbs the available resources
and prevents extension of access to many other worthy recipients. It is the role of the design
engineer to properly represent the client’s and country’s interests.
The level of attention and engineering judgment required for optimal provision of low
volume roads is no different from, and in most cases is higher than, that required for the
provision of other roads. The design engineer needs to draw on all of his engineering skills,
judgment and local experience if appropriate designs are to be developed without
2
incurring unacceptable levels of cost and risk. This manual will assist the engineer in that
task.
The Manual is fully compatible with the South Sudan series of 2006 design manuals for
higher volume roads.
The Manual contains technical explanations of all the steps in deriving the standards for low
volume roads related to specific environmental conditions.
1.1 Structure and Layout of Manual

The low volume road manual has been drafted to be fully adaptable for different clients. The
Manual has application for roads at national, state and local level for roads administered by
authorities, enterprises or communities.
The Low Volume Road manual caters for a range of road type, from basic earth tracks to
bituminous sealed roads. It is unlikely that one institution will cater for all standards of road
and more likely that the document will have application across a number of different
authorities, agencies and ministries. Bituminised and major gravel roads in South Sudan are
usually constructed and maintained by the National and State Roads Authorities.
All authorities are expected to have networks of unpaved gravel and earth roads. Substantial
kilometres of unpaved road are also provided through community programmes, NGOs,
private enterprises, cooperative ventures and by programmes operating through other sector
ministries, such as the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.
The document can cater for interventions that deal with individual critical areas on a road link
(spot improvements) through to providing total rural road link designs. In this latter case, this
could comprise different design options along the total length.
This Volume 1 of the Manual is presented in the following format:
Chapter 1 provides an overview of the Manual, its application, context, and use, and
discusses issues of road classification and categorisation.
Chapter 2 describes the legal framework and ownership of the document.
Chapter 3 introduces the Philosophy of low volume road design and presents the typical
design controls that should be considered during the design process and the national
Design Standards for low volume roads in South Sudan. These are mandatory standards
that must be adhered to by the engineer. Departures from these standards are only
permitted in exceptional circumstances and with the prior approval of the relevant
authorities.
Chapter 4 describes the particular challenges of the South Sudan Road Environments
and provides advice on addressing the various issues of climate, hydrology, materials,
traffic, terrain, construction & maintenance regimes, road safety and the green
environment.
Chapter 5 provides guidance on Route Selection and Investigation, including desk
studies, site investigation and testing.
Chapter 6 provides guidance on Geometric Design, including influential factors, and
aspects of traffic characteristics, cross section, alignment, and safety.
Chapter 7 provides guidance on Surfacing and Pavement Design and the range of
design options using the materials available from Engineered Natural Surfaces (ENS),
through gravel to various paving techniques, and issues of internal pavement drainage.
3
Chapter 8 addresses Construction Materials issues for each component of the road
works and the desirability to optimise the use of locally available resources.
Chapter 9 provides guidance on Road Drainage and structures, including hydrology,
components of road works drainage, erosion control and challenging terrain.
Chapter 10 addresses Road-side Slope Stability and protection issues and bio-
engineering solutions.
Chapter 11 addresses the vital issue of Maintenance. The chapter is an introduction to
the subject which is tackled more comprehensively in Volume 3.
Appendices are provided on the topics of Traffic Analysis; Materials Testing; Marginal
Materials; Expansive Soils; Ground Investigations; Design Compliance; Complementary
Interventions; Environmentally Optimised Design and Spot Improvement.
In companion documents there are separate volumes that cover:
 Cross Drainage and Structures (Volume 2);
 LVR Maintenance Booklet (Volume 3) providing practical guidance on the
maintenance of LVR and structures).
The structure of the Manual is such that it allows client authorities, engineers and other
practitioners to extract and use those parts (Chapters or Appendices) of the Manual most
appropriate to their individual set of circumstances. The complete document can be
downsized to capture specific and appropriate aspects.
1.2 Road Network Classification

At the time of the preparation of this Manual, the road classification system and network
inventory for South Sudan are under development. The following proposals are derived
from the September Coffey 2011 report: Sudan Infrastructure Services Project TO8:
Capacity Building Program.
1.2.1 Importance of road classification

Classification of roads entails their orderly grouping into a set of sub-systems according to
the type of service they are intended to provide to the public. Such a system is not only
necessary for effective delegation of administration and political responsibilities for different
parts of the road network but also provides a number of important outcomes that depend
on the class assigned to each road, including:
 Road numbering;
 Guidance to the general public;
 Establishment of road design criteria;
 Development of road management systems;
 Planning of road construction and maintenance.
1.2.2 Road classification system

A classification system based on road function has been adopted for classifying the South
Sudan road network in line with international good practice. This Functional Classification
System draws a clear distinction between mobility roads, whose function is to move traffic
over relatively long distances quickly, effectively and efficiently and access roads whose
function is to provide access to various land uses and activities. Based on internationally
4
accepted classification criteria and the territorial structure of South Sudan, a six-class,
route numbered classification system has been developed as follows:
Table 1.1: Functional classification of roads
Basic Class Class Route Number
Function Number Name Prefix
1 International N
Mobility 2 Interstate A
3 State B
4 County C
Access 5 Local D
6 Walkway -
It is anticipated that the majority of routes categorised under Classes 3 – 6 will be

appropriate for LVR design considerations using this Manual.
For design purposes, it is necessary to augment the above functional classification with a
further categorisation based on the design traffic loading of the route. The geometric
design is provisionally based on the following traffic related geometric standards (Table
1.2). Of interest to designers of Low Volume Roads are the Geometric Design categories
DC1 to DC4.
Table 1.2: Categorisation for geometric design of roads

Intended Level of
Traffic Grouping Geometric Standards AADT
Service
DC8 >10,000
A
High Volume DC7 3,000 – 10,000
(HVR) DC6 1,000 – 3,000

B
DC5 300 – 1,000
DC4 150 - 300
DC3
C 75 – 150
DC2
Low Volume
(LVR) DC2 25 – 75
DC1 <25
D
Track -
It is economically justified to provide a higher level of service for roads carrying higher
volumes of traffic, thus:
5
High Volume Roads

Level A: This is highest level of service. Traffic is free flowing, with the volumes
and types of traffic easily accommodated. Safety is a high priority. Design speed is
very important and takes precedence over topographic constraints.
Level B: Traffic may not flow smoothly in all situations. Safety is a high priority, but
some safety controls may need to be enforced. Design speed is important, but
topography may dictate some design changes and controls.
Low Volume Roads
Level C: The efficiency of traffic movement and flow is not a limiting factor. Traffic
will be accommodated, but some design controls may need to be applied. Safety
provisions are adapted to lower and variable speed scenarios. The topography will
dictate alignment and the design speed.
Level D: Service level is geared to provision of access rather than efficiency.
Design standards for water crossings may allow service interruption and some
roads may even be temporarily closed in adverse weather or flood situations to
protect these assets. Other design standards for geometrics, surfacing and safety
will reflect lower speed environments and access requirement.
The density of roads in most areas of South Sudan is relatively low and many existing low
volume roads are relatively long (>25km). Alternative routes are often long or non-existent
and the consequences of disruption are high. It is prudent therefore to adopt design
standards that provide an appropriate level of reliability and service commensurate with the
functional characteristics of the road.
While there are exceptions to every rule, low volume roads in South Sudan can be
considered as roads carrying less than 300vpd and generally of DC4 standard or below
and meeting C or D service level criteria (the majority of roads in South Sudan carry
relatively low levels of traffic by international standards, and most carry less than 300
vehicles per day). However they are all an essential component of the road system; their
importance and reach extends to all aspects of the economic and social development of
rural communities and the country at large.
.
References
Coffey 2011 Report: Sudan Infrastructure Capacity Building programme US Aid TO8
6
2 LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND OWNERSHIP

During the period of the implementation of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA),
the current Ministry of Roads and Bridges (MRB) and the current Ministry of Transport
were one Ministry whose core functions were roads, railways, airports, and river transport.
After the independence of the Republic of South Sudan from the Republic of Sudan, the
Ministry of Road and Bridges (MRB) became a separate Ministry with the core functions of
roads and bridges. The rest of the core functions of the original Ministry of Transport and
Roads are retained by the current Ministry of Transport.
At Central Government Level the MRB is the key ministry with respect to overall policy and
strategy for the road sector. It is therefore appropriate for the Ownership and custody of the
LVR Manual to be vested with the MRB. However, other national bodies also have an interest
and involvement with road development. Furthermore, at State Level the individual Ministries
of Physical Infrastructures (MPIs) have specific responsibilities with respect to the
development and maintenance of infrastructure and they should play a key role in the
application and mainstreaming of the Manual at State level. In recognition of this the
Technical Working Group (TWG) was closely involved with the development of this Manual
and representatives of key road sector organisations were involved in its detailed preparation.
It is anticipated that development of the Manual and associated reference document will be a
continuing process. It is appropriate that MRB will be responsible for coordinating the
generation and incorporation of future amendments and improvements to them.
7
3 THE APPROACH TO LVR DESIGN

The design of LVR needs to make careful consideration of the following important aspects:
• Design Principles and the road environment;
• Use of local resources;
• Road Maintenance capacity and development;
• Feasibility and characteristics of Earth and Gravel Roads;
• Surfacing and Paving Options;
• Operational Environment;
• Technology Rationale, Options and Choice;
• Viability and Sustainability;
• Physical Environment protection and sustainability.
These issues are addressed in the sections of this Chapter.
South Sudan is in a unique situation in terms of recent history of conflict, past neglect and
severe underdevelopment of transport infrastructure, limited institutional capacity and skill
base, immature and fragile revenue raising and planning, budgeting and control
arrangements, lack of public understanding and appreciation of road infrastructure, and
extreme accessibility challenges and engineering materials availability issues in vast tracks of
the country (the north east). There is, understandably, enormous demand for new and
improved roads to support economic and social development and, indeed, nation building.
However, capacities for transport infrastructure asset management, and funded and effective
maintenance regimes are currently severely constrained.
3.1 Design Principles, the Road Environment, Use of Local Resources

The circumstances of South Sudan are unique and make it necessary to develop and adopt a
very South Sudan-specific approach to the design of the Low Volume Roads network that
allows:-
• Best use to be made of existing limited sector funds and resources;
• Rapid provision of strategic routes with year round (full) access;
• Rapid provision of basic access to the majority of the population for most of the year;
• Roads that are suitable for the types of traffic that will use them;
• Roads that are serviceable and safe for the users and general public;
• Roads that are cost-effective in consideration of their life cycle investments in initial
construction and maintenance costs and road user costs;
• Minimisation of the impact on the natural environment;
• The best use of available local resources, allowing a range of technology options;
• Encouragement of the development of local capacity.
Environmentally Optimises Design (EOD) allows all of these objectives to be met in the
circumstances of South Sudan. Environmentally Optimised Design is the over-arching
framework for the application of appropriate LVR designs. It covers a spectrum of solutions
for improving or creating low volume rural access, from Basic Access through to complete
route rehabilitation/improvement (Full Access).
Under an EOD approach, the road is designed to suit a variety of task and environmental
factors such as rainfall, available materials, construction capacity, gradient, flood risk,
maintenance regime and so on. Some of these factors vary from road to road and even from
location to location along a road. Therefore a road design may vary along the length of a road
8
with, for example, a sealed surface up a hill or gravel along a level section. The following
concepts form components of the EOD approach.
3.1.1 Basic Access

Reliable all-season access for the prevailing means of transport with limited periods of
inaccessibility (typically for a period of up to about 24 hours during/after rain when the road
can be impassable to motorised traffic). In practical terms; the provision of Basic Access
consists of taking or bringing back the route to a minimum motorable and maintainable
standard by:
 Clearing of vegetation;
 Reforming or providing the running surface camber;
 Opening of drains and any existing culverts/drifts.
These are the basic requirements for a serviceable low volume traffic access road. In most
cases the in situ soil will form the running surface for the road (Engineered Natural Surface –
ENS). However, to ensure all-season access, it may be necessary to provide Spot
Improvements (Appendix H) at critical locations along the route. Although low cost to provide,
Basic Access roads will require essential maintenance (Chapter 11) every year for continued
for traffic.
3.1.2 Full Access

Uninterrupted all-year, high quality, high speed, low surface roughness access. No closures in
the rainy season. In practical terms this may involve the provision of a gravel or sealed surface
throughout the length of the route link. This level of access will also require appropriate levels
of maintenance.
3.1.3 Meeting the challenges

Soils are highly variable and often problematic in South Sudan and therefore available
materials for construction can be very variable or scarce and involve long haulage, particularly
in large tracts of the north east of the country.
Seasonal rain and flooding, and likelihood of increasingly extreme weather events with global
warming are also significant challenges to the construction of LVRs with limited resources.
Heavy vehicle loading and poor vehicle driver/owner discipline can lead to risk of abuse and
damage of LVR infrastructure.
Hence, traditional engineering, and traditional road engineering in particular, is challenging in
the face of such diversity. For low volume road provision the challenges can be even greater. .
Given the vital importance of LVRs, design engineers need to work with and around such
challenges. Clients also need to be flexible and adaptable, if low volume roads are to be
provided at reasonable cost.
Typically in South Sudan, low volume roads are unpaved; with earth or gravel running surface.
Very few routes are in good condition and can provide the level of all-weather access that is
required. In facing the challenge of improving the low volume road network with severely
constrained budgets, the application of the conventional planning, design, construction and
maintenance philosophies used for higher traffic roads is unlikely to provide an optimal
solution.
In determining cost-effective solutions for the provision of low volume roads it is important to
understand the mechanics of how the road deteriorates in the first place. Deterioration of the
existing unpaved low volume roads in South Sudan is governed by the type of material used
on the surface (gravel to soil); the strength of the underlying soil (soft, erodible and/or
9
expansive), the type and action of traffic (heavy vehicle to pedestrian) and probably most
importantly, the influence of the “road environment”. The term “road environment” includes
both the natural or bio-physical environment and the human environment. It includes the
interaction between the different environmental factors and the road structure. Some of these
factors are uncontrollable, such as those attributable to the natural environment, including the
interacting influence of climate (e.g. wind, rainfall and its intensity), local hydrology and
drainage, terrain and gradient. Collectively, these will influence the performance of the road
and the design approach needs to recognise such influence by providing options that minimise
the negative effects. Others factors, such as the construction and maintenance regime; safety
and environmental demands; and the extent and type of traffic are largely controllable and can
be more readily built into the design approach.
Typical road environment factors are presented and covered in more detail in Chapter 4 of the
Manual.
3.2 Maintenance Capacity and Development

Maintenance is the range of on-going activities to keep the roads within an acceptable band
of serviceable conditions so that these infrastructure assets perform the function they were
designed for in a cost effective way. There are serious maintenance deficiencies in many
developing and emerging economies. The need, practical arrangements, and good practice
for maintenance are well documented (TRL 1985, TRL 2003, PIARC 2006). However, the
‘enabling environment’ for arranging and delivering cost-effective maintenance is lacking in
many countries (O’Neil et al 2010). The World Bank’s World Development Report 1994
advised that ‘in Africa and elsewhere, costly investments in road construction have been
wasted for lack of maintenance’. The report cites that “Inadequate maintenance has been an
almost universal (and costly) failure of infrastructure providers in developing countries.”
Unfortunately insufficient improvements have been achieved in many countries in the years
since. The current circumstances of very little road maintenance achievement in South Sudan
make this a particularly important issue to address.
It is therefore proposed that assessment of the existing maintenance regime and
development of maintenance capacity should be an integral part of the design process. It may
be appropriate to incorporate assessment of maintenance capacity and the development of
capacity enhancement initiatives in the design and implementation phases of a project. The
maintenance capacity for the constructed road will certainly have an impact on the Whole Life
cycle Cost considerations of any investment.
3.3 Low volume earth and gravel roads

Surface materials, where these are present, need to resist wear and abrasion in dry weather
and promote surface drainage and run-off in wet weather. Under traffic they need to resist
whip off, dust generation and be stable enough when compacted to resist deformation. The
compacted material needs to resist erosion and scour.
The nature and strength of the underlying soil is critical in determining the performance of low
volume roads, particularly in periods of wet weather. Many rural roads are characterised by
deep rutting, where the road formation is not strong enough to support the traffic loads. Some
roads have loose and/or stony materials on the surface, leading to dusty, rough and/or
slippery conditions. Potholes create difficult and unsafe surfaces. Severe erosion and
scouring may prevent access by any form of motorised, and many types of intermediate,
transport. Transverse scouring can start at the edge or on the side slope of the road and work
its way to the centre of the carriageway. Longitudinal scour occurs where water flows against
the direction of road crossfall. Inadequate scour protection in drainage ditches may lead to
10
serious erosion, dangerous conditions for road users, local access restrictions, and loss of
valuable agricultural land along the road.
Rural access may be prevented for long periods during the rains when streams and rivers
start to flow. In some situations wash-aways may occur. When the rains have eased or
stopped the same points may be subject to saturation and ponding. This weakens the
underlying soils and any movement on the surface can churn up the surface causing deep
rutting and the bogging down of vehicles.
This problem is worsened in areas where there is a prevalence of expansive, black cotton
soils. These soils have high agricultural potential, but become weak and slippery when wet.
They often cannot support even the lightest vehicles in the wet condition. Where gravel is
placed directly over this material it may rut under the influence of traffic and mix into the weak
soil below.
Vehicle operating costs (VOCs) are high on roads with high roughness and restricted access.
VOCs include spares, repairs, maintenance, fuel and tyre replacement, finance/opportunity
costs and depreciation/amortisation. The consequence is that transport operators tend to
avoid roads with high roughness and other defects forcing people to walk long distances to
reach the nearest point where transport services are prepared to operate.
Dust is often overlooked as a problem on unpaved roads. It is caused by the action of traffic
and wind. Unpaved roads lose fine material which can travel over 100 metres from the road.
The dust affects other road users, pedestrians and school children, houses, shops and crops
near the road. Roads in dry areas can lose up to 33 tonnes of surface fines per kilometre per
year. Dust has significant and costly adverse consequences including eye and respiratory
problems, vehicle and equipment damage, damage to crops and the natural habitat, and
increased risks to pedestrian and vehicle safety and social aspects such as cleanliness.
Approaches to alleviate dust problems, particularly in populated areas are offered in the
Manual.
Gravel for road works is a non-renewable natural resource. On unpaved roads it is used as a
sacrificial layer and must be periodically replaced. Good materials for gravel surfaced roads
are not commonly found in South Sudan, and are almost totally absent in the north east
regions of the country. It is possible to lose up to 150mm thickness of gravel surface layer per
year depending on conditions. Gravel roads require a continuous cycle of reshaping and
regravelling to maintain the required running surface and the desired level of service. The
type of materials prevalent in South Sudan, the nature of the climate and the terrain presents
significant challenges to achieving this type of maintenance. Screening and blending
techniques are available to improve the properties and such techniques are described in the
Manual.
The major technical challenges for unpaved roads are to provide durable and functional water
crossings, surfacing with materials that provide the desired and necessary level of service
and to provide effective maintenance management. These challenges are recognised in the
Manual and, in many cases, options and solutions are offered to mitigate and manage
problems.
The key issue with regards to earth and gravel surfaced roads is to construct and maintain
an adequate camber and drainage system.
11
Figure 3.1: The importance of water management for unpaved roads
Earth roads require regular (routine) maintenance, which can be carried out at relatively low
cost with local labour and simple inexpensive equipment. Gravel roads require similar levels
of regular maintenance. However, there are substantial additional resource and cost
implications in maintaining the gravel running surface through provision of occasional
(periodic) maintenance. These liabilities must be understood and allowed for in any project life
cycle assessment. Failure to provide the arrangements, resources and funds for these
maintenance liabilities on a timely basis will inevitably lead to a gravel road quickly reverting
to a rough and possibly impassable condition in the rains, and a waste of the initial
investment.
Failure to provide regular maintenance of unpaved roads will also incur excessively high
VOCs for the road users.
3.4 Low volume paved roads

The design manual draws on international research carried out over several decades. This
research was carried out by a number of research organisations in collaboration with national
road authorities in the region. The research questioned existing paradigms associated with
the design of low volume roads with a paved surfacing and, combined with local experience,
derived local specifications, designs and techniques for improving the cost-effective provision
of such roads paved with either a bituminous or non-bituminous surfacing. This included more
appropriate geometric, drainage and pavement design standards and innovative construction
techniques and methods that optimised the use of local labour, introduced intermediate
equipment techniques and improved opportunities for the local private sector to participate in
road construction and maintenance. Guidance on a number of proven non-bituminous paving
techniques has also been incorporated in the Manual.
The approaches adopted for the design of low volume paved roads differs in a number of
fundamental respects from roads carrying higher traffic volumes. In particular, the relative
influences of road deterioration factors are significantly different for low volume roads
compared with higher volume roads. A critical observation is that for sealed roads, carrying
below a total of about 1.0 Mesa throughout the design life, pavement deterioration was
controlled mainly by how the road responded to environmental factors, such as moisture
12
changes in the pavement layers, fill and subgrade and to the effects of age hardening of
bituminous surfacings. The appropriate design options for low volume roads therefore need to
be responsive to a wider range of factors captured in the road environment, the most critical
being the internal and external drainage.
The role of the design engineer is to recognise and design to these parameters and optimise
the design to the expected performance within the limited resource constraints prevailing.
This is known as an environmentally optimised design (EOD) approach. EOD takes account
of road environment changes along the alignment and the design responds to these changes.
3.5 Surface Improvement Technology

Gravel and earth roads are particularly vulnerable to the effects of the road environment. A
range of more durable surfacing options other than gravel or earth are available for low
volume roads. These include thin bituminous surfacings, and non-bituminous surfacings such
as cobbles, hand packed stone, brick/block paving and even unreinforced concrete. Options
also include full paving and wheel-track-only paving. The selection, design and use of the
various surfacing options are described in detail in Chapter 7 along with design standards
presented later in this Chapter.
Improved surfacings may be provided for the entire length of a road, or only on the most
vulnerable sections. The approach may include dealing only with individual critical sections
(weak or vulnerable sections; roads through villages or settlements) on a road link (spot
improvements), or providing a total whole rural link design, which could comprise different
surface design options along its length.
The choice of surfacing type, and when to use it, involves a trade-off between initial cost, level
of service and maintenance requirements. Cobblestone may use locally available resources
and require very little maintenance, but it gives a relatively rough riding surface. Surface
dressings provide smoother riding surfaces but may require more expensive earthworks and
pavement layers, as well as imported bitumen, specialised equipment and skilled operators.
Appropriate selection will be driven to some extent by the service level required, as well as
locally available materials, skills and costs.
Surface dressings should not be constructed where there is no capacity for routine
maintenance, including pothole repairs and crack sealing, as well as periodic re-sealing. Edge
break is a common problem on sealed roads due to vehicles and pedestrians moving on and
off the road, and needs to be controlled through appropriate road width, provision of stopping
places, and possibly kerbing.
The challenge for the design engineer for a low volume road is to achieve the required level of
service, using appropriate engineering approaches and to minimise costs over the whole life
of the road. This should be done in a context sensitive way that recognises the needs of the
client, the road environment and the prevailing maintenance management regime.
3.6 Operational Environment

In addition to ensuring that the design developed is technically appropriate and is within the
financial envelope, the design engineer needs to bear in mind other factors that could
influence the success of the low volume road design approach, its implementation and its
long term sustainability.
This requires a broadly focused, multi-dimensional and context sensitive approach in which a
number of other influential factors of the Operational Environment are considered, illustrated
in Figure 3.2.
13
Figure 3 .2: Framework for sustainable provision of low volume roads
3.6.1 Political support

Demand for appropriate low volume roads needs to be framed under a national policy driven
by government and should be supported at the highest level. The cross-sectoral influence of
low volume road provision and its role in under-pinning other sectoral development strategies
and poverty alleviation programmes should be highlighted, quantified and understood by
policy makers, clients and other sector stakeholders.
The approach adopted for low volume road provision should complement national plans,
policies and strategies and should be responsive to wider needs and demands, including:
 The social and economic goals of poverty alleviation and development;
 Increasing rural accessibility;
 The use of appropriate technology, promotion of the domestic construction industry
and employment creation;
 Protection of the environment;
 Cost minimisation and improved efficiency.
There is a need to maintain dialogue with political and public stakeholders in order to highlight
the advantages of design approaches and alternative, often unfamiliar, solutions selected for
low volume road provision. The language used for advocacy should be carefully chosen and
should avoid negative connotations such as “low standard”; “low cost” and “marginal”, which
may be understood in professional circles, but which can be misinterpreted in political and
public terms.
3.6.2 Social acceptance

Provision of low volume rural road networks should be managed in a way that:
 Ensures community participation in planning and decision making;
 Eliminates gender bias and promotes participation by women in the road sector;
14
 Promotes activities and investment for sustainable livelihoods (including

Complementary Interventions as discussed in Appendix G);
 Promotes road safety and community awareness in all aspects of low volume road
provision;
 Supports cost-effective labour-based and intermediate equipment methods of
construction and maintenance where appropriate;
 Minimises resettlement and mitigates unavoidable resettlement through appropriate
compensation.
3.6.3 Institutional capacity

Road authorities and clients should:
 Promote institutional, economic and technical understanding in the provision and
management of low volume roads;
 Promote commercial management practices;
 Develop a conducive environment for the development of national contractors;
 Develop the necessary asset management and maintenance capacity and culture to
safeguard the considerable national road investments and ensure their intended
benefits;
 Ensure that design, construction and maintenance approaches and good practice for
low volume roads are represented on all tertiary civil engineering training curricula.
3.7 Technology Choice

For most road construction and maintenance operations there is a choice of technology
between labour, intermediate and heavy equipment, and often possible combinations of
these. Each option will have cost, operational, development and social implications that
should be considered at policy planning and design levels.
Technologies for designing, constructing and maintaining low volume roads should:
 Employ appropriate design standards and specifications;
 Utilise intermediate equipment technology options and reduce reliance on heavy
equipment imports where feasible and cost-effective;
 Promote road construction and maintenance technologies that create local
employment opportunities;
 Use types of contract that support the development of domestic contractors and
consultants;
 Be robust to the vagaries of climate and recognise potential impacts of a changing
climate.
When cost comparisons between technology options are made, all cost components should
be considered, including finance/opportunity costs and depreciation/amortisation of capital
items such as equipment. Overheads, logistics, contingencies/risks and profit components are
also significant considerations. In a relatively small road construction market such as South
Sudan, the market may not operate efficiently. It is advisable to prepare Engineer’s Estimates
of costs from first principles to allow understanding of the true costs and as a basis for any
cost negotiations.
15
3.8 Viability and Sustainability

3.8.1 Economic viability
Economic appraisal for low volume roads should:
 Employ assessment tools for low volume roads that are capable of quantifying social,
economic and environmental costs and benefits;
 Ensure investment decisions for low volume roads are based on an assessment of
whole life cycle costs.
3.8.2 Financially sound

Sustainable provision of low volume roads depends on the sustainable provision of funding to
the sector in that:
 Roads should not be upgraded to engineered standards if funding is not in place for
regular (routine) and occasional (periodic) maintenance requirements;
 Designs should not be developed that require excessive allocation of maintenance
resources.
3.8.3 Protection of the environment

The design and management of low volume roads should:
 Minimise the physical impacts of construction and maintenance activities on the
natural environment;
 Ensure that any temporary works or quarrying sites are reinstated or left in a safe and
environmentally stable condition;
 Take account of socio-cultural impacts (community cohesion);
 Minimise the carbon footprint;
 Optimise resource management and allow for possible recycling of non-renewable
materials; and
 Minimise impacts and emissions that might contribute to climate change.
3.9 Road Project Implementation

3.9.1 Contract of works
The key to successful execution of a low volume roads project will be to ensure clearly
defined requirements and adequate provisions are included in all bidding and contract
documents. A clear understanding of the requirements from both the works contractor and the
supervising engineer is needed.
Bidding documents need to contain all of the information and provisions for the interested
companies or organisations on all that is relevant to obtain the contract. The bidding
document informs interested bidders on all of the procedures to be followed, documents to be
submitted, the bid evaluation procedure and the award of contract.
The approach used for execution of low volume roads can differ in many respects from the
traditional road provision approaches. For example, the client may favour labour-based
approaches; the use of intermediate equipment; sub-contracting to empower small
enterprises; and/or additional enhancements through complementary interventions (Appendix
G). It is therefore important that the provisions within the bidding documents clearly reflect
these preferences and adjust the provisions of the contract accordingly.
16
Failure to properly differentiate low volume road approaches can lead to complications during
the bidding procedure or execution of the contract. Moreover, clear and well prepared bidding
documents are essential to ensure that sufficient companies or organisations are confident to
bid for works in a fair and transparent way.
It is anticipated that in order to facilitate preparation of documents a series of model bidding
documents will be developed for use with works of differing complexity.
The main issues for a bidder/contractor are to fully understand the scope of all the works,
including any complementary interventions, and the fundamental issues of measurement and
payment. For the preparation of Works Bidding Documents the key documents requiring
attention are:
Instructions to Bidders (ITB) and the Bid Data Sheet (BDS): The ITB is generally a
standard document, slightly varying for the different clients. For a LVR project the client
should include an additional item that will draw the attention of the bidder to the low volume
road approach and any requirements for complementary interventions. The BDS is linked to
the ITB and provides specific project information.
Standard Technical Specifications: These will define the scope of the technical
requirements of the contract, including the type and quality of materials and equipment, the
standards of workmanship. Standard Technical Specifications should include information on
the format of Bill Items for the Bill of Quantities, on item coverage and the method of payment.
Particular Specifications: This is where any detailed technical requirements and

specifications, and implementation mechanisms specific for the project should be clearly
defined. The particular technical specification should also include any specifications and
limitations on the freedom of choice for the contracting company related to the execution of
works. Particular technical specifications add further detail to complement or replace those
stated in the Standard Technical Specifications.
Bills of Quantities or Schedules of Rates: This should be linked by item number to the
Standard Technical Specifications and to the Particular Specifications; and is where the
schedule of activities and estimated quantities are set out for the bidder to price.
Drawings: Some standard detailed drawings may be applied directly for low volume roads
works (e.g. cross-sections, standard culvert design and signage). Supplementary drawings,
linked with the Particular Specifications, may also be required where new, innovative or
special approaches are included.
Conditions of Contract: This includes standard provisions for execution of the contract and
unless amended in the Conditions of Particular Application, these will apply. For major and
intermediate works projects it is anticipated that amendments may be required to reflect the
desired approach for low volume road works.
Conditions of Particular Application: This is where any Provisions in the General

Conditions of Contract may be amended, as required, to make them more appropriate to the
requirements of the low volume road approach, including complementary interventions.
In promoting small and medium scale enterprises; emergent contractors; employment
intensive or labour-based works; and utilisation of intermediate equipment options,
consideration should be given to the clauses referring to Performance Security, Performance
Program, Insurances, Cash Flow, Plant, Equipment & Workmanship, Payments, Retention
and Advances, Price Adjustment and currency restrictions. There will be cases where the
17
general conditions of contract may prevent, or work against, the small scale industry and
these should be adjusted accordingly to promote competition and fairness to the emergent
industry.
Due consideration should also be given to strengthening clauses aimed at promoting sub-
contracting/ assignment; local employment and conditions (particularly for women); rights and
insurances; and for strengthening complementary interventions.
Works Contract Evaluation: Recognition that the context of the works is using low volume
road approaches must be included within the evaluation of bid process. The aim should be to
ensure that the bidder confirms an understanding of the Client’s perception for
implementation. If complementary intervention requirements are built into the prospective
works, the evaluation should also ensure that the complementary interventions are fully
understood.
3.9.2 Supervision services

In addition to adequately defining the scope and understanding of the project and its
approach for the works bid, it is essential that the same level of understanding is reflected in
the Request for Proposals (RFP) for the supervising consultant. The RFP should specifically
include appropriate inputs of key personnel with the requisite skills to meet the requirements
of the low volume roads project approach. The supervising consultant should be fully familiar
with the techniques and approaches to be employed on the works, including any
complementary interventions.
The RFP should include:
 Clear definition of the role of the supervisor in the context of the project: if small scale
or emergent contractors are employed, the client may require the consultant to act
both as supervisor and mentor or to provide training, for example to client or authority
staff;
 Clearly defined and appropriate inputs for key personnel with requisite experience on
low volume road implementation;
 Requisite skills to cater for socio-environmental safeguard supervision and oversight
of any complementary interventions;
 Reference to this Manual and supporting documents.
References
O'Neill P, Petts R C, & Beusch A, 2010. Improved asset management - climbing out of the
road sector pothole.
PIARC, 2006. International road maintenance handbook. PIARC (World Road Association.
TRL, 1985. ORN2. Maintenance techniques for district engineers (2nd edition).
TRL, 2003. ORN 20. Management of rural road networks. TRL Ltd, for DfID, UK.
World Bank, 1994. World Development Report, 1994 Infrastructure for development. Report
Number 24130.
18
4 South Sudan Road Environments

4.1 Introduction
It is now recognised that the life-time performance of LVRs is influenced to a greater extent
than higher volume roads by the impacts of what is termed the Road Environment. Figure 4.1
illustrates this schematically by indicating the relative impacts of traffic to other Road
Environment factors on pavement performance over a range traffic volumes. The impact on
other road alignment elements such as earthworks, drainage and structures is equally or even
more evident.
Figure 4.1 The relative impacts of traffic and other Road Environment factors on
pavement performance
The various factors making up this Road Environment are categorised in Figure 4.2 into those
factors over which the road designer or owner may have least some control and those over
which there is no control. Table 4.1 defines these environment factors and their importance in
the context of road whole-life performance.
D - Chapter 6 - 113
Road Safety
Climate
Regime
Maintenance Surface/sub-
Regime Surface Hydrology
Construction The Road

Environment Subgrade
Regime
“Green” Terrain
Environment
Controllable Construction Uncontrollable

Traffic Materials
Factors Factors
Figure 4.2 Road Environment factors
19
Table 4.1 Road Environment impact factors
Impact Factor Description

Climate/rainfall. The prevailing climate will influence the supply and movement of water and impacts upon
the road in terms of direct erosion through run-off and influences on the groundwater
regime. Climate, particularly rainfall, can have significant impact on the performance of
earthwork slopes, the design options for side drainage and cross-drainage structures.
Thus climatic indices can have a significant influence on the selection of pavement options
and their design using “wet” or “dry” design parameters.
Surface and sub- The interaction of water, and its movement, within and adjacent to the road corridor has an
surface hydrology. over-arching impact on the pavements performance, earthworks and drainage structures.
Changes in near surface moisture condition trigger significant subgrade and earthwork
volume changes in the large areas of South Sudan underlain by “expansive” clay.
Subgrade and The subgrade is essentially the foundation layer for the pavement and the assessment of
foundation its condition is critical to the pavement or surfacing design. Weak, soft or compressible
conditions foundations have a significant impact on the design and performance of embankments or
culverts placed on them. In situ foundation strength is a key issue in the design of bridges.
Construction The nature, engineering character and location of construction materials are key aspects of
Materials the road environment assessment. For LVRs, where the use of local materials is a priority,
the key issue should be what design options are compatible with the available materials
rather than seeking to find material to meet standard specifications as is the case with
higher level roads.
Terrain The terrain, whether flat, rolling or mountainous reflects the geological and
geomorphological history. Apart from its obvious influence on the long section geometry
(grade) of the road and earthwork requirements, the characteristics of the terrain will also
reflect and influence the availability of materials and other resources.
Traffic Although the relative influence of traffic on LVRs is less than that from other road
environment parameters, consideration still needs to be given to the influence of traffic
and, in particular, the risk of axle overloading on light road pavements.
Construction The construction regime governs whether or not the road design is applied in an
Regime appropriate manner. Key elements include:
Experience of contractors or construction groups
 Appropriate plant use;
 Selection and placement of materials;
 Quality assurance;
 Compliance with specification;
 Technical supervision.
Maintenance All roads will require regular maintenance to ensure that their basic task is delivered
Regime throughout their design life. Achieving this will depend on the maintenance strategies
adopted, the timeliness of the interventions, the local capacity, and available funding to
carry out the necessary works. When selecting a road option it is recommend assessing
the actual maintenance regime that will be in place during its design life so that designs
may be appropriately adjusted where possible.
The “Green” Road construction and on-going road use and maintenance have an impact on the natural
Environment environment, including flora, fauna, hydrology, slope stability, health and safety. These
impacts have to be assessed and mitigated as much as possible by appropriate design
and construction procedures.
Road Safety LVRs are likely to be required to accommodate a wide range of users from pedestrians
Regime through to trucks. The traffic mix should be assessed and taken into account in the basic
geometry of the road; including, for example, the use of wide shoulders for pedestrian or
bicycle use. Adequate signage and protective barriers, particularly in hilly or mountainous
terrain, are key safety requirement.
20
4.2 Climate
The main features of climate that are of importance in the design of LVRs are:
 Rainfall;
 Rainfall intensity;
 Temperature;
 Evaporation.
The overall rainfall pattern for South Sudan is presented in Figure 4.3 and the general climatic
zones are summarised in Figure 4.4 and the associated Table 4.2.
Figure 4.3 Rainfall pattern for South Sudan in mm/year
100
SOUTH SUDAN
60
220 260 300 340 380
Figure 4.4. Climatic zones in South Sudan (after Van der Kevie, 1976)
21
Table 4.2. Detail of climatic zones in South Sudan (after Van der Kevie, 1976)
Annual Mean Meant Approx.

Humid Dry
Zone Description Rainfall Max Coldest “N”
Months Months c c
(mm) (T 0 ) (T 0 ) Value
Arid; no marked N>4

A3 0 8-9 550-750 37-38 18-20
seasons
Dry Monsoon; N<4
M1.1 Long dry season, 3-5 5-7 750-1000 36-41 17-20
warm winter
Dry Monsoon; N<4
M2 medium dry 2-3 4-6 850-1000 36-38 18-21
season
Wet Monsoon; N<4
M3 medium wet 5-7 3-5 950-1400 34-39 12-10
season
Wet Monsoon; 1200- N<4
M4 7-8 1-2 34-35 14-19
long wet season 1600
Highlands; N<4
medium wet 1000-
H2 5-6 3-4 22-33 10-17
season, cool 1600
winter
Rainfall, temperature and evaporation may also be combined into a Climatic Index (Weinert,
1974). The Weinert “N” Value has been adopted as part of the pavement design process.
This index is calculated as follows:
N = 12Ej/Pa
where:
Ej = evaporation for the warmest month
Pa=total annual precipitation
N-values less than 4 apply to a climate that is seasonally tropical and wet, whereas N-values
greater than 4 apply to a climate that is arid, semi- arid or dry. The implication for pavement
design is that drier climates (N>4) can allow a reduction in pavement materials’ strength
specifications. This is discussed further in Chapter 7.
4.3 Surface/Sub-surface Hydrology

The Nile river and tributaries in association with the contrasting terrain patterns of the central
level plain and the southern and western hills dominate the drainage pattern and hydrology of
South Sudan. A general map of South Sudan’s hydrological provinces is available and this
has a close relationship both with the terrain and geological maps, Figure 4.5.
Heavy rainfall, clay soils (black cotton) and proximity to the Nile drainage system combine to
create poor drain-off and high levels of standing water over most of the low lying plain,
particularly in Jonglei, Upper Nile and Unity state which can be flooded for nine out of twelve
months of the year.
22
Figure 4.5 General hydrological map of South Sudan
23
4.4 Subgrade and Foundations

Subgrades and foundations in South Sudan are inherently variable and reflect the country’s
diverse geology, topography, soil type, climate and drainage conditions. Subgrades in the
extensive flat, floodable, areas in the centre and east of South Sudan are likely to be low
strength and comprise potentially problematic moisture sensitive expansive clays. In contrast
subgrades on the higher ground to the South and West that are composed of either
weathered bedrock or pedogenic (lateritic) materials are likely to be significantly stronger.
4.5 Traffic
The types of traffic using LVRs in South Sudan vary significantly and include both motorised
and non-motorised traffic involving a wide spectrum of road users from pedestrians and
animal-drawn vehicles to large commercial vehicles. The traffic environment in South Sudan
is rapidly evolving and little detailed information is available as to its current make-up or the
likely development over the next 10-15 years.
The deterioration of paved and unpaved roads caused by traffic results from both the
magnitude of the individual wheel loads and the number of times these loads are applied. It is
necessary to consider not only the total number of vehicles that will use the road but also the
axle loads of these vehicles. There are currently no official axle load limits in South Sudan
and no way of checking and therefore enforcing axle load limits. Anecdotal evidence does,
however, indicate that axle overloading is a potentially serious problem, particularly for light
LVRs
The current Main Roads Design Manual defines the present vehicle fleet in South Sudan as
comprising ‘a high number of four-wheel drive utility vehicles and overloaded trucks.
4.6 Construction Materials

The availability of suitable construction materials in South Sudan is largely a function of the
geological environment. As indicated in Figure 4.7 the surface geological environment may be
broadly summarised as comprising strong fresh to weathered igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic basement rocks in the higher lands of south and west of the country with an
extensive central flat low lying plain underlain by Quaternary and Recent clays and sands
(including expansive materials). The basement areas are potential sources not only of rock
aggregate but also of derived lateritic gravels. In contrast, there are significant areas of
central and eastern South Sudan that are largely deficient in conventional road building
materials, Figure 4.8. The process of identification and selection of appropriate materials for
incorporation in a road is discussed in detail in Chapter 7.
24
Figure 4.7 General geology of Southern Sudan and adjacent areas (Based on Sudan
Geological Survey Map and ASGA-UNESCO Geological Map of Africa)
A4
A5
A2
A1
A3
SOUTH SUDAN
Figure 4.8 Broad divisions of the availability of road construction material
25
Table 4.5 Materials resource areas in South Sudan
Area Materials Resources
A1 Area has good materials, lateritic gravels and rock. Assume haul at an average of 10km
A2 As above, but long logistics lines increase costs. Assume average haul 10km.
Area has NO gravel or rock materials, characterised by expansive soils, and sandy /silty
A3
areas. Average haul 30km
Area has NO gravel or rock materials. It is characterised by expansive soils, and sandy /silty
A4 areas. Average haul is 30km. Costs are 10-20% higher than area 3 due to longer logistics
lines.
Area has no known gravel sources. It is characterised by expansive soils, gravel beyond
A5
60km overhaul, currently dry season roads only.
4.7 Terrain
The South Sudan terrain model may be characterised as being dominated by an extensive
low-lying plain with higher ground above 500m above sea level (asl) to the west and higher
hills and mountains to the south rising to 2500m asl, Figure 4.9.
Height (m)
Figure 4.9 General terrain model for South Sudan
4.8 South Sudan Construction Regime

The existing road construction regime in South Sudan is currently evolving under a general
intention by the MRB that a construction strategy should be developed that is appropriate to
the prevailing social, economic, cultural and other needs of South Sudan.
Such a strategy could be aimed at making maximum use of the relatively abundant resource
of labour through the use of labour-based technology, where appropriate. This approach
would involve using a combination of labour and light equipment rather than heavy plant,
26
without compromising the quality of the end product. It is reported, however, that in most rural
areas of South Sudan a predominantly labour-based approach to rural road may not be
appropriate due to a combination of low population density and social structure.
Any large scale involvement of locally-based small contractors on LVR development
programmes is likely to require a significant training and demonstration component.
4.9 Maintenance Regime

Currently there are serious deficiencies in relation to the maintenance of road infrastructure in
South Sudan. The need to develop adequate road maintenance funding and capacity are vital
to achieving the intended benefits of road infrastructure investments. The guidance provided
in Section 3.2 in assessing existing and necessary maintenance regime should be an integral
part of the road design process.
Assessment of the existing maintenance regime should include investigation of funding scope
disbursement arrangements and continuity, institutional responsibilities, arrangements for
implementation, performance and cost-effectiveness in whole life terms. It is likely that these
investigations will influence the balance of investment into construction activities and
maintenance capacity development initiatives, and the design of certain road works
components such as surfacing and drainage provision.
4.10 The Road Safety Regime

Some aspects of pavement structural design are affected by the road environment and can
have an impact on the safety aspects of the roads. For example, the generation of dust from
some wearing course gravels, the slipperiness of some earth surfaces and the skid resistance
of bituminous surfacing. These factors can be addressed through a surface selection
procedure as discussed in Chapter 7.
Many other aspects of road safety are concerned with geometric alignment and vehicle
speeds and are addressed in Chapter 6 Geometric Design.
4.11 The Green Environment

Any road construction and on-going road use and maintenance will have an impact on South
Sudan’s natural or bio-physical environment including flora, fauna, hydrology, slope stability,
health and safety. These impacts have to be assessed through Environmental Impact
Assessment procedures and mitigated as much as possible by appropriate design and
construction procedures.
References
Geological and Mineral Resources Department, 1981 Geological Map of the Sudan.
1:2000000. Khartoum, Ministry of Energy and Mines
Van der Kevie, W. 1976. Climatic zones in the Sudan. FAO Report Number SUD 71/553
Weinert, 1974. A climatic index of weathering and its application in road construction.
Geotechnique 24, 475-488.
27
5 ROUTE SELECTION AND GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION

5.1 Introduction
Site investigation is an integral part of the location, design and construction of a road and
provides essential information on the alignment soil characteristics, construction materials
availability, topography, land use, environmental issues (including climate) and socio-political
considerations for the client related to the following:
 Selection of the route/alignment of the road;
 Location of water crossings and drainage structures;
 Design information for the road pavements, bridges and other structures;
 Areas for specialist geotechnical investigation;
 Areas of potentially problematic soils requiring additional investigation and treatment;
 Location and assessment of suitable, locally available borrow and construction
material.
This list indicates that the main component of site investigations is focussed on what is
generally described as ‘engineering’ or, more precisely, ‘geotechnical engineering’. However,
various other types of survey are required. Hydrological surveys are required to determine the
water flows that determine the drainage design of the road; traffic surveys are required to
estimate the numbers of vehicles, both motorised and non-motorised, that will use the road;
surveys are required to evaluate environmental impacts and how to control them; surveys are
required in which the local communities are consulted about the road project; and so on. This
chapter deals primarily with the geotechnical-related surveys. Surveys required primarily for
non-geotechnical or specialist purposes are described in the Chapters and related
Appendices dealing with those topics.
The focus of this chapter is to provide guidance on the appropriate type and level of site
investigation that is required for route selection and subsequent design of low volume roads.
The chapter also provides practitioners with the necessary tools to develop suitable site
investigation programmes and in-situ testing schedules and with assistance in interpreting the
data obtained.
Site investigation techniques encompass a large range of methods and the amount and type
of exploration that is needed for a specific road project will depend on the nature of the
proposed project and the environment in which it is to be built. It is not the purpose of this
chapter to explain individual site investigation techniques. More detailed information on the
type, use and interpretation of site investigation techniques is included in Appendix D. The
reader is also referred to appropriate sections of the MRB Site Investigation Manual for main
roads (USAID, 2006).
This Chapter only deals with the investigation of the site in terms of gathering relevant and
appropriate engineering information for the selection of the most suitable route and the
subsequent design of the road along that route. Where complimentary interventions are
required to increase the positive impact of the road project under consideration, the design
consultant should be familiar with the requirements in Appendix G of this manual.
5.2 Site Investigation Components

In addition to the characteristics of projects and their physical environment site investigations
for LVRs must be designed to suit the particular stage of the Project Cycle that is under
consideration, Figure 5.1. Each of the stages within this project cycle will demand a different
level of detail.
28
1 Road Project Identification

Define the project and preliminary short
list
2. Road Project Feasibility 6. Rehabilitation/Upgrade Assessment

Selection and outline design. Identify access links or additional Spot
Improvements that may be needed for
rehabilitation or upgrade to meet changes
in task.
3. . Road Project Design 5. Maintenance

Design of approved options for Undertake appropriate levels of
construction and production of relevant maintenance to keep the access within
documentation task requirements
4. Construction
Construction of subproject as specified in
contract documents with appropriate
levels of supervision and quality control
Figure 5.1 The project cycle related to LVRs
In some larger projects, for example, involving a number of LVRs within a single programme,
there may be a requirement for an additional Prefeasibility Stage. In contrast, in the case of
single small basic access alignments there may be a combination of the general planning and
feasibility stages. In the majority of cases, however, the overall site investigation can be
considered as a phased programme linked to the following project stages:
 Identification and general planning;
 Feasibility Study or Preliminary Engineering Design;
 Final Engineering Design.
Additional special investigations may be required for specific purposes during the Project
Cycle; for example for additional construction materials or to investigate slope issues during
the construction phase or a subgrade condition assessment during an upgrade assessment.
These may involve a simpler preliminary and main stage programme.
5.3 Principal Considerations for Route Selection

This section highlights most of the issues that require consideration when establishing and
finalising the route alignment. For upgrading an existing road many of the points raised will
not be relevant. For entirely new roads most of the issues should at least be considered and
can act as an investigation and design check list.
5.3.1 General considerations and good practice

Socio-Economic:
1. The road should be as direct as possible (within the bounds of the geometric
standards for the particular class of road) between the cities, towns or villages to be
linked, thereby minimising road user transport costs and probably minimising
construction and maintenance costs as well.
29
2. The road should not be so close to public facilities that it causes unnecessary
disturbance. Cultural sites such as cemeteries, places of worship, archaeological and
historical monuments should be specifically protected. Although a road is designed to
facilitate access to hospitals, schools and so on, it should be located at a reasonable
distance away for safety and to reduce noise.
3. Where the proposed location interferes with utility lines (eg over-head transmission
cables and water supply lines), the decision between changing the road alignment
and shifting the utility line should be based on a study of the feasibility and the
relative economics.
4. The road should, as far as possible, be located along edges of properties rather than
through them to minimise interference to agriculture and other activities and to avoid
the need for frequent crossing of the road by the local people.
5. The location should be such as to avoid unnecessary and expensive destruction of
trees and forests. Where intrusion into such areas is unavoidable, the road should be
aligned on a curve so as to preserve an unbroken background.
6. The road should be ‘integrated’ with the surrounding landscape as far as possible.
Normally, it is necessary to study the environmental impact of the road and ensure
that its adverse effects are kept to the minimum.
Engineering:
1. Where possible marshy and low-lying areas and places having poor drainage and
weak materials should be avoided.
2. When feasible the preferred alignment should be one that permits a balancing of cut
and fill to minimise borrow, spoil and haul.
3. The road should if possible be close to sources of borrow materials and should
minimise haulage of materials over long distances.
4. When the road follows a railway line or river, frequent crossings of the railway or river
should be avoided.
5. Problematic and erosion susceptible soils should also be avoided as much as
possible.
6. An important control point in route selection is the location of river crossings. The
direction of the crossings of major rivers should be normal to the river flow.
7. Areas liable to flooding and areas likely to be unstable due to toe-erosion by rivers
should be avoided.
Other:
1. Where possible, the road should be located such that the road reserve can be wide
enough to allow future upgrading to a wider carriageway.
2. Areas of valuable natural resources and wildlife sanctuaries should remain protected.
5.3.2 Special considerations in hilly and mountainous areas

General principles:
1. The location should, as far as possible, facilitate easy grades and curvatures.
2. High fills should be avoided and special attention should be paid to the compaction of
all fills.
3. The alignment should minimise the number of hairpin bends. Where unavoidable, the
bends and switchbacks should be located on stable ground. A series of hairpin bends
on the same face of the hill should be avoided.
30
4. On stable slopes, half cut and half fill cross-sections should be considered as a
means to minimise the disturbance to the natural ground.
5. Natural terrain features such as stable benches, ridge-tops, and low gradient slopes
should be utilised. If a ridge top is considered, roads should be located far enough
above convergent gully headwalls or confluences to provide a buffer; otherwise a
structure is needed to intercept moving sediment below the road.
6. In crossing mountain ridges, the location should be such that the road preferably
crosses the ridge at the lowest elevation.
7. Needless rise and fall should be avoided, especially where the general purpose of the
route is to gain elevation from a lower to a higher point.
8. Locations along river valleys have the inherent advantage of comparatively gentle
gradients, proximity to inhabited villages, and easy supply of water for construction
purposes. However, there are also disadvantages such as the need for large number
of cross-drainage structures and protective works against erosion.
Unstable terrain:
1. If possible unstable slopes, areas having frequent landslide problems and benched
agricultural fields should be avoided.
2. Mid-slope locations on long, steep, or unstable slopes should be avoided.
Erosion potential:
1. If possible, it is best to avoid areas of high erosion potential. If not, considerable
attention is required to dissipate flow in road drainage ditches and culverts and
reduce surface erosion. It is also advisable to consult local agricultural experts during
the process of route selection to ensure that the selected alignment has a minimum
potential for soil erosion and that the project design provides sufficient erosion control
measures.
5.4 Site Investigation Procedures
The choice of methods for site investigation is determined by the type of road project and the
nature of the issues likely to arise from site conditions, of geology, terrain and climate. A wide
variety of procedures are used for site investigation and these may be grouped as follows
Walkover Ground Laboratory

Desk study
Survey Investigation Testing
Air photographs, Mapping of soil Boreholes Determine
existing conditions, probes and test materials
boreholes, construction pits to further design
historical maps, material establish parameters
geological maps, availability, ground profile,
soil maps, geomorphology, insitu strength
climatic data, grade or testing
land use, design alignment
specifications. problems, water
crossing and
drainage
problems, site
access
difficulties
Figure 5.2. General investigation procedures
31
If an investigation is to be effective, it must be carried out in a systematic way, using

techniques that are understood by the local practitioners, relevant to the project in hand,
reliable and cost-effective. For low volume roads, investigations should employ relatively
standard and simple investigation methods. More sophisticated and expensive procedures
should only be employed when a significant geotechnical problem is encountered. Under
such circumstances it is advisable to seek specialist assistance.
Site investigation techniques for basic access low volume roads with no significant structures
or earthworks can utilise relatively simple sampling and testing techniques. These include
visual inspection and description of test pits along the proposed alignment, use of dynamic
cone penetrometer testing to assign uniform sections and use of simple on-site material
testing kits to assess the grading and plasticity of in-situ soils and borrow materials.
The benefit of utilising the materials test kits is that a large number of simple tests can be
conducted in the field relatively quickly and cheaply and the frequency of testing will not be
compromised. Verification tests in the laboratory will also be required. Strength, compaction
and other types of test can only be conducted by appropriate sampling and laboratory testing.
5.5 Desk Studies

Before any ground survey is carried out and, indeed, before such a survey can be planned
and designed, it is vital to study all the relevant information that is available about the project
area. This is done through a systematic desk study which entails the collection of detailed
information for review and analysis. It allows checking the suitability of all environmental and
engineering conditions along different route options. Studying existing documents, including
site investigations from earlier project phases, and examining maps and aerial photographs
often eliminates an unfavourable route from further consideration, thus saving a considerable
amount of time and money. Topographic maps give essential information about the relief of
an area, and whether or not there are any existing routes. Aerial photographs provide a quick
means for preparing valuable sketches and overlays for reconnaissance/field surveys.
Academic
Literature,
Technical
Reports
Desk
Aerial Photos
study Maps of
and other topography,
Remote geology,
Sensing geomorphology
Sources and soils
Figure 5.3 Desk study key components
There are a number of very helpful sources of information in South Sudan that can and
should be used for this purpose. Table 5.2 summarises data sets that may obtained through
desk studies.
32
The following are some other useful desk-study information sources

Key Ministries:
 Ministry of Roads and Bridges;
 Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry;
 Ministry of Transport;
 State Ministries of Physical Planning.
Useful websites:
www.unsudig.org: United Nations Information Gateway, (Maps, statistics etc )
www.logcluster.org/countries/ssd: European Commission Humanitarian Aid (Maps)
www.usaid.gov/where-we-work/africa/south-sudan:
www.goss.org: Gateway for Ministry websites,
www.cde.unibe.ch: Downloadable maps
33
Table 5.1 Existing data sources relevant to road construction
Information Functional Use Availability Application
Main Road Design Additional data and information on aspects of geometry, Ministry of Roads and Bridges (MRB). More detailed descriptions of procedures
drainage, pavement and materials and structural design of and associated standards.
Manuals
roads and bridges in South Sudan.
Road and other Previous road investigations in the locality will provide a MRB and NGOs involved in road Reports may provide geological, hydrological,
Engineering range of data and information such as: soil and rock type, programmes, UNOPS, USAID, WFP. and geotechnical information for the general area
Reports strength parameters, hydro- geological issues, construction that may reduce the scope or better target the
materials, information on local road performance and nature of the site investigation.
issues.
Remote Sensing Identifies man-made structures, potential borrow source MRB and external sources such as Evaluating photographs or satellite images may
areas. Quick Bird; IKONOS and Google save time during construction material or geo-
Earth. hazard surveys.
Provides geologic and hydrological information which can
be used as a basis for site reconnaissance; Track site
changes over time.
Topographic Provides good index map. Allows estimation of site Topographic maps at 1:50,000 or 1: Identification of access areas and restrictions, and
topography. 250,000. Transport and road type can estimate cut and fill before visiting the site.
Maps
maps. UN Sudan Information
Identifies physical features; Can be used to assess access
Gateway.
restrictions.
Geologic Provides information on nearby soil and rock type and Geological Survey, local Universities. A report on regional geology identifies rock
Reports and characteristics. Large scale geological and types, fracture, orientation and groundwater flow
Maps hydrological maps available on web. patterns.
Hydro-geological issues.
Environmental concerns.
Soil maps Local soil types. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry; The local soil survey provides information on
Permeability of local soils. near-surface soils to facilitate preliminary borrow
source evaluation.
Climatic and geologic information.
Meteorological and Mean Annual/Monthly; Rainfall and distribution’ Max and National Metrological Agency. Climatic impacts on road environment.
Climatic data min temperatures; evaporation.
34
Land use / Distributional and type of soils; drainage and water Ministry of Agriculture and local Identify the physical and biological cover over the
courses; agriculture and forest cover. Administrations. land, including water, vegetation, bare soil, and
land cover
artificial structures.
Universities and research institutes.
Local Traffic classification, traffic variation, road user demand, State and county administrations. Identification of specific problems and hazards
Knowledge hazards and ground instability, local road performance and along proposed alignment;
maintenance history, accident black spots, water sources,
Local sources of materials and previous
local weather conditions and drainage characteristics.
performance.
Statistics and Future Population data and demographics; Socio-Economic and State and county administrations. Future activities within vicinity of planned road
Plans household survey information; Development Plans. MRB and Planning Ministries. corridor.
35
5.6 Walkover Surveys and Geotechnical Mapping

The initial walkover survey should focus on covering, visually, the entire length of the proposed
alignment before concentrating on detailed locations. Key walkover objectives are summarised
in Figure 5.4.
Assess any
geotechnical
hazards and
constraints
Walkover
survey
Preliminary
Establish geotechnical
physical
characteristics
and
of site engineering
models
Figure 5.4 Key walkover objectives
The walk-over survey should, in conjunction with the Desk Study, establish the key physical,
geotechnical and engineering aspects of the proposed alignment. On some projects basic
geotechnical or engineering geological mapping may be required to determine the extent of
potential hazards. The location of existing or potential borrow areas or rock quarries for
construction materials is an essential element of the walk-over process. Further details on
procedures are included in Appendix E.
5.7 Ground Investigations

5.7.1 General
Ground Investigations involve the physical sampling, examination and in situ testing of the
soils and rocks underlying and adjacent to the route corridor in order to determine
geotechnical and engineering properties relevant to the appropriate design of LVRs.
Ground investigations should provide a description of ground conditions relevant to the
proposed works and establish a basis for the assessment of the geotechnical and road
engineering parameters relevant for all stages of the Project Cycle. Ground investigations for
construction materials determine the nature and extent of proposed construction materials
sources as well as their relevant geotechnical parameters. They may also be required to
provide relevant information on groundwater needed for geotechnical design and
construction. Specialist investigations may be required to collect information about identified
geo-hazards.
Figure 5.5 outlines the key objectives of ground investigations which may be undertaken
using a variety of sampling and testing techniques, as outlined in Table 5.2.
36
Table 5.2 Standard ground investigation techniques
Ground
Investigation Purpose Advantages Frequency
Technique
DCP survey In-situ test for strength Light and portable, gives At minimum 4-10 DCP tests/km
characteristics. information on state of should be used for LVRs, 10
any pavement layers tests/km for DC2,3 and 4
present. Can test both roads.
road and shoulder. Test
quick and simple.
Vane shear test In-situ shear strength in Especially good at Where soft clays are present,
clays. assessing soft clays. 4-10 tests/km should be used.
Equipment is easily
portable.
Cone In situ strength and Good reliable information Used in areas under moderate
Penetration Test compressibility of soils. in soft to stiff clays and to high embankment and for
loose to dense sands. structure foundation
investigations.
Test Pits and Provides a ground profile Gives an accurate picture Dependent on DCP testing.
trenches and samples for testing of the ground profile. Pits should be at least 0.5
subgrade and potential fill below the natural subgrade
material. level. In cuts this can be
reduced to 0.3m. For a new
alignment, pits should be at
least 2m deep unless rock is
present.
Auguring and Provides in situ Can be used in areas Should be used in landslide
Boring information on material where trial pits are not zones, unconsolidated soils
present. possible. Can extend to and where existing pavement
great depth. layers are present.
SPT Provides in situ test Used in conjunction with Used for structure foundation
results in most materials augering or boring holes. investigation and high
and can be used in weak earthworks.
rocks.
Seismic hammer Can differentiate between Light and portable. A Can use for key areas where
loose unconsolidated sledge hammer and rock head is uncertain and
sediments and intact geophones provide a critical for design.
rock. cheap option.
This table presents a list of techniques that may be required for LVRs in general ; the use of
any technique or combination of techniques for a specific road will be a function of the scale,
nature and geotechnical environment of that road. Ground investigations need to be carefully
planned and must take into account the nature of the ground; the nature and phase of the
project; and the project design requirements. Results from the Desk Study and Walk-Over
should be used in the planning of cost-effective ground investigations.
Further details of ground investigation procedures likely to be used in LVR ground
investigations are included in Appendix E to this document
37
Collect
approporiate
samples for
examination
and testing
Gound
Investigation
Develop
Define in situ understanding
geotechnical of soil-rock
behaviour profile nature
and geomtrey
Figure 5.5 Key ground investigation objectives
5.8 Laboratory Test Programmes

Laboratory testing of soil samples recovered during subsurface explorations is the most
common procedure to obtain engineering properties necessary for design. Testing
programmes vary greatly in size and scope depending on the type and phase of the road
project and associated works. Testing should not be commissioned on an arbitrary or ad hoc
basis but should be part of a rationally designed programme. Clear objectives should be
identified and test procedures and test programmes need to be designed with these in mind.
The relationships between in situ conditions and those experienced by the sampled and
tested material need to be clearly borne in mind when designing and developing the test
regime.
Laboratory tests commonly employed in LVR investigations are detailed in Appendix B.
In the majority of cases no single test procedure will satisfy requirements and a battery of test
procedures will be needed. An appropriate test programme will include a logical selection and
sequence of tests that is function of the geotechnical environment, the nature of the
investigation and the road design requirements.
It is necessary that testing requests be clear and sufficiently detailed. Unless specialised
testing is required, the owner should require that all testing be performed in accordance with
appropriate specification for laboratory testing in AASHTO and ASTM.
5.9 Investigations for Project Phases

Each phase of a project has specific objective and the site investigation requirements for each
phase should be focussed on these objectives. Investigation budgets are likely to be very
constrained for most LVR projects and hence the procedures and techniques employed must
be carefully selected and planned to obtain maximum information for the least cost. Table 5.4
summarises the general procedures likely to be adopted for each project phase described in
the following sections.
38
Table 5.4 Relative importance of investigation activities during the project life-cycle
Investigation Activity
Project Phase
Walkover - Ground Laboratory
Desk Study
Mapping Investigation Testing
General Planning A B C C
Feasibility Study A A B B
Engineering
B B A A
Design
Construction C B B A
Maintenance C B C C
Rehabilitation C A B B
A: An essential activity. B: Important support activity C: Minor activity
5.9.1 Identification and general planning

This is the stage at which the need for the project is identified and projects that do not meet
selection criteria defined by the appropriate authorities are rejected. It is likely that a desk
study and a simple reconnaissance survey will form the basis for this phase of the
investigation. Desk studies form a crucial element throughout a site investigation but are
particularly crucial in the early phases. Key elements of a General Planning site investigation
are likely to be:
 Identification of potential alignments to meet the project task;
 Establishment of general physical environment;
 Identification of any major geological or geotechnical hazards or constraints;
 Development of general geotechnical model.
5.9.2 Pre-feasibility study

In the limited cases where a pre-feasibility study is required this would be the stage where a
broad economic and engineering assessment is made. It is at this stage that the main
engineering and other constraints affecting the route are identified (for example,
environmental and cultural issues) and likely corridors for the proposed road selected.
As part of the pre-feasibility study stage for a major LVR programme it is important to identify
and investigate the major technical, environmental, economic and social constraints through a
reconnaissance survey in order to obtain a broad appreciation of the viability of the competing
alignment options. For low volume roads, one of the most important aspects of the pre-
feasibility study is communication with the people who will be affected by the road. Their
views are vital for the completion of a successful project and interacting with them is essential
right from the outset.
39
Although not covered in this part of the manual the importance of community participation at
this stage, and throughout the project, cannot be over-emphasised as an input to the route
selection, design and development of complimentary interventions related to a project.
5.9.3 Feasibility study or preliminary engineering design

At this stage sufficient data are required to identify the final choice of route and the structural
design of the road. The feasibility study survey consists, essentially, of mapping the terrain
along the centre-line of the viable route or routes identified at the pre-feasibility stage. Data is
required that can estimate the likely costs to an accuracy of better than 25%. General costs
for similar roads that have been built recently may be used for much of the assessment but
the costs for major structures such as bridges and major earthworks need to be estimated
sufficiently accurately hence the extent of the site investigation programme is dictated by
these requirements.
A feasibility survey provides data that enables specialists to study the advantages and
disadvantages of a variety of routes and then to determine which routes should be considered
for further investigation. It is an opportunity for checking the actual conditions on the ground
and for noting any discrepancies in the maps or aerial photographs. During this survey, it is
necessary to make notes of soil conditions, especially potentially soil problems; availability of
construction materials; unusual grade or alignment problems, water crossings and potential
drainage problems; and requirements for clearing and grubbing. It is also very useful to take
photographs or make sketches of reference points, structure sites, landslides, washouts, or
any other unusual circumstances.
Simultaneously with the feasibility study or shortly thereafter, a preliminary pavement
selection is desirable in order to assess the possible solutions and the approximate needs for
pavement construction materials in view of a comparison with the apparent availability of such
materials.
For the lower classes of roads predominantly unpaved earth or gravel roads, the information
from the feasibility study may be the only available data to assist in the design of the road due
to financial constraints, hence, it is important to bear this in mind when designing the survey
that is to be undertaken. The outputs of the pre-feasibility study for gravel roads should be a
single selected alignment for possible further investigation at the feasibility stage if required.
For paved roads, more than one viable alignment option should be available.
After the Feasibility Study there should be sufficient information for the final route alignment to
be selected. Minor adjustments to the route alignment(s) may still be necessary during
design, but the number of iterations needed to establish the best alignment and confirm the
choice of the route should decrease significantly.
In some cases the choice of final route alignment might depend on factors other than just the
engineering factors. Considerations such as environmental issues, numbers of people within a
minimum distance from the road, proximity to historic, religious or other cultural sites and so
on might override the basic economic analysis. Decisions based on some form of multi
criteria analysis are available and could be used by those responsible if required.
5.9.4 Final engineering design

The final engineering design requires sufficient design data for preparation of the tender and
draft contract documents. This stage requires the most rigorous site investigation and
considerably more data will be required than hitherto. An estimate of the requirement for
detailed site investigation should be made as part of the feasibility study. The entire process
40
of project design should now be completed with sufficient accuracy to minimise the risk of
changes being required after the contracts has been awarded. Detailed investigation will be
required to provide technical data on the following:
 Topography;
 Traffic count and loading;
 Alignment soils and construction materials (fill, gravels, rock, potential aggregate,
sand and water) – including potential haul and quantities;
 Hydrology and drainage;
 Ground stability, geotechnics and the characteristics of water crossings;
 Socio-environmental considerations.
The scope and extent of the site investigation for final engineering design will depend on the
characteristics of the alignment and the type of road under consideration. For many low
volume roads the design of the feasibility study should be such that most of the information
obtained should be sufficient for final design. The data obtained at the feasibility stage will not
be so comprehensive and will not be as robust from a statistical point of view as that obtained
from site investigations for DC3 and DC4 roads. However, it should be adequate and reliable
and sufficient to provide a competent design for DC1 and DC2 low volume roads. It is likely
that some additional detailed survey will be required, particularly for water crossings, within
areas of problem soils and unstable terrain.
The quality and level of the site investigation for final design should not be compromised to
provide cost savings nor should the level of investigation be necessarily reduced to reflect an
anticipated low design class.
The sub-surface investigation for the final design stage is typically performed prior to defining
the proposed structural elements or the specific locations of culverts, embankments or other
structures. Accordingly, the investigation process includes techniques sufficient to define soil
and rock characteristics and the centreline subgrade conditions.
An important assumption is that the topographic survey, based on the preliminary route
alignment has been completed prior to the detailed site investigation. It is only against the
topographic model that locations of structures and other features of the design can be fixed
and estimates made of quantities, haulage and ultimately construction costs.
In general, the site investigation for final design will focus on sampling and testing of materials
to provide information on the following reports:
 Characteristics of alignment soils and in-situ materials;
 Location and characteristics of construction materials, volumes available and
haulage;
 Earthworks investigations – cut and fill;
 Water sources.
Specific site investigation programmes may be required for associated bridges and other
large structures.
5.9.5 Subgrade Characterisation

The subgrade can be defined, in terms of location, as the upper 600mm of the road
foundation. The subgrade is required to resist repeated stressing by traffic and to be stable to
the stresses imposed by varying climatic and moisture influence.
41
The character of the subgrade is determined by the geological and weathering characteristics
of the rocks that produce the soil and the interaction with the local climate, moisture and
drainage regime prevailing in the area. As a general “rule of thumb” better subgrades are
found in well drained areas. Clayey soils often predominate in flat areas and along valley
floors.
The design of a paved or unpaved road is very strongly dependant on the characteristics of
the subgrade and, therefore, so is its potential performance. The desirable properties of a
good subgrade include high strength, high stiffness, good drainage characteristics, ease of
compaction and low compressibility. A good subgrade is strong enough to resist shear failure
and has adequate stiffness to minimise vertical deflection. Stronger and stiffer materials
provide a more effective foundation for the pavement layers and are more resistant to
stresses from repeated loadings and environmental (moisture) conditions. Most importantly,
the stronger the subgrade, the thinner the pavement layers above need to be. Unfortunately
the designer usually has very little choice about the subgrade for most of the route.
Because the road design is so dependent on the subgrade, it is vital that the characteristics of
the subgrade along the alignment are measured in some detail and understood. In cases
where the subgrade materials are unsuitable, either cost effective methods of improving the
existing conditions must be identified (eg. improving drainage or stabilisation) or the road
alignment must be altered to avoid such areas completely.
5.9.6 Earthworks
Natural slopes, road cuts and existing embankment fill in the vicinity of the planned project
provide evidence of expected ground stability and likely requirement for detailed surface and
subsurface investigations.
These investigations should consider; the types of materials in the cut; slope stability and the
different types of movements that may occur. Scars, anomalous bulges, odd outcrops, broken
contours, ridge top trenches, fissures, terraced slopes, abrupt changes in slope or in stream
direction, springs or seepage zones all indicate the possibility of past ground movements.
The first indication of possible instability problems can be obtained from a study of the
topography. Topographic maps and aerial photographs provide useful data on whether
instability is likely to occur or has occurred in the past. Moreover, an understanding of the
local geology is essential. Slope failure along road cuts is often associated with pre-existing
planes. Survey of the orientation and characteristics of joints and weak zones is therefore
essential. In addition, the degree of weathering along these joints should be inspected.
When a visual survey is not enough, it is often useful to excavate a trench. In deep cuts,
where interference with existing stability and groundwater conditions is expected, a trench
across the face of the slope provides a better understanding of the geology of the area.
Trenches are preferable to pits to inspect cuts because of their dimension. Depending on the
geology and degree of weathering, up to five trenches are normally enough to investigate a
100m long slope cut. The trenches should be located at places where material changes are
expected and range between 1m and 3m in depth. For safety reasons great care needs to be
taken by personnel accessing trenches or pits greater the 1m depth. Adequate support to pit
or trench walls is essential and any engineers or technicians entering the pits or trenches
must be accompanied by surface safety supervision.
Additional information on performance of slopes can also be obtained by inspecting soil and
rock exposures along existing road cuts in the region.
A particular difficulty in steep terrain is the disposal of excess material (spoil), therefore every
effort should be made to balance the cut and fill. Where this is not possible, suitable stable
42
areas for the disposal of spoil must be identified. Spoil can erode, or may become very wet
and slide in a mass. Material is carried downslope and may cause scour of watercourses or
bury stable vegetated or agricultural land. Material may choke stream beds causing the
stream to meander from side to side, undercutting the banks and creating instability.
High level embankment foundation investigation should, as a minimum, consider; the range of
materials and settlement potential; side-slope stability; groundwater; moisture regime and
drainage requirements; erosion resistance; haul distance; and environmental impact.
Settlement problems are unlikely if rock is encountered at a shallow depth. However, if the
underlying foundation is covered by transported soils, problems are likely as the material may
vary from soft alluvial clays to collapsing silts (sands) or expansive clays. It is therefore
important to understand the particular transportation history and mechanism and the result
that this has on the nature of the soil and its behaviour.
The type of ground investigation will depend on the types of soils encountered. If soils are
predominately cohesive, the primary design issues will be bearing capacity, side slope
stability, and long-term settlement. These design issues will usually require the collection of
undisturbed soil samples for laboratory strength and consolidation testing. The vane shear
test can provide valuable in-situ strength data, particularly in soft clays.
Where embankments cross alluvial deposits, there will probably be a stream requiring a
structure. Therefore investigations should assess the interaction between these structures,
the embankment and the in-situ material. Most embankment problems at streams are a direct
result of poor drainage and consequent high pore pressures. During the site investigation it is
important that all sources of water along the alignment are identified and their impact on the
design assessed.
If groundwater is not identified and adequately addressed early, it can significantly impair
constructability, road performance and slope stability. Claims related to unforeseen
groundwater conditions often form a significant proportion of contractual disputes. Many of
these claims originate from a failure to record groundwater during site investigation.
5.9.7 Construction materials

Sources of road-building materials have to be identified within an economic haulage distance
and they must be available in sufficient quantity and of sufficient quality for the purposes
intended. Previous experience in the area may assist with this but additional survey is usually
essential.
The construction materials investigation often requires an extensive programme of site and
laboratory testing, especially if the materials are of marginal quality or occur only in small
quantities.
The site investigation must identify and prove that there are adequate and economically viable
reserves of natural construction materials. The materials required are:
 Common embankment fill;
 Capping layer / imported subgrade;
 Sub-base and road-base aggregate;
 Road surfacing aggregate;
 Paving stone (eg for cobblestone pavements);
 Aggregates for structural concrete;
 Filter/drainage material;
43
 Special requirements (eg rock-fill for gabion baskets).
5.10 Investigations for Small Structures

5.10.1 Introduction
The objective of a structures site investigation is to provide a clear picture of the ground
conditions to enable a suitable design to be carried out. The level of site investigation clearly
depends on the type and complexity of the proposed structure. When bridges are considered
site investigations should be undertaken by a suitably qualified engineer and a suitably
designed geotechnical survey should be carried out.
The ground underneath a proposed structure should have an adequate bearing capacity to
support the load of the structure itself and the vehicles, which pass over it. If the soil has
insufficient strength it will compress and the structure will subside, possibly causing failure.
The bearing capacity will depend on a range of different factors including; the proportions of
sand clay; organic and other material in the soil; the mineralogy of the clay materials; and the
level of the water table. As the type of soil may change with depth it is necessary to dig trial
pits at the proposed site to determine the bearing capacity at the proposed foundation level.
By identifying and sampling the material excavated from different depths of the trial pits the
bearing capacity of the soil can be determined. Bearing capacities are particularly important in
the design of structures where large localised loads are expected, (e.g. bridge abutments and
piers) as the soil must have a high bearing capacity to support these loads.
5.10.2 Assessment of the problem or need

In order to set priorities it will be necessary to assess the general condition of the road
network, highlighting which roads require new or improved structures. This assessment
should allow the responsible engineers to:
 Prioritise construction of structures;
 Calculate the structures programme budget requirements;
 Develop work programmes and construction timeframe;
 Identify resource requirements.
This information can then be collated for senior planning engineers to co-ordinate the overall
budget and resource requirements for the whole road network. The basis of this work should
be an inventory of all structures (or required structures) on the road network. TRL Overseas
Road Note 7 provides guidance on the preparation of such inventories.
It is essential that detailed assessments be undertaken at each structure site as structures
form a large percentage of the overall cost of the road infrastructure. Assessments
undertaken at sites of proposed structure locations should be sufficiently detailed to ensure:
 Enough time is spent identifying the best location for the structure. (If the road is
already built and the structure is being upgraded it may not be possible to identify new
crossing sites);
 The appropriate type of structure is chosen;
 The structure is adequate for the purpose (traffic type and numbers, water flows and
size etc.);
 The design should not need to be significantly changed during construction, as this
would result in an increase in the cost of the structure.
44
5.10.3 Assessment of potential structures

The main issues to be decided during the assessment of new structures are:
 Type of structure - Volume 2 Chapter 4;
 Location of the structure - Volume 2 Chapter 5;
 Size of structure - Volume 2 Chapter 6.
The assessment may be undertaken for either a new structure or the upgrading of an existing
structure. In either case the design work will be similar. There are two main stages to be
undertaken in the planning and assessment of potential structures; desk study and field study.
5.10.4 Desk study

The desk study should allow the designer to develop an initial idea of the size and possibly
type of structure required. The following information should be obtained and assessment
made at this stage:
 Obtain a map of the area. Ensure that it shows the important features (roads, villages,
watercourses and contours);
 Mark the catchment areas on the map and calculate the catchment size for each
structure location;
 Review the topography of the area.
5.10.5 Field study

The following should be undertaken as part of the field study:
 Prepare a sketch map of potential site (s) - plan and x-section;
 Field investigations of the soil conditions and strengths;
 Surface exploration - identify soil types in the water course for potential erosion;
 Sub surface exploration - trial pits;
 Record results in tables or on maps;
 Site survey, including water measurements;
 Determine section and gradient near potential sites by surveying the watercourse;
 Determine area of the waterway for normal and flood flows;
 Check availability of local resources;
 Crosscheck information with local community members regarding flood levels,
frequency an duration.
The value of consulting with the local community should not be underestimated, particularly
with regard to levels and frequency of flooding and waterborne debris. Also, in generally flat
terrain their knowledge of the extent and direction of flood flows is valuable. They should be
able to inform regarding local materials and labour/skills resources and any seasonal
accessibility problems. The consultation opportunity should also be used to listen to any
concerns and allay fears regarding the potential effects or impact of any new or rehabilitated
structure.
45
5.10.6 Collection of initial design data

The collection of the initial design data will affect the primary choice of structure. This design
data should be gathered during the desk and field studies. Table 5.5 shows the range of data
that can be collected in the assessment of the potential structure, which is discussed in more
detail in the various chapters. It will not be necessary to collect all the data for the more
simple structures. Some of the data may also be collected on a further visit during more
detailed survey of the selected structure site.
Table 5.5: Data Requirement
Category Item Information required

 Is there an availability of trade skills in the locality eg carpentry, stonemasons?
 What is the standard of workmanship available?
 Options of:
Labour
1 Specialist skills vs. training local labour

2 Time/cost vs. skills transfer and ongoing maintenance potential
 Labour wage rates.
 What is the availability of local materials (eg masonry stone (rough/dressed),

Local Resources
timber, locally manufactured brick and blockwork)?

 What is the strength, quality, durability and quantity of local materials?
Materials
 Steel: what are the imported and delivery costs to site, delays, welding, bending
and fixing skills available?
 Cement: what are the strengths achievable, delivery/ import delays, types of
concrete and experience, quality control and possible testing arrangements?
 What are the unit costs of materials?

Equipment
What basic specialist equipment is available / would be required for construction

AND maintenance (transport, production, loading unloading, mixing, placing,
craneage etc.?)
What are the costs of equipment (including transport and servicing costs)?
 What is the reliability of the collected data?


General
Is a separate structure needed to allow work to commence further along the road?
 What will be the cost for construction AND maintenance?
 Do pedestrians, animals or IMTs frequently travel along the road?
 What is the class of road?

 Are local standards established for structures on this category of road?
Design Criteria
 What is the largest type of vehicle that uses the road?

 Does vehicle and axle load data exist?
 If funds are severely constrained, is a one lane, alternate traffic flow option
feasible?

Traffic
What is the traffic density, does it vary eg seasonally or on market days in the local
area?
 Review standards used elsewhere and recommend appropriate ones. Will the
vehicle size or loading increase if the road or structure is improved (new or re-
routed traffic)?
 Are any exceptional loads transported? - check for logging, quarries, mining or
other industries in the area. What are the possible traffic, economic and safety
implications?
46
 Which types of structure would be acceptable?
New
 What is the general condition of the structure?
 What was the original design life?
Type of Structure
 Do as-built records exist?

Existing Structure
 Are there indications of maximum flood levels on structure?

 Are there any signs of post construction settlement?
 What are the main problems with the existing structure?
 Are there failures in any of the structural elements?
 What is the current level of scour around structure?
 Indications of excessive loading or abuse?
 Dimensions and any possibility of refurbishment or adaptation?
 Is the depth to firm strata or rock known?

 What type of material is available to build on for foundations?
Site Selection
 What is the level of the water table?

General
 What is the compressibility or strength of subsoil?

 What is the best location of trial pits - to provide the most valuable information?
 Is the water / soil chemistry aggressive to building materials? (specialist advice may be
required)
 Is the stream perennial or seasonal?

 What is the type of watercourse? (Meandering, straight, bends, presence of weeds)
 Is the watercourse and bed stable, e.g. in rock?
 What is the low water level?
 What are the minimum or normal flow levels?
Watercourse Details
 What are the maximum flood levels (MFL)? (frequency of occurrence and duration)
 What are the watercourse cross sections at potential site?
 What is the gradient of watercourse upstream and downstream of the crossing point?
 Is there evidence of course/bank or level changes, erosion/deposition at the site,
upstream or downstream? Consult with old maps and the community
Water Parameters
 Is there sometimes floating debris in the water?

 What is the water velocity during floods?
 What is the longitudinal section or profile along the watercourse? Is the watercourse
used for private or commercial traffic with headroom requirements?
 Size and amount of sediment supplied from catchment area.
 Area of catchment?
 Are sudden floods encountered?
Catchment Details
 Shape of catchment?
 Gradient of terrain?
 Permeability of soil?
 Vegetation coverage and type?
 Rainfall intensity?
 Is the vegetation coverage changing rapidly e.g. Deforestation?
The importance of collecting accurate information cannot be over emphasised. Although it

may prove difficult to collect the required data it is not good practice to make superficial or un-
supported assumptions as this will almost invariably result in higher costs due to either
47
additional resources being required to amend the design during construction or the structure
being unfit for its purpose.
5.10.7 Field assessment practicalities

To undertake a survey of a new road or site for a structure it is usually necessary to have the
following equipment:
 Vehicle - with an odometer;
 Map of the road network;
 Note book;
 Tape measure;
 Ranging rods;
 Graduated line and weight for measuring water depths;
 Hammer, nails, wooden stakes and paint for site survey marks;
 Abney level (or simple survey level) and survey staff (only required for bridges);
 Camera (optional - may be useful for recording potential sites for reference in design
office);
 Shovel and pickaxe/mattock for trial holes;
 Materials sample bags;
 Containers for water samples;
 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) for soil strength assessment (desirable);
 Water craft for deep water sites;
 GPS.
It is likely that more complex structures will require a second or even third site visit in order to
collect the necessary detailed information required. These visits will probably require
additional survey equipment to determine more accurate levels. Following initial field
investigations along a potential route or rehabilitation/ improvement of an existing route, the
field engineer should compile a Table of the structural works, which may be required.
The actual costs of structures will vary according to local resource costs and factors. The
benefits of keeping a database of actual and estimated construction costs cannot be
overemphasised. Because of the many factors that influence local costs and construction
practices it is highly risky to transfer unit cost knowledge from one location to another, and
most certainly between regions and countries. There is no substitute for careful consideration
of all local cost components and variables.
5.10.8 Foundation bearing capacity

The ground underneath a proposed structure should have an adequate bearing capacity to
support the load of the structure itself and the vehicles, which pass over it. If the soil has
insufficient strength it will compress and the structure will subside, possibly causing failure.
The bearing capacity will depend on a range of different factors including; the proportions of
sand clay; organic and other material in the soil; the mineralogy of the clay materials; and the
level of the water table. As the type of soil may change with depth it is necessary to dig trial
pits at the proposed site to determine the bearing capacity at the proposed foundation level.
By identifying and sampling the material excavated from different depths of the trial pits the
bearing capacity of the soil can be determined. Bearing capacities are particularly important in
48
the design of structures where large localised loads are expected, (e.g. bridge abutments and
piers) as the soil must have a high bearing capacity to support these loads.
The number of trial pits that should be dug will depend on the complexity of the structure and
the uniformity of the soil. Table 5.6 gives a guide to the number and depth of trial pits that
should be dug for different structures. If the ground conditions are known to vary over the
proposed site, or two trial pits show markedly different results, then further trial pits should be
dug as appropriate. The trial pit depth is only given as a guideline figure. If the soil conditions
are very poor it may be necessary to increase the depth. Where bedrock exists close to the
ground surface this offers the best foundation.
Table 5.5: Trial pits: requirements and locations
Structure Number Location Depth
Drift Not required.
Culvert 1 At outlet. 1.5 metres.
2 (only 1 required if At each end of the vented section,

Vented ford ford is shorter than 15 preferably one on the upstream 1.5 metres.
metres). and one on the downstream side.
2 (additional pits at
Large bore 2.5 metres (deeper in
each pier location if At each abutment and each pier.
culvert poor ground conditions).
required).
2 (additional pits at
To firm strata (minimum
Bridge each pier location if At each abutment and each pier.
of 3m).
required).
References
TRL, 1988. ORN 7- Volume 1. A guide to bridge inspection and data systems for district
engineers.
USAID, 2006. Site Investigation Manual. Louis Berger Group for the Ministry of Transport and
Roads (now Ministry of Roads and Bridges)
49
6 GEOMETRIC DESIGN
6.1 Introduction
Geometric design is the process whereby the layout of the road through the terrain is
designed to meet the needs of all the road users. The geometric standards are intended to
meet two important objectives namely to provide minimum levels of safety and comfort for
drivers by provision of adequate sight distances, coefficients of friction and road space for
manoeuvres; and to minimise earthworks to reduce construction costs.
Geometric design covers road width; cross-fall; horizontal and vertical alignments and sight
lines; and the transverse profile or cross-section. The cross-sectional profile includes the
design of the side drainage ditches, embankment heights and side slopes, and is a vital part
of geometric design for low volume roads. The cross-section essentially adapts the pavement
or roadway to the road environment and is part of the drainage design. For example, for
paved roads, wide, sealed shoulders and high camber or cross-fall can significantly improve
the operating environment for the pavement layers by minimising the ingress of surface water.
For unpaved roads the geometrics are the principal influence on the performance of these
roads. Sub-surface water is a problem in low-lying flood-prone areas and whenever the road
is in cut. Again, the height of embankment and the depth and type of drainage ditch have very
significant effects. Some of these aspects are dealt with in the Drainage Chapter (Chapter 9).
This Chapter introduces and presents the rationale, considerations and selection procedure
for appropriate geometric designs for a particular route and sets out the various Geometric
Standards to be used for LVR in South Sudan.
6.1.1 Principal factors affecting geometric standards

The principal factors that affect the appropriate geometric design of a road are:
 Cost and level of service;
 Terrain;
 Safety;
 Pavement type;
 Traffic volume and composition;
 Roadside population (open country or populated areas);
 Soil type;
 Climate;
 Construction technology; and
 Administrative or functional classification.
The cost of a road is usually the most critical factor. It is also the most difficult parameter to
include in the setting of the design standards. The standard of a road is essentially an index of
its ‘service level’ but ‘service level’ is a rather imprecise term that means different things to
different people. However, most would agree that its main components include; speed of
travel, safety, comfort, ease of driving, stopping and parking, and reliable trafficability or
passability. The chosen service level is directly associated with traffic volume and, hence, is
not treated as a separate variable. The standards for service level simply increase from the
lowest road class to the highest, remaining relatively constant within each class (see Table
1.2 and supporting text in Chapter 1).
Since these factors differ for every road, the geometric design of every road could, in
principle, be different. This is impractical and it is therefore normal practice to identify the main
factors and to design a fixed number of geometric standards to cope with the range of values
of these key factors.
50
For LVRs in South Sudan four basic standards DC1 to DC4 are defined based on traffic levels
(Table 6.1).
Table 6.1 : Proposed categorisation for geometric design of roads
Intended Level of
Traffic Grouping Geometric Standards AADT
Service
Refer to South Sudan

High Volume
Geometric Design A and B >300
(HVR)
Manual 2006
DC4 150 - 300
DC3 C 75 – 150
Low Volume DC2
LVR) DC2 25 – 75
DC1 <25
D
Track -
These are then modified, sometimes quite considerably, to cater for the other key factors. The
most important of these are:
 Terrain;
 Traffic composition (including pedestrians and non-motorised vehicles);
 Roadside land use – activities and population density;
 Safety;
 Pavement type (paved or unpaved).
Varying standards of geometric design do not exist to cater specifically for climate and soil
type. However, these factors are taken into account in the design of the drainage features of
the road (Chapter 9) and affect the road cross-section thereby contributing to the geometric
design.
The designer, therefore, has a very wide range of standards from which to choose, ensuring
that a suitable standard is available for almost all situations. However, there will be cases
where it is impossible to meet any of the standards, often because of extremely severe terrain
conditions. Under such circumstances the standards must be relaxed and road users must be
warned of the reduction with suitable and permanent signage.
6.1.2 How the standards are used

A national ‘standard’ is not a specification, although it could, and often is, incorporated into
specifications and contract documents. Rather, a standard is a specific level of quality that
should be achieved at all times and nationwide. Amongst other things this ensures
consistency across the country. For the geometric standards, this means that road users
know exactly what to expect. Drivers, for example, are not ‘surprised’ by unexpected changes
in quality. Thus they will not unexpectedly find that a road is too narrow, or that they have to
alter their speed drastically to avoid losing control of their vehicle. Thus standards are a
guarantee of a particular quality level and, for roads, this is vital for reasons of safety.
51
It is important to note that there is no reason why a higher standard than the standard
appropriate to the traffic and conditions should not be used in specific circumstances. For
example, for reasons of national and international prestige or for strategic or military reasons,
a road may be built to a higher standard than would normally be justified e.g. a road to an
international sports facility (where the traffic is low for most of the time but can be quite high
for short periods), the road to an airport, and roads to military establishments. Thus higher
standards can be used if required but lower standards should not be used except in
exceptional circumstances, for example, in particularly difficult terrain.
Figure 6.1 shows how the appropriate geometric standards are selected.
Step 1 Step 2
Determine AADT of Determine AADT of heavy
motorised traffic trucks (3-axles or more)
(Section 6.2.1) (Section 6.2.3)
Step 3
Select Road
Class (Section
1.2)
Step 4 Step 5 Step 6

Determine daily PCUs of Determine terrain class Determine nature of roadside
non - motorised traffic (Section 6.2.5) population
(Section 6.2.4) (Section 6.2.6)
Step 7
Select Road Type
or Types (Section
6.2.7)
Step 8
Select widths of
carriageway &
shoulders (Section
6.3.7)
Step 9
Determine a trial
alignment using the
parameters selected.
Figure 6.1: Selection procedure for appropriate geometric standards
52
Step 1: The first step is to determine the basic traffic level because this defines the road class
(see Section 6.2.1 and 6.2.3). At this point, the proportion of heavy vehicles in the traffic
stream is also determined (Step 2). This step is not specific to the geometric design and will
usually have been done by the time it is necessary to determine the geometric characteristics
of the road. However, more details of the traffic are required for the geometric design in terms
of the other road users such as pedestrians, bicycles, motor cycles, motor cycle taxis and
animal drawn vehicles. These are taken into account in Step 8.
Step 3: Select Road Class
Step 4: The numbers and characteristics of all the other road users are considered (see
Section 6.2.4). It is here that the road layout may be altered and additional widths provided for
safety and to improve serviceability for all road users (e.g. reduce congestion caused by slow
moving vehicles).
Step 5: The terrain class; flat, rolling, mountainous and escarpment is determined (see
Section 6.2.5).
Step 6: The ‘size’ of the villages or other settlements through which the road passes is
evaluated to determine whether they are large enough to require parking areas and areas for
traders (see Section 6.2.6).
Step 7: For most road classes there are options for road type and therefore the next step is to
decide which type will be built (Section 6.2.7) In many cases the adoption of an EOD policy
will mean that different parts of the road may be designed with a different surfacing. The
process for selecting the choice of road surfacing and paving is described in Chapter 7.
Step 8: From the available data the widths of carriageway and shoulders should be
determined (see Section 6.3.7). At this stage additional factors that affect the geometric
standards are also considered such as additional road safety features and the construction
technology to be employed.
Once the basic parameters have been determined, the appropriate table from Tables 6.17 to
Table 6.23 (Section 6.14) is selected. This provides details of the other geometric factors that
are needed to carry out the geometric design.
Step 9: The completion of the process is the design of a trial alignment as a check to ensure
that all the standards have been met. If not, alternative alignments should be tried. In extreme
conditions it may not be possible to adhere to all the standards at all points along the road. In
such cases engineering judgement or additional technical advice may be needed. The pre-
feasibility study should have shown that the costs of the road are likely to be acceptable.
However, at this stage it may be found that the engineering problems are more costly to solve
than anticipated. This needs to be checked and a final alignment selected. If the costs are too
high then the project will need to be reviewed.
6.2 The Principal Factors Determining the Choice of Geometric standard

6.2.1 Traffic volume
Roads are designed to provide good service for many years and therefore the traffic level to
be used in the design process must take into account traffic growth. Designing for the current
traffic will invariably lead to inadequate standards in the future unless the traffic growth rate is
extremely low. To deal with these uncertainties it is generally expected that there is a strong
correlation between traffic level, traffic growth rates and the functional classification of a road
and therefore such a classification is often seen as a suitable alternative to represent traffic.
53
However, although traffic levels often increase in line with the functional classification, this is
not always true and, furthermore, the traffic levels and growth rates are likely to differ
considerably between different areas and different regions of the country. For example, the
traffic on a ‘collector’ road in one area of the country might be considerably more than on a
‘main access’ road in another area. The design of the road, and therefore the standards
adopted, should reflect the traffic level. In addition, traffic growth rates are often expected to
be considerably higher on roads connecting local centres than on roads connecting villages
but this is not always the case.
In general it is expected that growth rates on roads that do not have ‘through’ traffic
(essentially feeder roads) will have lower traffic growth rates than the higher classes of road
but each situation should be treated on its own merits taking into account any expected future
developments.
For geometric design it is the daily traffic that is important. The approach recommended for
estimating the traffic for geometric design purposes is based on the estimated traffic level at
the middle of the design life period and this therefore requires an estimate of the traffic growth
rate This method eliminates the risk of under-design that may occur if the initial traffic is used
and the risk of over-design if traffic at the end of the design life is used.
A design life of 15 years is recommended for paved roads and 10 years for unpaved roads.
Normally a general growth rate is assumed or is provided by government (Planning Dept.)
based on the growth in registered vehicles during previous years. However, such data may be
incomplete or may need to be augmented with other activity indicators. Local development
plans may indicate higher growth rates in some places. Plans for new exploitation of
agricultural areas, forestry or mineral resources or quarries would significantly affect both
traffic and axle loading. Similarly new settlement or re-settlement plans would affect future
traffic levels.
Where there is no existing road, estimating the initial traffic is difficult and estimating future
traffic even more so. However, in many cases where a new road is proposed there is likely to
be pedestrian traffic and therefore some information on the likely vehicular traffic after the
road is constructed. In some cases an economic evaluation may have been carried out to
justify the road in the first place. This will have provided an estimate of the amount of goods
transported by pedestrians and the likely amount that will be carried by vehicles. In the
unlikely event that there is no information available, the lowest class of engineered road
(DC1) should be designed. Historical growth rates of similar roads in any specific area should
be considered if available. It should be noted that the issue of road classification to determine
the standards to be applied is not difficult. A maximum of four different standards are defined
for LVRs (DC1 to DC4 in Table 6.1) and each will be applicable over a specific traffic range.
These ranges are therefore quite wide and little difficulty should normally be experienced in
assigning a suitable standard to a new road project.
Where the expected traffic is near to a traffic class boundary, it would be prudent to use a
higher classification.
6.2.2 The design vehicle

For geometric design it is the physical dimensions of a vehicle that are also important. A truck
requires more space than a motorcycle, for example, and this does not depend on whether
the truck is empty or fully loaded.
The way that vehicle size influences the geometric design of low and high volume roads is
fundamentally different. When the volume of traffic is high, the road space occupied by
different types of vehicle is an essential element in designing for capacity (i.e. the number of
vehicles that the road can carry in a unit of time - vehicles per hour or per day). For example,
54
at the highest traffic levels, when congestion becomes important, traffic volume dictates how
many traffic lanes need to be provided.
For LVRs the volume of traffic is sufficiently low that congestion issues do not arise from
traffic volume but from the disparity in speed between the variety of vehicles and other road
users which the road serves. In other words the traffic composition is the key factor; traffic
capacity is not the problem. Nevertheless it is the size of the largest vehicles that use the road
that dictates many aspects of geometric design. Such vehicles must be able to pass each
other safely and to negotiate all aspects of the horizontal and vertical alignment. Trucks of
different sizes are usually used for different standards – the driver of a large 5 or 6-axle truck
would not expect to be able to drive through roads of the lowest standards.
In some countries the truck population in rural areas is predominantly one or two types and
sizes of vehicle. This makes it relatively easy to select a typical vehicle for setting geometric
standards. Conversely, some countries have a wide variety of truck sizes and selecting a
suitable truck size for geometric design is more difficult.
Good information on the vehicle fleet in South Sudan is lacking but, in view of the low density
of roads and, hence, lack of alternative routes, together with the limited choice of vehicle for
many transporters, it is prudent to be conservative in choosing the design vehicle for each
class of road so that the maximum number of vehicle types can use them. In South Sudan
four different design vehicles have been used as shown in Table 6.2 and Table 6.3. However
there is very little difference between design vehicles DV2 and DV3. Roads designed for the
single unit truck will be suitable for the bus provided the front and rear overhangs of the bus
are taken into account when designing curves; and this can be done with suitable curve
widening where required as described later. The standard for only the lowest class of road is
insufficient for DV2 and DV3.
Diagrams showing the full minimum swept out path of the design vehicle are shown in the SS
Geometric Design Manual (2006).
Table 6.2: Design vehicle characteristics
Minimum
Front Rear
Design Height Width Length Wheelbase Turning
Designation overhang overhang
vehicle (m) (m) (m) (m) Radius
(m) (m)
(m)
4x4
DV1 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3
Utility
Single
unit DV2 4.1 2.6 11.0 1.5 3.0 6.5 12.8
truck
Single
Unit DV3 4.1 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.4 7.6 12.8
bus
Truck
and 4.8 + 8.4
DV4 4.1 2.6 15.2 1.2 1.8 13.7
Semi- = 13.2
trailer
55
Table 6.3: Design vehicle for each LVR class
Design standard Design vehicle
DC4 DV4
DC3 DV3
DC2 DV3
DC1 DV1
6.2.3 Traffic composition – proportion of heavy vehicles

The density of roads in South Sudan is very low and rural vehicle ownership is low. One of
the consequences of this is that the proportion of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream on LVRs
is often quite high. Design standards DC2, DC3 and DC4 include a modification to cater for
this.
For DC4, if the number of ‘large’ vehicles, defined as 3-axled (or more) trucks with GVWs
(Gross Vehicle Weights) potentially greater than 12 tonnes, is greater than 40, the width of the
paved surface is increased to 7.0m and the shoulders reduced to 1.0m. If there are more than
80 large vehicles then the standard for DC5 (as defined in the current Geometric Design
Manual) should be used instead of DC4.
For DC3, if the number of large vehicles is greater than 25, design standard DC4 should be
used and, for DC2, if the number of large vehicles exceeds 10 then DC3 should be used.
6.2.4 Traffic composition - use of Passenger Car Units (PCUs)

In order to quantify traffic for normal capacity design the concept of equivalent PCUs is often
used. Thus a typical 3-axle truck requires about 2.5 times as much road space as a typical
car hence it is equivalent to 2.5 PCUs. A motor cycle requires less than half the space of a
car and is therefore equivalent to 0.4 PCU’s.
The PCU concept is very useful where traffic congestion is likely to be a problem and it was
not originally intended for use in the geometric design of LVRs. However, vehicles that move
slowly cause congestion problems because of their speed rather than because of their size. In
effect, they can be considered to occupy more road space than would be expected from their
size alone. The actual PCU rating of a vehicle is affected by the function of a road (i.e. the
nature of the other traffic) and varies as the traffic mix varies and as the traffic volume and
traffic speeds vary. Nevertheless, in situations where the number of slow moving vehicles,
both motorised and non-motorised, is significant, in order to retain the level of service
appropriate to the traffic level of motorised vehicles, the road standard should be improved by
reducing congestion and this is best done by widening the shoulders. Thus when the PCU
level of the slow moving and intermediate forms of transport reaches a certain level, shoulder
widening is justified.
The PCU concept is also useful for identifying the need for additional safety features where
the numbers of pedestrians and slow moving vehicles are high.
The PCU values for South Sudan are shown Table 6.4. Motorcycle taxis (e.g. Bajaj) are
expected to become popular in urban situations as experienced elsewhere in the region, and
56
it is only anticipated that these IMTs will spread to more rural areas and become adapted for
freight as well as for passenger transport.
Table 6.4: PCU values
Vehicle PCU value
Pedestrian 0.15
Bicycle 0.2
Motor cycle 0.25
Bicycle with trailer 0.35
Motor cycle taxi (bajaj) 0.4
Motor cycle with trailer 0.45
Animal drawn cart 0.7
Bullock cart 2.0
All based on a passenger car = 1.0
6.2.5 Terrain
Terrain has the greatest effect on road construction costs therefore it is not economical to
apply the same standards in all terrains. Fortunately drivers of vehicles are familiar with this
and lower standards are expected in hilly and mountainous terrain.
Four categories have been defined which apply to all roads as follows:
Flat: 0-10 five-metre contours per km. The natural ground slopes perpendicular to the
ground contours are generally below 3%.
Rolling: 11-25 five-metre contours per km. The natural ground slopes perpendicular
to the ground contours are generally between 3 and 25%.
Mountainous: 26-50 five-metre contours per km. The natural ground slopes
perpendicular to the ground contours are generally above 25%.
Escarpment: Escarpments are topographic features that require special geometric
standards because of the engineering problems involved. Typical gradients are
greater than those encountered in mountainous terrain.
Hilly terrain: An important aspect of geometric design concerns the ability of vehicles
to ascend steep hills. Roads that need to be designed for very heavy vehicles or for
animal drawn carts require specific standards to address this, for example, special
climbing lanes. Fortunately the technology of trucks has improved greatly over the
years and, provided they are not grossly overloaded (which is a separate problem) or
poorly maintained, they do not usually require special treatment. On the other hand,
animal drawn vehicles are unable to ascend or descend relatively low gradients
safely, and catering for them in hilly and mountainous terrain is rarely possible.
Climbing lanes cannot be justified on LVRs and nor can the provision of very low
57
maximum gradients. The maximum gradients allowable for different road classes are
shown in Tables 6.17 to Table 6.23 (Section 6.14).
Mountainous and escarpment terrain: In mountain areas the geometric standard
for LVRs takes account of the constraints imposed by the difficulty and stability of the
terrain. This design standard may need to be reduced locally in order to cope with
exceptionally difficult terrain conditions. Every effort should be made to design the
road so that the maximum gradient does not exceed the standards shown in Tables
6.17 to Table 6.23. But where higher gradients cannot be avoided, they should be
restricted in length. Gradients greater than 12% should not be longer than 250m and
relief gradients are also required as indicated in the Tables. Horizontal curve radii of
as little as 13m may be unavoidable, even though a minimum of 15m is specified.
6.2.6 Roadside population (open country or populated areas)

The more populated areas in village centres are not normally defined as ‘urban’ but in any
areas having a reasonable sized population or where markets and other business activities
take place, the geometric design of the road needs to be modified to ensure good access and
to enhance safety. This is done by using:
 A wider cross section;
 Specifically designed lay-byes for passenger vehicles to pick up or deposit
passengers;
 Roadside parking areas.
It may be appropriate to pave the parking areas in non-bituminous surfacing if there is a risk
of substantial oil, fuel or lubricant droppings from poorly maintained vehicles, as this can
cause surface deterioration of bituminous surfaces.
6.2.7 Pavement type

For a similar ‘quality’ of travel there is a difference between the geometric design standards
required for an unpaved road (gravel or earth) and for a paved road. This is because of the
very different traction and friction properties of the two types of surfaces and the highly
variable nature of natural materials. For some characteristics higher geometric standards are
required for unpaved roads (because of the lower road friction levels). A road that is to be
sealed at a later date should be designed to the higher geometric road standards. Further
guidance on surfacing and paving is provided in Chapter 7.
6.2.8 Soil type and climate

Soil type affects the ideal geometric design, principally in terms of cross-section rather than in
terms of the width of the running surface or road curvature. With some problem soils the
cross-section can be adjusted to minimise the severity of the problem by, for example,
minimising the speed of water flow; minimising the likelihood of excessive water inundation or
penetration into the carriageway; and/or moving problems areas further away from the
carriageway itself. These aspects are dealt with in the drainage section (Chapter 9) of the
manual and in the pavement design section (Chapter 7).
Ideally maximum gradients for unpaved roads should also depend on soil types but this is
usually impracticable because, in most climatic regions, almost any gradient causes problems
for unpaved roads. Unpaved road gradients of more than 6% should be avoided as rainfall
induced erosion would be excessive.
58
6.2.9 Safety
Experience has shown that simply adopting ‘international’ design standards from developed
countries will not necessarily result in acceptable levels of safety on rural roads. The main
reasons include the completely different mix of traffic, including relatively old, slow-moving
and usually overloaded vehicles; a large number of pedestrians, animal drawn carts and,
possibly, motorcycle-based forms of transport and other IMTs; poor driver behaviour; and
poor enforcement of regulations. In such an environment, methods to improve safety through
engineering design assume paramount importance.
Although little research has been published on rural road safety in South Sudan, the following
factors related to road geometry are known to be important:
 Vehicle speed;
 Horizontal curvature;
 Vertical curvature;
 Width of shoulders.
These factors are all inter-related and part of geometric design. In addition, safety is also
affected by:
 Traffic level and composition;

 Inappropriate public transport pick-up/set-down areas;
 Poor road surface condition (e.g. potholes);
 Dust (poor visibility);
 Slippery unsealed road surfaces.
The last three factors are related to structural design covered in Chapter 7
Conflicts between motorised vehicles and pedestrians are always a major safety problem on
many rural roads where separation is generally not economically possible. The World Bank
Basic Access document (World Bank, 2001) considers that there are sound arguments based
on safety for keeping traffic speeds low in mixed traffic environments rather than aiming for
higher design speeds, as is the case for major roads. The use of wider shoulders is also
suggested. These considerations have been incorporated into this manual.
Traffic level and composition are both considered. A considerable number of conflict
situations can arise when the number of PCUs of non-motorised traffic is large even though
the number of two (or more)-axled motorised traffic is quite low. Furthermore, the proportion
of heavy vehicles on the LVRs of South Sudan can also be high, leading to more serious
conflict situations. The overall traffic class standards are based on the number of two (or
more)-axled motorised vehicles but additional safety features are based on:
 The number of PCUs of non 2-axled motorised vehicles and pedestrians;
 The proportion of heavy vehicles in the motorised stream.
Pedestrians (and draft animals) find it very uncomfortable to walk on poorly graded gravel
shoulders containing much oversized material, especially in bare feet. They usually choose to
walk on a paved running surface, if available, despite the greatly increased safety risk. Thus,
provision of a wider unsurfaced shoulder does not ensure greater safety. On the approaches
to market villages, where the pedestrian traffic increases greatly on market days, provision of
a separate footpath is the best solution provided that the soil is suitable.
A checklist of engineering design features that affect road safety is given in Figure 6.2. Not all
are suitable for rural roads but the general philosophy of design for safety is emphasised.
59
Figure 6.2: Examples of effects of engineering design on road safety
The following factors should be considered when designing for safety:

1. Wherever possible, non-motorised traffic should be segregated by physical
barriers, such as raised kerbs (through villages and peri-urban areas).
60
2. Designs should include features to reduce speeds in areas of significant

pedestrian activity, particularly at crossing points. Traffic calming may need to be
employed (see Section 6.8.1).
3. To minimise the effect of a driver who has lost control and left the road, the
following steps should be taken.
a. Steep open side-drains should be avoided since these increase the
likelihood that vehicles will overturn. (See Section 6.3.1).
b. Trees should not be planted immediately adjacent to the road.
4. Guard rails should only be introduced at sites of known accident risk because of
their high costs of installation and maintenance.
5. Junctions and accesses should be located where full safe stopping sight
distances are available (see Section 6.4).
6.2.10 Construction technology

In the case of labour-based construction the choice of technology might affect the standards
that can be achieved, especially in hilly and mountainous areas. This is because:
 Maximum cuts and fills will need to be small;
 Economic haul distances without equipment will be limited to those achievable using
wheel-barrows;
 Mass balancing will need to be achieved by transverse rather than longitudinal earth
movements;
 Maximum gradients will need to follow the natural terrain gradients;
 Horizontal alignments may need to be less direct.
The standards in hilly and mountainous terrain are always lower than in flat terrain but this
reduction in standards need not necessarily be greater where labour-based methods are
used. Following the contour lines more closely will make the road longer but the gradients can
be less severe. Every effort should be made to preserve the same standards in the particular
terrain encountered irrespective of construction method.
Side and turn-out drain construction and maintenance standard is usually a V-ditch if
equipment based methods are used. This shape is unsuited to labour based methods, for
which trapezoidal profiles are easier to construct and maintain. The added benefit is that
trapezoidal profiles are less susceptible to erosion.
P
6.2.11 Administrative function

In many countries it is necessary to take account of the administrative or functional
classification of roads because a certain standard may be expected for each functional class
of road irrespective of the current levels of traffic. Generally the hierarchy of administrative
classification broadly reflects the traffic levels observed but anomalies are common where, for
example, traffic can be lower on a road higher in the hierarchy. It is recommended that the
standards selected should be appropriate to the task or traffic level of the road in question but
a minimum standard for each administrative class can also be defined if it is policy to do so.
6.2.12 Matrix of standards

For each of the basic standards based on traffic level there are four standards to cope with
terrain (flat, rolling, mountainous and escarpment), a further two standards (for DC4, DC3 and
DC2) to cater for roadside population/activities and three standards to cater for traffic
composition, essentially the number of PCUs of non-motorised traffic (including pedestrians)
61
and the percentage of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream. These additional standards for
traffic composition and roadside activities are essentially standards to enhance safety.
Once these factors have been taken into account, safety alone no longer affects the number
of road standards because an acceptable level of safety must be applied to each road class.
This will differ between classes (greater safety features for higher traffic) but not within
classes. The administrative classification does not add to the number of standards either. If
the traffic level indicates that a lower standard than would normally be acceptable based on
administrative classification is sufficient, the road can be built to the minimum standard
appropriate to its administrative classification.
Aspects of geometric design outlined in the following sections require particular consideration
because they have a major influence on the life-cycle costs of rural roads. The basis for
developing the standards is also discussed in these sections.
In contrast to the judgements required for quantifying traffic, the standards themselves are
largely dictated by the selected design speed and form a continuous range as design speed
increases.
6.3 Cross Sections

The cross section of a road is essentially a geometric design feature but is also intimately
related to drainage issues as well as slope stability and erosion problems in hilly and
mountainous areas. The cross section includes the shape and size of the running surface;
shoulders; the side slopes of embankments; side slopes to drainage ditches; drainage ditches
themselves; and slopes to the batter.
The basic cross sections for LVRs are shown in Section 6.14. Some aspects of cross
sectional design are concerned with drainage and further details concerning this aspect are
discussed in Chapter 9.
The cross-section of a road may need to vary over a route but it is essential that any changes
take place gradually over a transition length. Abrupt and isolated changes lead to increased
hazards and reduced traffic capacity.
A common situation arises at bridge and water crossing points where the existing structure is
narrower than desired. In such situations warning signs must be erected to alert drivers.
Fortunately many such crossings are visible well in advance but if not, extra signage may be
required.
6.3.1 Slopes of shoulders, side slopes, embankments

Side slopes should be designed to ensure the stability of the roadway and, on low
embankments, to provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery if a vehicle goes out of
control across the shoulders. In addition, the position of the side drain invert should be a
reasonable distance away from the road to minimise the risk of infiltration of water into the
road if the drain should be full for any length of time.
Figure 6.3 illustrates the general cross section and defines the various elements.
62
Figure 6.3: Details of the road edge elements
The side slope is defined as ‘recoverable’ when drivers can generally recover control of their
vehicles should they encroach over the edge of the shoulder. Side slopes of 1:4 or flatter are
recoverable. Research has also shown that rounding at the hinge point and at the toe of the
slope is also beneficial.
A non-recoverable slope is defined as one that is traversable but from which most drivers will
be unable to stop safely or return to the roadway easily. Vehicles on such slopes can be
expected to reach the bottom. Slopes of between 1:3 and 1:4 fall into this category.
A critical slope is one on which the vehicle is likely to overturn and these will have slopes of
greater than 1:3.
The selection of side slope and back slope is often constrained by topography, embankment
height, height of cuts, drainage considerations, right of way limits and economic
considerations. For rehabilitation and upgrading projects, additional constraints may be
present such that it may be very expensive to comply fully with the recommendations
provided in this manual.
6.3.2 Roadside ditches

Detailed information concerning roadside ditches is provided in Chapter 9.
Substantial side drains should be avoided when the road traverses areas of expansive clays,
with preference for the roadway to be constructed on a low embankment. Water should be
discharged uniformly along the road. Where side drains cannot be avoided they should be a
minimum distance of 4m from the toe of the embankment and should be shallow and
trapezoidal in shape.
6.3.3 Clear zones

The discussion in Section 6.3.1 highlights the safety aspects of embankment side slopes.
However, many accidents are made more severe because of obstacles that an out-of-control
vehicle may collide with. The concept of clear zones identifies these obstacles and attempts
to eliminate such hazards.
The most common hazards are headwalls of culverts and road signage. The clear zone
defined for high volume roads is substantial (15m is typical) but for LVRs this is impractical.
Ideally it should extend at least to the toe of the embankment and should always be greater
than 1.5 m from the edge of the carriageway.
At existing pipe culverts, box culverts and bridges the clear zone cannot be less than the
carriageway width. If this criterion cannot be met, the structure must be widened. New pipe
63
and box culverts must be designed with a 1.5m clearance from the edge of the shoulder.
Horizontal clearance to road signs and marker posts must also be an absolute minimum of
1.5m from the edge of the carriageway.
6.3.4 Right-of-way
Right-of-way (or the road reserve) is provided to accommodate road width and the drainage
requirements; to enhance safety; to improve the appearance of the road; to provide space for
non-road travellers; and to provide space for upgrading and widening in the future. The width
of the right-of-way depends on the cross-sectional elements of the highway, topography and
other physical controls; plus economic considerations. Although extended rights-of-way are
convenient, right-of-way widths should be limited to a practical minimum because of their
effect on local economies.
Rights-of-way are measured equally each side of the centre line. Recommended Road
Reserve widths applicable for the different road classes are shown in Table 6.6. In
mountainous terrain where large cuts are required, the total width can exceed the right-of-way
width.
Table 6.6: Recommended right-of-way widths
Road Class Total Right of Way (m)
DC4 50
DC3 30
DC2 30
DC1 20
6.3.5 Shoulders
The shoulders of a road must fulfil the following functions:
 A provide structural support;
 Allow wide vehicles to pass one another without causing damage to the shoulder;
 Provide safe room for temporarily stopped or broken down vehicles;
 Allow pedestrians, cyclists and other vulnerable road users to travel in safety;
 Allow water to drain from within the pavement layers;
 Reduce the extent to which water flowing off the surface can penetrate into the
pavement (often done by extending a seal over the shoulder).
Shoulders have an important structural function which is often overlooked in the provision of
LVRs. They act as edge supports to contain the running carriageway; without adequate
shoulders the road will move laterally and deform. Therefore, there is a minimum width of
shoulder that is required to perform this function. Depending on the properties of the material
and the traffic, this can range from 0.5 to 1.5m.
Shoulders also have to perform an important traffic carrying function for non-motorised
vehicles and pedestrians. Wider shoulders are required when this traffic is high enough. In
addition, wider shoulders are provided for some classes of road when the proportion of heavy
vehicles in the traffic stream exceeds certain values.
64
When the road passes through denser areas of population, additional width is provided for
parking and for other roadside activities. This widening may be considered to be shoulder
widening although the need to provide access to shops and market areas means that the
construction is usually of an extra carriageway.
Where the carriageway is paved, the shoulder may be gravel or may be sealed with a
bituminous surface treatment. The structural advantages of a sealed shoulder are discussed
in Chapter 7. However, sealing the shoulders whenever the numbers of non-motorised traffic
exceeds a critical value is recommended in order to encourage the travellers to use the
shoulders rather than the carriageway. On the approaches to villages and towns the local
traffic builds up quite quickly and therefore consideration should be given to extending the
sealed shoulders for considerable distances each side of the town/village. No standard
guidance can be given; each situation should be treated on its merits.
Shoulders constructed with the same material as the carriageway (earth or gravel) should
have the same cross-fall as the carriageway. If the shoulders are gravel and the carriageway
is paved the cross-fall of the shoulder should be 1.5 - 2.0 % steeper than that of the
carriageway.
Shoulder widths in mountainous terrain and escarpments are reduced to minimise the high
cost of earthworks. Usually the design of the overall cross-section in such terrain will include
significant drainage and erosion control features and the shoulder will form an important
component of this (Chapter 9).
6.3.6 Single lane roads and passing places

There is good agreement internationally about the recommended carriageway width for
single-lane roads, namely 2.5m to-3.5m, depending on traffic volume and mix. Passing places
maybe required, depending on the traffic level and provision for other traffic and pedestrians
will need to be introduced (wider shoulders) if the numbers of other road users exceed
specified levels. The increased width should allow two vehicles to pass at slow speed and
hence depends on the design vehicle.
Passing places should normally be provided every 300m to 500m depending on the terrain
and geometric conditions. Care is required to ensure good sight distances and the ease of
reversing to the nearest passing place, if required. Passing places should be built at the most
economic places rather than at precise intervals provided that the distance between them
does not exceed the recommended maximum. Ideally, the next passing place should be
visible from its neighbour.
The length of passing places is dictated by the maximum length of vehicles expected to use
the road, indicating the need to define a design vehicle. The design vehicle DV3 is 12.8m long
therefore passing places of twice this length should be provided. In most cases, a length of
25m will be sufficient for rural roads.
A suitable width depends upon the width of the road itself. The criterion is to provide enough
overall width for two design vehicles to pass each other safely at low speed. Therefore, a total
traffickable minimum width of 6.3m is required (providing a minimum of 1.1m between
passing vehicles). Allowing for vehicle overhang when entering the passing bay, a total road
width of 7.0m is suitable.
65
6.3.7 Width standards

Road width (running surface and shoulders) is one of the most important geometric properties
since its value is very strongly related to cost and to safety.
A review of international standards showed that some countries have adopted road widths
that are intermediate between single lane and two lane requirements. Such roads are
considered to be dangerous because vehicles try to pass each other at speed. Since there is
not enough room to do so they are forced onto the shoulder area and dangerously close to
the road edge. If the road is paved, the edge of the paved area becomes damaged very
quickly.
The standards for South Sudan do not include such intermediate widths. However, for all
standards except DC1, shoulders are widened if the number of road users other than 2-axled
(and more) motorised vehicles exceeds levels that cause too much interaction with the
motorised traffic or if the proportion of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream is high. For DC1 the
traffic levels are so low that dangerous interactions will be rare and drivers will expect other
road users to have priority.
Tables 6.17 to 6.23 show the standard road widths for each road class with the widths of
running surface and shoulder given for the paved road classes. The road width of unpaved
roads shown in the tables includes the widths of the shoulder as the surfacing of gravel or
earth for these roads spreads across the whole surface to the edge of the road making it
difficult to define the shoulder for these roads. The shoulder widths for paved roads are also
varied for different terrains; for roadside population/activities; and for traffic composition.
The lowest class (DC1) is a single lane road and the shoulder is effectively 0.75m wide. For
DC2 the minimum shoulder width is not specifically defined for the unpaved option but, for this
class, the traffic is effectively less than 5 vehicles per hour in each direction which will
invariably travel down the centre of the road unless another vehicle is seen approaching.
Therefore, the effective shoulder width for most of the time is 1.5m. For this class, two
vehicles can normally pass each other safely using the shoulder but if one of the largest
vehicles is involved the vehicles may need to slow down. If there are sufficient of these larger
vehicles, then class DC3 should be used.
A similar argument applies to DC3. The unpaved option for DC3 is wider than DC2 and allows
easier passing but the level of service is not commensurate if there are a large number of the
larger vehicles in the traffic stream. In this case, the next higher class (DC4) is recommended.
For DC4 the shoulders are at least 1.0m wide.
Additional shoulder widths are provided if there is a high number of PCUs of non-motorised
vehicles (defined as more than 300 PCUs per day on average).
Other variations are also sometimes needed, for example, where certain problem soils are
encountered or in areas that are particularly wet and where the road is likely to be inundated
and needs to be raised on a higher embankment. Where spot improvements are made which
involve a short length of paved surfacing (e.g. on a steep incline) then the width used should
be that shown in the respective Tables for paved surfaces.
The width standards for each classification are summarised in Section 6.14. For some of the
cells in the Tables the values quoted will never be a limitation. For example, in flat terrain
there will be no need to be concerned about the criteria for maximum gradient and paved
road sections will be rare at the lowest traffic levels. Nevertheless, for completeness all the
cells have been filled.
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6.4 Design Speed and Geometry

Design speed is defined as effectively the maximum (actually the 85th percentile) safe speed
that can be maintained over a specified section of road when conditions are so favourable
that the design features of the road govern the speed. Design speed is used as an index that
essentially defines the geometric standard of a road, linking many of the factors that
determine the road’s service level, namely traffic level; terrain; pavement type;
safety/population density; and road function, to ensure that a driver is presented with a
consistent speed environment.
The concept of design speed is most useful because it allows the key elements of geometric
design to be selected for each standard of road in a consistent and logical way. For example,
design speed is relatively low in mountainous terrain to reflect the necessary reductions in
standards required to keep road costs to manageable proportions. The speed is higher in
rolling terrain and highest of all in flat terrain.
In practice the speed of motorised vehicles on many roads in flat and rolling terrain will only
be constrained by the road geometry over relatively short sections but it is important that the
level of constraint is consistent for each road class and set of conditions.
In view of the mixed traffic that occupies the rural roads of South Sudan and the cost benefit
of selecting lower design speeds, it is prudent to select values of design speed towards the
lower end of the internationally acceptable ranges. The recommended values are shown in
Table 6.7.
Table 6.7: Design speeds
Design speed (km/h)

Design
Standard Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment Urban
DC4 70 60 50 40 50
DC3 70 60 50 30 50
DC2 60 50 40 30 50
DC1 50 40 30 20 40
Changes in design speed, if required because of a change in terrain, should be made over
distances that enable drivers to change speed gradually. Thus changes should never be more
than one design step at a time and the length of the sections with intermediate standards (if
there is more than one change) should be long enough for drivers to realise there has been a
change before another change in the same direction is encountered (i.e. considerably more
than one single bend). Where this is not possible, warning signs should be provided to alert
drivers to the changes.
6.4.1 Stopping sight distance

In order to ensure that the design speed is safe, the geometric properties of the road must
meet certain minimum or maximum values to ensure that drivers can see far enough ahead to
carry out normal manoeuvres such as overtaking another vehicle in safe circumstances or
stopping safely if there is an object in the road.
The distance a vehicle requires to stop safely is called the stopping sight distance. It mainly
affects the shape of the road on the crest of a hill (vertical alignment) but if there are objects
67
near the edge of the road that restrict a driver’s vision on approaching a bend, then it also
affects the horizontal curvature.
The driver must be able to see any obstacle in the road hence the stopping sight distance
depends on the size of the object and the height of the driver’s eye above the road surface.
The driver needs time to react and then the brakes of the vehicle need time to slow the
vehicle down, hence stopping sight distance is extremely dependant on the speed of the
vehicle. The surface characteristics of the road also affect the braking time so the values for
unpaved roads differ from those of paved roads, although the differences are small for design
speeds below 60km/h.
The stopping distance also depends on the gradient of the road; it is harder to stop on a
downhill gradient than on a flat road because a component of the weight of the vehicle acts
down the gradient in the opposite direction to the frictional forces that are attempting to stop
the vehicle.
Full adherence to the required sight distances is essential for safety reasons. On the inside of
horizontal curves it may be necessary to remove trees, buildings or other obstacles to obtain
the necessary sight distances. If this cannot be done, the alignment must be changed. In rare
cases where it is not possible and a change in design speed is necessary, adequate and
permanent signage must be provided.
Recommended stopping sight distances for paved and unpaved roads at different design
speeds are shown in Table 6.8.
Table 6.8: Stopping sight distances (m)
Design speed (km/h) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

(1)
Unpaved roads 20 30 50 70 95 125 160
(1)
Paved roads 18 30 45 65 85 110 135
Note
1. In rolling and mountainous terrain these values should be increased by 10%
6.4.2 Stopping sight distance for single lane roads (meeting sight distance)
For single lane roads, adequate sight distances must be provided to allow vehicles travelling
in the opposite direction to see each other and to stop safely if necessary. This distance is
normally set at twice the stopping sight distance recommended in Table 6.8 for a vehicle that
is stopping to avoid a stationary object in the road. An extra safety margin of 20-30 metres is
also sometimes added.
Although a vehicle is a much larger object than is usually considered when calculating
stopping distances, these added safety margins are used partly due to the very severe
consequences of a head-on collision; and partly because it is difficult to judge the speed of an
approaching vehicle, which could be considerably greater than the design speed. However,
single lane roads will have a relatively low design speed, hence meeting sight distances
should not be too difficult to achieve.
6.4.3 Intersection sight distance

Intersection sight distance is similar to stopping sight distance except that the object being
viewed is another vehicle that may be entering the road from a side road or crossing the road
at an intersection. The required safe sight distance for trucks in metres is about 3 times the
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vehicle speed in km/hr. On straight sections of road many vehicles will exceed the road’s
design speed but, being straight, sight distances should be adequate.
6.4.4 Passing sight distances

Factors affecting the safe sight distances required for overtaking are more complicated
because they involve the capability of a vehicle to accelerate and the length and speed of the
vehicle being overtaken. Assumptions are usually made about the speed differential between
the vehicle being overtaken and the overtaking vehicle but many road authorities have simply
based their standards on empirical evidence. For South Sudan, with a mix of Left and Right
Hand Drive vehicles in the national fleet, the issue is further complicated. Passing sight
distance criteria should be reviewed in the light of experience over the coming period of
expected significant network and traffic growth.
For single lane roads, overtaking manoeuvres are not possible and passing manoeuvres take
place only at the designated passing places. On the lower classes of 2-lane roads, passing
sight distances are based on providing enough distance for a vehicle to safely abort a passing
manoeuvre if another vehicle is approaching. The recommended values are shown in Table
6.9.
Table 6.9: Passing sight distances (m)
Design speed (km/h) 30 40 50 60 70 80
Recommended values 80 135 180 230 270 310
6.4.5 Camber and cross-fall

Camber and cross-fall are essential to promote surface drainage. Ponding of water on a road
surface quickly leads to deterioration. There is general agreement that camber or cross-fall
should be 3% on paved LVRs (2.5% is sometimes advocated but this is insufficient).
Drainage is less efficient on rough surfaces and unpaved surfaces change shape in use due
to traffic and weather between surface maintenance operations. Therefore the minimum
design camber or cross-fall needs to be higher on earth and gravel roads. However, if the soil
or gravel is susceptible to erosion, high values of camber or cross-fall can cause erosion
problems. Values that are too high can also cause driving problems but, on the lower
standards of rural roads where traffic is low and the road is a single carriageway, vehicles will
generally travel in the middle of the road. Therefore, high levels of camber are not as much of
a problem for drivers as poor surfaces due to inadequate cross-fall. The design of LVRs
makes use of this fact so that higher camber is used where appropriate. As a result, the
optimum value of cross-fall/camber varies considerably, but it normally lies between 4% and
7%, with 6% maximum being the usual recommendation in the absence of additional
information concerning the erosion potential of the soil/gravel. It is important that the
maintenance regime is capable of keeping the unpaved road camber between these limits.
Shoulders having the same surface as the running surface should have the same slope.
Unpaved shoulders on a sealed road should have shoulders that are about 2% steeper, in
other words 5% if the running surface is 3%.
6.4.6 Adverse cross-fall

Adverse cross-fall arises on curves when the cross-fall or camber causes vehicles to lean
outwards when negotiating the curve. This affects the cornering stability of vehicles and is
uncomfortable for drivers, thereby affecting safety. The severity of its effect depends on
69
vehicle speed, the horizontal radius of curvature of the road and the side friction between
tyres and road surface. For reasons of safety it is recommended that adverse cross-fall is
removed where necessary (see Table 6.10) on all roads regardless of traffic.
Table 6.10: Adverse cross-fall to be removed if radii are less than shown
Design speed Minimum radii (m)

(km/h) Paved Unpaved
<50 500 700
60 700 1000
70 1000 1300
85 1400
100 2000
Some cross-fall is necessary for road surface drainage and hence flat carriageway cross
sections are not allowed, except at the exact point of cross-fall transition. Instead, a single
value of cross-fall is retained on the inner half of the carriageway through curves, and the
outer carriageway cross-fall is rotated about the centre line until a straight cross-fall across
the carriageway is achieved. (i.e. all camber is removed as shown in Figure 6.4). The straight
cross-fall is usually 3 or 4% for paved roads. For unpaved roads the recommended straight
cross-fall should also be the same as the normal camber or cross-fall value of 4 - 6%.
To remove adverse cross-fall the basic cambered shape of the road is gradually changed as
the road enters the curve until it becomes simply cross-fall in one direction at the centre
section of the curve.
Crossfall constant
on inside lane
Figure 6.4: Removal of adverse camber
For paved roads the simple removal of adverse camber may not be sufficient to ensure good
vehicle control when the radius of the horizontal curve becomes too small. In such a situation
additional straight cross-fall may be required. This is properly referred to as super-elevation
but it has become common practice to refer to all additional elevation as super-elevation and
this convention will be used here.
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6.4.7 Superelevation
For small radius curves and at the higher speeds of paved sections of road, the removal of
adverse cross-fall alone will be insufficient to reduce sideways frictional needs to an
acceptable level and cross-fall should be increased by the application of superelevation. A
minimum radius is reached when the maximum acceptable frictional and superelevation
derived forces have been developed. These minimum radii values are identified in Figure 6.5
for levels of superelevation of up to 10 per cent. Although this maximum percentage is rather
arbitrary, it is widely considered to be a value above which drivers may find it difficult to
remain centred in lane as they negotiate a bend.
On paved roads with unsealed shoulders, the outer shoulder should drain away from the
paved area to avoid loose material being washed across the road.
On unpaved roads, the cross-fall is designed to remove rainwater quickly and effectively, and
will be dependent on local conditions and materials. Values of superelevation lower than the
minimum value of the cross-fall (4%) would fail to drain the surface, whist higher values than
6% will be likely to result in lateral erosion. On unpaved roads, the maximum superelevation
will therefore be the elimination of adverse cross-fall (see Table 6.10) to 6%. On
superelevated sections the whole of the carriageway is drained to the inner shoulder and side
drain. This increases the risk of erosion and therefore consideration should be given to paving
such sections under an EOD strategy.
Figure 6.5: Superelevation design curves
The change from normal cross-section on straight sections of road to a super-elevated

section should be made gradually. The length over which super-elevation is developed is
known as the super-elevation development length. Two-thirds of the development length
should be provided before the curve begins. The development depends on design speed as
shown in Table 6.11. Between 50% and 75% of the super-elevation should be achieved by
the tangent point. 66% is usually used.
71
Table 6.11: Superelevation development lengths
Design speed (km/h) Development length (m)

30 25
40 30
50 40
60 55
70 65
80 80
6.5 Horizontal Alignment

The horizontal alignment consists of a series of straight sections (tangents) connected to
circular curves. The horizontal curves are designed to ensure that vehicles can negotiate
them safely. The alignment design should be aimed at avoiding sharp changes in curvature,
thereby achieving a safe uniform driving speed. On higher speed roads, transition curves are
introduced between straight sections of road and circular curves whose radius changes
continuously from infinity (tangent) to the radius of the circular curve (R) to reduce the abrupt
introduction of centripetal acceleration that occurs on entering the circular curve. Transition
curves are not required when the radius of the horizontal curve is large and are normally not
used on the lower classes of road. In South Sudan their use is confined to roads where the
design speed is 80km/hr or greater and therefore they are not required for LVRs.
In order for a vehicle to move in a circular path an inward radial force is required to provide
the necessary centripetal acceleration or, in other words, to counteract the centrifugal force.
This radial force is provided by the sideways friction between the tyres and the road surface
assisted by the cross-fall or super-elevation.
The sideways friction coefficient is considerably less than the longitudinal friction coefficient.
Its value decreases as speed increases but there is considerable disagreement about
representative values, especially at the lower speeds. For paved roads it ranges from
between 0.18 and 0.3 at 20km/h down to between 0.14 and 0.18 at 80km/h. For unpaved
roads it can be considerably less. The design speed is therefore one of the main design
parameters in consideration of horizontal curves. Values of design speed for each class of
road under each of its operating conditions have been set as shown in Table 6.7.
For both sealed and unsealed roads there are also constraints on the maximum cross-fall, as
described in Section 6.4.5 to 6.4.6. These constraints translate directly into minimum values
of horizontal radii of curvature.
The recommended minimum values of horizontal curvature are shown in Table 6.12 and
Table 6.13. As indicated in the Tables, the use of a higher value of super-elevation (Section
6.4.7) makes it possible to introduce a smaller horizontal curve based on the same design
speed. This can be used for paved roads but not for unpaved roads.
Table 6.12: Recommended minimum horizontal radii of curvature: paved roads (m)
Design speed (km/h) 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80
Super-elevation = 4% 15 19 30 55 95 145 215 300

Super-elevation = 6% 15 18 27 50 85 135 195 270
Super-elevation = 8% 15 17 25 50 80 120 175 240
Super-elevation = 10% 15 16 25 45 75 110 160 220
72
Table 6.13: Recommended minimum horizontal radii of curvature: unpaved roads (m)
Design speed (km/h) 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80
Side Friction Factor 0.19 0.17 0.165 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.10
Super-elevation = 4% 15 25 35 65 115 175 255 355
6.5.1 Curve length

For reasons of safety and ease of driving, curves near the minimum for the design speed
should not be used at the following locations:
 On high fills, because the lack of surrounding features reduces a driver’s perception
of the alignment;
 At or near vertical curves (tops and bottoms of hills) because the unexpected bend
can be extremely dangerous, especially at night;
 At the end of long tangents or a series of gentle curves, because actual speeds will
exceed design speeds;
 At or near intersections and approaches to bridges or other water crossing structures.
There are conflicting views about curve lengths. One school of thought maintains that the
horizontal alignment should maximise the length of road where adequate sight distances are
provided for safe overtaking. Overtaking is difficult on curves of any radius and hence the
length of curved road should be minimised. This requires curve radii to be relatively close (but
not too close) to the minimum for the design speed to maximise the length of straight
sections. This view is the currently accepted best practice for roads except in very flat terrain
but care should be exercised to ensure the curves are not too tight. This view is also
supported in the circumstances of South Sudan with the vehicle fleet mix of LHD and RHD
vehicle, with the added overtaking manoeuvre risks.
The alternative view is that very long straight sections should be avoided because they are
monotonous and cause headlight dazzle at night. A supposedly safer alternative is obtained
by a winding alignment with tangents deflecting 5 to 10 degrees alternately from right to left.
Straight sections should have lengths (in metres) less than 20 x design speed in km/h. Such
‘flowing’ curves restrict the view of drivers on the inside carriageway and reduce safe
overtaking opportunities, therefore such a winding alignment should only be adopted where
the straight sections are very long. In practice this only occurs in very flat terrain. The main
aspect is to ensure that there are sufficient opportunities for safe overtaking and therefore,
provided the straight sections are long enough, a semi-flowing alignment can be adopted at
the same time. If overtaking opportunities are infrequent, maximising the length of the straight
sections is the best option.
For small changes of direction it is often desirable to use a large radius of curvature. This
improves the appearance and reduces the tendency for drivers to cut corners. In addition, it
reduces the length of the road segment and therefore the cost of the road provided that no
extra cut or fill is required.
6.5.2 Curve widening

Widening of the carriageway where the horizontal curve is tight is usually necessary to ensure
that the rear wheels of the largest vehicles remain on the road when negotiating the curve;
and, on two lane roads, to ensure that the front or rear overhang of the vehicle does not
73
encroach on the opposite lane. Widening is therefore also important for safety reasons. Any
curve widening that is considered should only be applied on the inside of the curve.
Vehicles need to remain centred in their lane to reduce the likelihood of colliding with an
oncoming vehicle or driving on the shoulder. Sight distances should be maintained as
discussed previously. The levels of widening shown in Table 6.14 are recommended except
for roads carrying the lowest levels of traffic (DC1). Widening should be applied on the inside
of the curve and introduced gradually.
Widening on high embankments is often recommended for the higher classes of road. The
steep drops from high embankments can unnerve some drivers and the widening is primarily
for psychological comfort although it also has a positive effect on safety. Such widening is not
recommended for LVRs.
Table 6.14: Curve Widening Recommendations (m)
Single lane roads Two lane roads
51 - 151 - 301 -
Curve radius 20 30 40 60 <50
150 300 400
(1)
Increase in width 1.5 1.0 0.75 0.5 1.5 1.0 0.75 0.5
Notes:
1. See Section 6.6.4 dealing with hairpin stacks
6.6 Vertical Alignment

The two major elements of vertical alignment are the gradient, which is related to vehicle
performance and level of service; and the vertical curvature, which is governed by safe sight
distances and comfort criteria.
The vertical alignment of a road seems more complicated than the horizontal alignment but
this is simply because of difficulties in presentation due to the inclusion of the algebraic
difference in gradient (G %) between the uphill and downhill sides. In addition, the equation of
the vertical curve is a parabola rather than a circle.
The required sight distance for safety is the basic stopping sight distance (Table 6.8).
6.6.1 Crest curves

The minimum length of the curve (L metres) over the crest of the hill between the points of
maximum gradient on either side is related to G and to the stopping-sight distance; and
therefore to the design speed. Note that although drivers would like to overtake on hills, the
required sight distance for safe passing on crests is much too large to be economical on
LVRs.
The minimum value of the L/G ratio can be tabulated against the stopping sight distance
(Table 6.8), and therefore the design speed, to provide the designer with a value of L for any
specific value of G. The international consensus provides the values shown in Table 6.15.
Table 6.15: Minimum values of L/G for crest curves
Design
30 40 50 60 70 80
speed(km/h)
Paved roads 2 5 10 17 30 45
Unpaved roads 2 6 11 20 35 58
74
6.6.2 Sag curves

Sag curves are the opposite of crest curves in that vehicles first travel downhill and then
uphill. In daylight the sight distance is normally adequate for safety and the design criterion is
based on minimising the discomforting forces that act upon the driver and passengers when
the direction of travel changes from downhill to uphill. On rural roads such considerations are
somewhat less important than road safety issues. However, at night time the problem on sag
curves is the illumination provided by headlights to see far enough ahead. This depends on
the height of the headlights above the road and the angle of divergence of the headlight
beams.
To provide road curvature that allows the driver to see sufficiently far ahead using headlights
while driving at the design speed at night is usually too expensive for LVRs. In any case, the
driving speed should be much lower at night on such roads. As a result of these
considerations it is recommended that the minimum length of curve is determined by the
driver discomfort criterion. The results are shown in Table 6.16.
Table 6.16: Minimum values of L/G for sag curves
Design speed(km/h) 30 40 50 60 70 80
Minimum L/G 2.5 4 6.5 9 12 16
In practice a minimum length of curve of 75m will cope with almost all situations on LVRs. For
example, on a steep down-hill of 10% followed by an up-hill of the same slope, the required
minimum curve length at a speed of 50km/h is 2.2 x (10 + 10) = 44m and 3.5 x (10+10) = 70m
at 60km/h.
6.6.3 Gradient
For four-wheel drive vehicles, it is reported that the maximum traversable gradient is about
18%. Two wheel drive trucks can cope with gradients of 15%, except when heavily laden.
Bearing in mind the likelihood of heavily laden small trucks, international rural road standards
have a general recommended limit of 12%, but with an increase to 15% for short sections (<
250m) in areas of difficult terrain for paved roads. Slightly higher standards are recommended
for DC4 with a preferred maximum of 10% and an absolute maximum of 12% on escarpments
where relief gradients of less than 6% are required for a distance of 250m following a gradient
of 12%.
For driving consistency, and hence safety, in terrains other than mountainous terrains and
escarpments, limiting values of gradient are also often specified. In flat terrain a maximum
gradient of 7% is appropriate for LVRs. In rolling terrain a maximum of 10% is appropriate.
6.7 Harmonisation of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

6.7.1 Situations to avoid
When designing the horizontal alignment of a road, the designer must ensure that the other
elements of the design are complementary to each other. It is therefore important to note that
there are a number of design situations that could produce unsatisfactory combinations of
elements despite the fact that the design standards have been followed for the particular class
of road in question. These are designs that could provide surprises for drivers by presenting
them with unfamiliar conditions. They are therefore comparatively unsafe.
75
Avoiding such designs is more important for the higher classes of road because design
speeds are higher, traffic is much greater and, consequently, any accidents resulting from
poor design are likely to be more severe and more frequent. However, in many cases,
avoidance of such designs does not necessarily impose a significant cost penalty and
therefore the principles outlined below should be applied to roads of all classes.
Multiple curves
In the more hilly and mountainous terrains, horizontal curves are required more frequently and
have small radii because the design speeds are low. The tangent sections become shorter
and a stage can be reached where successive curves can no longer be dealt with in isolation.
There are three situations that should be avoided if possible.
Reverse curves
A curve is followed immediately by a curve in the opposite direction. In this situation it is
difficult for the driver to keep the vehicle in its proper lane. It is also difficult for the designer to
accommodate the required super-elevation within the space available.
Broken back curves
This is the term used to describe two curves in the same direction connected by a short
tangent. Drivers do not usually anticipate that they will encounter two successive curves close
to each other in the same direction. There can also be problems fitting in the correct super-
elevation in the space available.
Compound curves
Compound curves occur when one curve connects to another of different radius. These can
be useful in fitting the road to the terrain but in some circumstances they can be dangerous.
Drivers do not usually expect to be confronted by a change in radius, and therefore in design
speed, hence if, the change is too great, some drivers are likely to be travelling too fast when
entering the tighter part of the compound curve from the larger one. Compound curves should
be avoided where curves are sharp and where the difference in radii is large. Thus, in any
compound curve the smaller radius should not be less than 67% of the larger one.
Isolated and long curves
An isolated curve close to the minimum radius connected by long straight sections is
inherently unsafe. Irrespective of the design speed, actual speeds on long straight sections
will be relatively high and therefore a curve of minimum radius will require a significant
reduction in speed for most vehicles. It is good practice to avoid the use of minimum
standards in such situations. An added bonus is that, provided no extra cutting of filling is
required, the use of a larger radius of curvature results in a shorter and less expensive road.
Curve widening can help to alleviate this problem if a higher radius curve cannot be used.
The same argument is true, but to a much lesser extent, for any small radius curve that is very
long (i.e. the road is turning through a large angle). Drivers can negotiate a short curve
relatively safely at speeds in excess of the design speed but they cannot do so if the curve is
long hence a large radius should be used in such situations.
6.7.2 Balance
It can be seen that there are several competing factors in providing the optimum horizontal
alignment. Small radii curves maximise the length of straight sections and optimise overtaking
opportunities. This should be the controlling factor where the terrain is such that overtaking
opportunities are infrequent and actual speeds are close to the design speeds. However, in
76
more gentle terrain where overtaking is less of a problem and vehicles generally travel at
speeds higher than the design speed, the use of larger radius curves is preferred for the
reasons outlined previously.
In summary, engineering choice plays a part in the final design which is essentially a balance
between competing requirements.
6.7.3 Phasing
The horizontal and vertical alignment should not be designed independently. Hazards can be
concealed by inappropriate combinations of horizontal and vertical curves and therefore such
combinations can be very dangerous. Some examples of poor phasing are as follows:
A sharp horizontal curve following a pronounced crest curve. The solutions are
to;
 Separate the curves;
 Use a more gentle horizontal curve;
 Begin the horizontal curve well before the summit of the crest curve.
Both ends of the vertical curve lie on the horizontal curve. If both ends of a crest
curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve the radius of the horizontal curve may appear to
the driver to decrease abruptly over the length of the crest curve. If the vertical curve
is a sag curve the radius of the horizontal curve will appear to decrease. The solution
is to make both ends of each curve coincide or to separate them completely.
A vertical curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal curve. This creates a
hazard because a vehicle has to turn sharply while sight distance is reduced on the
vertical curve. The solution is to make both ends of each curve coincide or to
separate them completely.
6.7.4 Junctions and Intersections

The result of an accident is likely to be that one or more vehicles will leave the road. Hence,
where possible, a safe ‘run-off’ environment should be created and good sight distances
provided. Intersections should therefore not be located on high embankments; near to bridges
or other high level water crossings; on small radius curves; or on super-elevated curves. To
ensure good visibility, vegetation should be permanently cleared from the area surrounding
the junction.
It is also advisable to avoid building intersections on gradients of more than 3% or at the
bottom of sag curves. This is because:
 Stopping sight distances are greater on downhill descents and drivers of heavy
vehicles have more difficulty in judging them;
 It is advantageous if heavy vehicles are able to accelerate as quickly as possible
away from the junction.
o
The ideal angle that intersecting roads should meet is 90 because this provides maximum
visibility in both directions but visibility is not seriously compromised as long as the angle
o
exceeds 70 .
Where two roads have to cross each other, a simple X-cross junction is adequate for LVRs.
However, where possible, it is preferable to provide two staggered T-junctions as illustrated in
Figure 6.6 rather than one X-cross junction since there is unlikely to be a cost penalty in doing
so. The most heavily trafficked road is retained as a direct through route. The minor road is
77
then split so that traffic has to enter the major road by making a left turn across the traffic
stream onto the major road and then a right turn to re-enter the minor road. This method
halves the number of possible manoeuvres where the traffic from the minor road has to cross
the traffic stream on the major road. The entry points of the two arms of the minor road should
ideally be spaced about 100m apart.
Figure 6.6: Preferred intersection design (for driving on the right hand side of
carriageway)
6.8 Safety
The regional road accident statistics, in common with many other countries in Africa, show
that death rates from road accidents are 30 to 50 times higher than in the countries of
Western Europe. The numbers of serious injuries resulting from road accidents are equally
alarming. Economic analysis has shown conclusively that this high level of road accidents has
economic consequences for the country that is equivalent to a reduction of 2-3% of GDP. This
is a very significant drain on the economy. Furthermore, the consequences of the road
accidents impose a great deal of grief and anguish on a considerable proportion of the
population. Every effort should therefore be made to reduce the number of serious accidents.
The geometric design of the roads has an important part to play in this endeavour and road
safety aspects have been highlighted throughout this manual. Road and shoulder widths have
been increased to accommodate pedestrians, NMTs, and intermediate forms of transport
(IMTs); moderate design speeds have been used for elements of road alignment; parking
places and lay-byes for buses have been included in populated areas; account has been
taken of reduced friction on unpaved roads; adequate sight distances have been provided;
and much more (see Figure 6.2 for example).
However there are a number of other steps that could be taken to improve safety. These
include:
 Traffic calming measures to reduce speeds in populated area;
 Road markings, signage and lighting;
78
 Segregating pedestrians and motorised vehicles in populated areas;

 Providing safety barriers at dangerous locations;
 Providing a professional safety audit at the design stage.
6.8.1 Traffic calming

The seriousness of road accidents increases dramatically with speed and hence very
significant improvements to road safety are possible if traffic can be slowed down. This
process is called traffic calming and various techniques are used on paved roads. All such
methods have their advantages and disadvantages and the effectiveness of the methods also
depends on aspects of driver behaviour that can vary considerably from country to country.
Therefore research needs to be carried out in South Sudan to identify the most cost effective
approaches.
The effect of any traffic calming measure on all the road users should be carefully considered
before they are installed. Some are unsuitable if large buses are part of the traffic stream;
some are very harsh on bicycles, motorcycles and motor cycle taxis; and some are totally
unsuitable when there is any animal drawn transport.
The three most common methods are:
 Chicanes;
 Rumble strips; and
 Speed reduction humps.
Chicanes: These are designed to produce artificial congestion by reducing the width of the
road to one lane for a very short distance (3-5m) at intervals (typically 300m) along the road
section to be treated. They are usually built on alternate sides of the road. They cause drivers
to slow down provided that the traffic level is high enough to make it very probable that they
will meet an oncoming vehicle. The method is obviously unacceptable if traffic flow is high
because the congestion that is causes will be severe. For safety, they must be illuminated at
night.
Rumble strips: These are essentially a form of artificial road texture that causes
considerable tyre noise and vehicle vibrations if the vehicle is travelling too fast. They are
used in two ways. The first is to delineate areas where vehicles should not be. They are
effectively a line running parallel to the normal traffic flow so that if a vehicle inadvertently
strays onto or across the line the driver will receive adequate warning. Secondly they are
used across the road where they are placed in relatively narrow widths of 2 to 4m but at
intervals along the road of typically 50 to 200 metres. They are uncomfortable to drive across
at speed hence they are usually effective in slowing down the traffic. They do not need to be
illuminated at night.
Speed reduction humps and cushions: These are probably the most familiar measures
used to slow traffic. They are essentially bumps in the road extending uniformly from one side
to the other. Unlike rumble strips, speed reduction humps are quite high and, if they are
designed badly, they can cause considerable vehicle damage. They are often used in villages
where they are placed at intervals of between 50m and 200m. They are very effective but
usually unpopular with drivers.
The shape of the hump is important to reduce the severity of the shock when a vehicle drives
over it. Ideally they should cause driver discomfort but not vehicle damage. The height of the
bump is usually 50 or 75mm but the width should be at least 1.5m (2.0m is better) and the
change in slope from the roadway onto the hump should be gradual. The top of the hump can
79
be rounded or flat. Pipes that are almost buried are completely unsuitable. The surface
drainage arrangements adjacent to a hump require consideration to ensure that all surface
water drains away effectively and standing water is avoided.
Based on a similar principle to the speed hump, speed reducing cushions are more versatile.
They are essentially very similar to the speed hump but the hump is not continuous across
the road carriageway. The width of a two lane road is usually covered by two or three
cushions with considerable gaps between them. The idea is that large vehicles will not be
able to pass without at least one wheel running over one of the humps but bicycles and
motorcycles can pass between them without interference. If suitably designed, the wheels of
animal drawn carts could also avoid the humps.
6.8.2 Road markings, signage and lighting

Theft of metallic signs is a problem in some areas and therefore painting signs on permanent
features such as buildings, rocks and purpose built masonry should be considered where
necessary.
The extent to which road markings, signs and other road furniture is required depends on the
traffic volume, the type of road, and the degree of traffic control required for safe and efficient
operation. For low volume roads the primary purpose is to improve road safety hence not all
of the features of road furniture and signage described in typical Road Furniture and Markings
manuals will be used on LVRs.
The main elements are:
 Traffic signs provide essential information to drivers for their safe and efficient travel
and manoeuvring on the road;
 Road markings to delineate the pavement centre line and edges to clarify the paths
that vehicles should follow (particularly important at night);
 Marker posts to indicate the alignment of the road ahead and, when equipped with
reflectors, provide optical guidance at night;
 Lighting in settlements to improve the safety of a road at night time.
6.9 Traffic Signs

Traffic signs are of three general types:
 Regulatory Signs: indicate legal requirements of traffic movement and are essential
for all roads;
 Warning Signs: indicate conditions that may be hazardous to road users;
 Information Signs: convey information of use to the driver.
6.9.1 Warning signs

The physical layout of the road must sometimes be supplemented by effective traffic signing
to inform and to warn drivers of any unexpected changes in the driving conditions. Some of
the common situations are mentioned below but each situation is unique and the severity of
any particular situation can vary considerably. It is therefore recommended that the
judgement of an experienced road safety expert is obtained at the road design stage.
80
For an existing road that is to be upgraded, the hazardous locations should be identified at an
early stage and, ideally, should be corrected in the new design. If this is not possible, then
suitable road signs should be installed.
The most common situation occurs when the geometric standards for a particular class of
road have been changed along a short section of road. This is usually caused by a constraint
of some kind that has prevented the standard from being applied continuously and therefore
causes an unexpected and potentially dangerous situation. Examples are a sharp bend, a
sudden narrowing of the road, or an unexpectedly steep gradient.
A similar situation arises in easy terrain where, despite the fact that the geometric standard of
the road has been applied, a hazard such as a bend occurs after a long section of road where
drivers are easily able to exceed the design speed of the road by a considerable margin.
As well as changes in the geometric standard of the road, many other relatively unexpected
hazards can occur and also need to be signed. For example an unexpected school crossing,
a ford or other structure that is not clearly visible from a safe distance – there are many
examples too numerous to list. Once again, engineering judgement is required.
Speed humps are a particular problem because they are often not sufficiently visible from a
reasonable distance, and sometimes they have been badly designed and provide more of a
jolt to the vehicle than intended. It is therefore good practice to provide warning signs for
these, especially on roads that are likely to be used by traffic unfamiliar to the area. This will
include classes DC3 and DC4 and many DC2 roads.
An important consideration on unpaved roads is that the road markings that are used on
paved roads to improve safety cannot be used on unpaved roads. This means that if drivers
need to be warned of a hazard that is traditionally done by means of road markings, on
unpaved roads this will have to be done by means of traffic signs.
6.9.2 Information signs

Information signs are less vital on the lower classes of road frequented primarily by local
people. However, for road classes DC3 and DC4 on which a considerable proportion of
drivers will not be local, information signs are desirable. They obviate the need for drivers to
stop in populated areas to ask questions of pedestrians and hence improve safety, but in
most cases this effect is very marginal, especially if the road standards that should be
provided in populated areas have been applied. Hence the convenience of some information
signs is part of the provision of a particular level of service to the traveller.
6.10 Road Markings

Road markings on some types of paved roads either supplement traffic signs and marker
posts or serve independently to indicate certain regulations or hazardous conditions. There
are three general types of road markings in use namely pavement markings, object markings
and road studs.
6.10.1 Pavement markings

Pavement markings consist primarily of centre lines, lane lines, no overtaking lines and edge
lines. Not all of these are possible, or justified, on low volume roads. However, on a paved,
two lane a centre line is desirable. Such a road is not likely to have been built unless the
traffic justifies it and hence, for safety reasons, a centre line is recommended.
81
Other pavement markings such as ‘stop’, pedestrian crossings and various word and symbol
markings may supplement pavement line markings. However, it is obvious that such markings
can only be applied to paved roads and then not to all surfacings. In cases where a warning is
deemed necessary for safety reasons but road markings cannot be used, road signs must be
used instead if applicable.
6.10.2 Object markers

Physical obstructions in or near the carriageway should be removed in order to provide the
appropriate clear zone. Where removal is impractical, such objects should be adequately
marked by painting or by use of other high-visibility material.
6.10.3 Road studs

Road studs are used on more heavily trafficked roads and in urban areas. They are unlikely to
be used on low volume roads but if necessary advice can be found in Road Furniture and
Markings manuals.
6.10.4 Marker posts

There are two types of marker posts in use namely guideposts and kilometre posts.
Guideposts are intended to make drivers aware of potential hazards such as abrupt changes
in shoulder width and alignment, or approaches to structures for example. They are unlikely to
be used on a low volume road, except on high embankments adjacent to structures.
Kilometre posts are a usual feature provided on main roads and are therefore only likely to be
needed on some roads of class DC4.
6.11 Lighting
Lighting of low volume rural roads is seldom justified except at intersections, railway level
crossings, narrow or long bridges, tunnels, sharp curves, and areas where there is high level
activity adjacent to the road (e.g. markets).
6.12 Safety Barriers
Safety barriers are expensive and seldom justified on low volume roads. The geometric
design of such roads should be done to eliminate the need for such barriers but sometimes
they might be required in highly dangerous situations, for example, on some bends on an
escarpment road that cannot be made safe by other means, or high embankments adjacent
to structures. Expert advice should be sought. Safety barriers are expensive to procure and
install and they must be installed properly otherwise they are not likely to be fit for purpose.
6.12.1 Segregating vulnerable road users

Where possible, non-motorised vehicles and pedestrians should be physically segregated
from the motorised vehicles. While this is not specifically part of the geometric design of the
road itself, if the terrain and local conditions are suitable for the construction of parallel
pathways wide enough for NMTs, then some of the geometric features of the roadway
designed to accommodate this traffic will not be necessary and hence considerable savings
may be possible. However if traffic does travel on such pathways, sufficient connections need
to be made to the roadway itself to enable access in either direction.
82
6.12.2 Safety audits

The subject of road safety is remarkably complex in that, although many unsafe practices are
glaringly obvious, there are many situations where it is difficult to identify what is likely to be
unsafe, especially if the project is a new road and one is working from drawings. The history
of road safety is full of ideas that were thought to improve road safety but often had no
discernible effect or even made situations worse. The problem has always been lack of
reliable data; there is no substitute for a systematic method of recording the characteristics of
road accidents and analysing the data when there is sufficient for reliable conclusions to be
drawn.
Professional road safety auditing is the next best thing and is regularly undertaken on every
road project in some countries in an attempt to improve the safety design from the very
beginning. It is anticipated that this practice will be introduced in South Sudan, especially for
road projects located in populated areas.
6.13 Using the Geometric Standards

There are three design situations for applying the LVR Geometric Design Standards, namely:
 Upgrading from a lower class of road to a higher class;
 Designing a road to replace an existing track; and
 Designing a completely new road where nothing existed before.
Careful consideration needs to be paid to alignment issues as it is likely that any re-alignment
or route upgrade will require additional land and may encroach on land already occupied or
used by others. The necessary legal land consultations and acquisition procedures will need
to be followed.
6.13.1 Upgrading an existing road

The basic alignments will already exist but the standards of the existing road will normally be
those applicable to a road of lower class. The new road will require higher standards which
may involve a wider cross section, higher design speeds and therefore larger horizontal and
vertical radii of curvature. In flat and rolling terrain, larger horizontal radii of curvature are
usually achieved by means of minor realignments at the curves themselves. Larger vertical
radii of curvature are usually more difficult but, depending on the terrain, can often be
achieved by additional fill rather than deeper cutting. In more severe mountainous terrain it
may be necessary to make substantial realignments to avoid deep cuts, for example,
following a contour more closely to avoid a steep hill with inadequate sight distances over a
crest.
The most difficult aspect is likely to occur in mountainous terrain when substantial widening is
required. Under these circumstances it may not always be possible to meet the standards of
the new road class and therefore adequate warning signs will need to be employed to alert
drivers to the lower standards. In general, however, the main improvements, apart from
overall widening, are essentially spot improvements and do not require sophisticated design
methods.
83
6.13.2 Designing a road to replace an existing track

In this case the existing geometric standards will be very much lower than those required
hence some substantial re-alignments may be necessary, especially in hilly and mountainous
terrain. However, the basic route selection has been carried out by virtue of the fact that there
is an existing track and the main control points along the alignment will already be defined.
Although re-alignments may be substantial, an experienced Engineer could adopt a design-
by-eye approach in many cases, especially for lower category LVRs. However, it is
anticipated that, in general, the designs will be done with the help of computer programs
based on accurate topographical and other survey data (see Chapter 5 on route selection).
6.13.3 Designing a new road

Designing a geometric alignment for an entirely new road where nothing existed before is a
considerably more complex process because of the many different route alignments that are
possible and the relative lack of information available at the beginning of the process. In many
cases there will need to be a prefeasibility study to identify possible corridors for the road and
to decide whether the project is likely to be viable. This will then need to be followed by a
feasibility study to determine the best routes within the best corridors and, finally, a detailed
design study based on the route selected. The level of detail in this process depends critically
on the class of road being designed and the terrain through which it will pass. Errors at this
stage can be costly and, once the road is built, can also impose serious burdens in the future
if the road requires excessive maintenance.
The principles of route selection are outlined in Chapter 5. They are based on surveys of
various focus that provide information about all the likely technical engineering issues related
to the new road, but also surveys concerned with environmental and social issues as well.
The final design will inevitably be a compromise between many competing factors and there is
no formal way of resolving all of them to everyone’s satisfaction. Engineering judgement and
consensus will be required to arrive at a satisfactory alignment.
6.14 LVR Geometric Design Standards

The foregoing sections of Chapter 6 provide the background and rationale for the various
Geometric Standards for LVRs. The Geometric Design process is summarised in Figure 6.1
and this section 6.14 includes further guidance and the detailed Standards tables and
diagrams not already included in the previous text.
6.14.1 Traffic composition

The proportion of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream on LVRs is often quite high. The
Geometric Design standards for DC2, DC3 and DC4 include a modification to cater for this. In
order to quantify traffic for normal capacity design the concept of equivalent PCUs is used.
The PCU values are shown Table 6.4.
6.14.2 Geometric design standards for LVRs

The design standards are shown in Tables 6.17 to 6.23. In these Tables ‘large vehicles’ are
defined as trucks with three or more axles and gross vehicle weights greater than 10 tonnes.
Two sets of tables are shown for each class of route; one for paved roads and one for
unpaved roads.
84
Sometime there will be cases where it is impossible to meet some of the standards mainly
due to severe terrain conditions. Under such circumstances the standards must be relaxed at
the discretion of the Engineer and suitable permanent signage used to warn road users.
(1)
Table 6.17: Geometric design standards for Paved DC4 (AADT 150-300)
Escarp Populated
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain
-ment areas
Design Speed km/hr 70 60 50 25 50
(2) (2) (1)
Width of running surface m 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5
(2) (2) (3)
Width of shoulders m 1.25 1.25 0.5 0.5 1.25
Total width m 9.0 9.0 7.5 7.5 9.0
Min. stopping sight distance m 110 90 70 25 65
Min. horizontal radius for (4)
m 195 135 85 15 85
SE=4%
m 170 120 75 17 NA
SE=7%
m 150 105 70 22 NA
SE=10%
Maximum desirable gradient % 4 7 10 12 4
(5) (5)
Maximum gradient % 7 10 12 12 6
Minimum crest vertical curve K 21 12 7 4 7
Minimum sag vertical curve K 4.8 3.5 2.2 1.3 2.2
Normal cross-fall % 3 3 3 3 3
Shoulder cross-fall % 6 6 3 3 6
Notes
1. If there are more than 80 large vehicles AADT then DC5 should be used.
2. If the number of large vehicles AADT is >40 then running surface width should be increased to 7.0m and shoulders
reduced to 1.0m.
3. Parking lanes and footpaths may be required.
4. On hairpin stacks the minimum radius may be reduced to 15m.
5. Length not to exceed 200m and relief gradients required (<6% for minimum of 200m).
(1)
Table 6.18: Geometric design standards for Unpaved DC4 (AADT 150-300)
Escarp Populated
-ment areas
(3) (3) (2,3)
Road width m 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0
(4)
Min. horizontal radius m 245 175 110 23 110
Maximum super elevation % 6 6 6 6 6
(5)
Notes
85

2. If the number of large vehicles AADT is >40 then width should be increased to 7.5m.
4. Cross-fall can be reduced to 4% where warranted (e.g. poor gravel (for safety), low rainfall).
(1)
Table 6.19: Geometric design standards for Paved DC3 (AADT 75-150)
Escarp Populated
-ment areas
(2)
Total width m 8.0 8.0 7.0 7.0 8.0
(3)
Min. horizontal radius for SE=4% m 195 135 85 20 85
(3)
Min. horizontal radius for SE=7% m 170 120 75 18 NA
(3)
Min. horizontal radius for SE=10% m 150 105 70 16 NA
(4,5) (4,5)
Notes
5. If the number of large vehicles AADT is <20 this can be increased to 15%.
(1)
Table 6-20: Geometric design standards for Unpaved DC3 (AADT 75-150)
Escarp Populated
-ment areas
(2)
Road width m 7.0 7.0 6.5 6.5 7.0
(4)
(3)
Notes
86

3. Cross-fall can be reduced to 4% where warranted (e.g. poor gravel (for safety), low rainfall).
(1)
Table 6-21: Geometric design standards for Paved DC2 (AADT 25-75)
Escarp Populated
-ment areas
(2)
Total width m 6.3 6.3 5.3 5.3 6.3
m 135 85 50 15 85
SE=4%
m 120 75 45 15 NA
SE=7%
m 105 70 40 15 NA
SE=10%
(4) (4)
Notes
(1, 2)
Table 6.22: Geometric design standards for Unpaved DC2 (AADT 25-75)
Escarp Populated
-ment areas
(5) (3)
Road width m 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
(4)
Notes
2. If there are less than 10 large vehicles AADT then DC1 may be used.
87

5. Road widths may be reduced at the discretion of the engineer and approval of the client to address specific local
conditions, especially in mountainous areas.
Table 6.23: Geometric design standards for DC1 (AADT 1-25)

Escarp Populated
-ment areas
Road width m 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
(1)
(2) (2) (2) (2)
Notes

For the lowest category of road it may sometimes be necessary to adopt a basic access only
approach. For such roads it may be too expensive to provide a design speed but minimum
absolute standards must be applied. These are summarised in Table 6.24.
Table 6.24: Minimum standards for Basic Access

Characteristic Minimum requirements
12m absolute but up to 20m depending on
Radius of horizontal curvature
expected vehicles
Vertical curvature
K value for crests 2.5
K value for sags 0.6
Maximum gradients
Open to all vehicles 14%
Open only to cars and pick-ups 16%
Minimum stopping sight distance Flat and Rolling terrain 50m
Mountainous 35m
Escarpments 20m
For Basic Access, Longitudinal Gradients of >6% should be considered for paving due to the
excessive longitudinal erosion caused by rainfall surface runoff under an EOD Spot
Improvement Strategy.
88
6.14.3 Design-by-eye
The design-by-eye method is best suited to rehabilitation or upgrading projects where a road
alignment already exists and is the preferred method for developing a design for a track or
undesignated road under a community roads programme where a walking track is being
improved to enable it to carry occasional vehicles. Nevertheless, considerable experience and
skill is needed to carry out the design-by-eye method and the approach should only be used
under the guidance and supervision of an experienced Engineer.
6.14.4 Typical cross sections

Typical cross sections for a range of conditions are shown in Figures 6.7 to 6.18. They
include:
 Roads on flat terrain;
 Roads on rolling terrain;
 Roads on mountainous terrain;
 Roads on escarpments;
 Roads through populated areas;
 Roads on expansive soils.
Unpaved and Paved options are shown.
Slope dimensions for the various conditions are summarised in Table 6.25.
Table 6.25: Slope Ratio Table – Vertical to Horizontal

Height of Slope Side Slope (V:H)
Material Back Slope
(m) Fill Cut
Earth Soil 0.0 – 1.0 1:3 1:3
1.0 – 2.0 1:2 1:2
>2.0 2:3 2:3
Strong Rock 0.0 – 2.0 4:5 2:1
>2.0 1:1 4:1
1:2
Weathered Rock 0.0 – 2.0 2:3 2:1
>2.0 1:1 3:1
Decomposed Rock 0.0 – 1.0 1:3 1:3
2.0 – 2.0 1:2 1:2
>2.0 2:3 2:3
Black Cotton Soil 0.0 – 2.0 1:6
(1)
(expansive clays) - -
>2.0 1:4
Note
1. Move ditch away from road as shown in Figures 6.17 and 6.18
This Table should be used as a guide only, particularly because applicable standards in rock
cuts are highly dependent on costs. Also certain soils that may be present at subgrade level
may be unstable at 1:2 side slopes and therefore a higher standard will need to be applied for
these soils. Slope configuration and treatments in areas with identified slope stability
problems should be addressed as a final design issue.
89
Figure 6.7: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Flat Terrain, Unpaved
Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
A Carriageway width (m) 3.3 5.0 5.5 6.0
B Shoulder width (m) 0.6 0.5 0.75 0.75
C Min Crossfall/Camber (%) 4 4 4 4
D Backslope of ditch (v:h ratio)
See Table 6.25
E Side slope of ditch (v:h ratio)
F Depth of Side ditch (m) Varies
H Crown height (m) 0.35 0.35 0.5 0.5
J Cleared width (m) 15 20 20 20
Notes:
1. Section not drawn to scale;
2. V-shape is the standard shape of the drainage ditch constructed and maintained by motor or towed grader;
3. Trapezoidal drains are commonly used and are much easier to dig and clean using labour-based methods. The minimum recommended width is 400mm and the typical cross-section
is shown below;
Edge of road
>400mm
1
1.3:1 max
2
4. Rectangular drains need to be lined with rock, brick stone masonry or concrete to maintain their shape;
5. More detail on side drains is provided in Chapter 9.
90
Figure 6.8: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Flat Terrain, Paved
Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
A Carriageway width (m), minimum 3.3 6.0 6.5

B Shoulder width (m) 1.5 1.0 1.25
B1 Shoulder Crossfall (%) 6 6 6
C Crossfall/Camber (%) 3 3 3
See Table 6.25
F Depth of side ditch (m) Varies
H Crown height (m) 0.75 0.75 0.75
J Cleared width (m) 20 20 20
Notes:
2. V-shape is the standard shape of the drainage ditch constructed and maintained by motor or towed grader;
3. Trapezoidal drains are commonly used and are much easier to dig and clean using labour-based methods. The minimum recommended width is 500mm;
4. Rectangular drains need to be lined with rock, brick stone masonry or concrete to maintain their shape;
5. More detail on side drains is provided in Chapter 9.
91
Figure 6.9: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Rolling Terrain, Unpaved
Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4

See Table 6.25
G Side slope (v:h ratio) See Table 6.25
H Crown height (m) 0.35 0.35 0.5 0.5
K Embankment toe (m) Varies
Notes:
2. See Figure 6.7 for trapezoidal and other ditch options.
92
Figure 6.10: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Rolling Terrain, Paved
Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
A Carriageway width (m) 3.3 6.0 6.5

See Table 6.25
G Side slope See Table 6.25
H Crown height (m) 0.75 0.75 0.75
K Embankment toe (m) Varies
Notes:
2. See Figure 6.7 for trapezoidal and other ditch options.
93
Figure 6.11: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Mountainous Terrain, Unpaved
Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
See Table 6.25
F Depth of Side ditch (m) 0.35
L Ditch width (m) Varies
Notes:
1. Section not drawn to scale
94
Figure 6.12: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Mountainous Terrain, Paved
Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
B1 Shoulder crossfall (%) 3 3 3
See Table 6.25
F Depth of Side ditch (m) 0.5
Notes:
1. Section not drawn to scale
95
Figure 6.13: Typical cross section: DC1 – 4, Escarpment Terrain, Unpaved
Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
See Table 6.25
F Depth of Side ditch (m) Min 0.35
M Slope of retaining structure Varies
Notes: 1. Section not drawn to scale
96
Figure 6.14: Typical cross section: DC1 – 4, Escarpment Terrain, Paved
Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
B1 Shoulder crossfall (%) 3 3 3
See Table 6.25
F Depth of Side ditch (m) Min 0.5
M Slope of retaining structure Varies
Notes: 1. Section not drawn to scale
97
Figure 6.15 Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Populated areas, Unpaved
Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
A Carriageway width (m), minimum 3.3 5.0 5.5 6.0

Notes:
1. Open channel type A – 25 cm thick mortared stone pitching
Open channel type B – 25 cm thick mortared stone pitching
2. Wearing course
3. Choice of open channel dependent on local conditions
4. Provide lined channels only where maintenance of road surface and camber at original levels is guaranteed.
98
Figure 6.16: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Populated areas, Paved
Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4

Notes:
1. Open channel type A – 25 cm thick mortared stone pitching
Open channel type B – 25 cm thick mortared stone pitching
2. Choice of open channel dependent on local conditions
3. Surfacing of shoulder recommended.
99
Figure 6.17: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Flat Terrain, Expansive soils, Unpaved
Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4

See Table 6.25
G Side slope See Table 6.25
H Crown height (m) 0.35 0.35 0.5 0.5
Notes: 1. Section not drawn to scale.
100
Figure 6.18: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Flat Terrain, Expansive soils, Paved
B1
Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
See Table 6.25
G Side slope Varies
H Crown height (m) 0.75 0.75 0.75
Notes: 1. Section not drawn to scale.
101
6.14.5 Roadside population and non-motorised vehicles

If the road is passing through a village or large settlement, an extra carriageway width of 3.5m
is provided in each direction for parking and for passenger pick-up and a 2.5m pedestrian
footpath is also specified. The latter is essentially the road shoulder (Tables 6.17 and 6.18). In
addition, the main running surface is paved and is 7.0m wide.
When passing through a minor settlement a 2.5m paved shoulder is specified but no
additional footpath, though one could be provided if considered to be required. The
carriageway is also increased to 7.0m and therefore the standard is very similar to DC4 but
with wider shoulders.
These standards are not justified for the lower traffic levels of DC1, which is a single
carriageway, unless the road is passing through a particularly well populated area but where
additional traffic may be expected. In such circumstances the shoulders should be widened to
2.5 metres for the extent of the populated area.
Additional shoulder widths are also provided if there is a high number of PCUs of non-
motorised vehicles, (defined as more than 300 PCUs per day on average (Tables 6.26 and
6.27).
Table 6.26: Increased ‘shoulder’ widths (each side) for unpaved LVRs
Design Basic shoulder widths (m) Populated High

standard areas PCUs
Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment
DC4 unpaved Shoulders not defined for unpaved roads. The figure is + 3.5 + 2.0
for increased width each side, but DC1 is unlikely in
DC3 unpaved + 3.5 + 1.5
populated areas.
(1)
DC2 unpaved + 2.5 + 1.25
DC1 + 2.0
Notes
1. DC1 is effectively a single carriageway hence less extra width is needed for PCUs.
Table 6.27 Shoulder widths (each side) for paved LVRs
Design Basic shoulder widths (m) Populated

High
standard Section for
Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment PCUs
parking
DC4 paved 1.25 1.25 0.5 0.5 3.5 + 2.0
DC3 paved 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 3.5 + 1.5
(1) (2)
DC2 paved 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 2.5 + 1.25
(1)
DC1 2.0
Notes
1. Paved sections are single carriageway resulting in a wider shoulder.
2. DC1 and DC2 paved are effectively a single carriageway, hence less extra width is needed for high PCUs.
References
Lebo J. & Schelling D. 2001. Design and appraisal of rural transport infrastructure. Ensuring
basic access for rural communities. World Bank Technical paper 496.
USAID, 2010. Geometric Design Manual. MRB, GoSS.
102
7 SURFACING AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

7.1 Introduction to Paving and Surfacing Options for LVR
There are a large number of proven bituminous and non-bituminous paving and surfacing
options available for use on Low Volume Roads. These surface options fulfil a variety of
functions which, collectively, preserve the integrity of roadway and any pavement layers and
improve the functionality of the road in service. The basic locally available materials of natural
soils/gravels, stone, sand, fired clay brick can be used with or without a range of binders and
sealers to offer a range of attributes which need to be matched to such factors as expected
traffic levels and loading, locally available materials and skills, construction and maintenance
regimes and the environment. Careful consideration should therefore be given to all these
factors in order to make a judicious, cost-effective choice of paving and surface to provide
satisfactory performance and minimise life cycle costs.
This section provides an overview of the various types of paving and surfacings available and
appropriate for use in South Sudan in relation to a range of local factors. The section provides
information on the constituents and performance characteristics of the surfacings, the factors
affecting their choice and the general approach to their design.
The subsequent sections of the Chapter provide guidance on the selection and design
process for the various paving and surfacing options.
7.1.1 Types of surfacings

LVR surfacings suitable for application in South Sudan may be grouped according to their
main constituents as follows:
Basic
S-01: Engineered Natural Surface (ENS)
S-02: Natural gravel
Stone Paving
S-03: Waterbound/Drybound Macadam (WBM - DBM)
S-04: Hand Packed Stone (HPS)
S-05: Stone Setts or Pavé (SSP and MSSP)
S-06: Mortared Stone (MS)
S-07: Dressed stone/cobble stone (DS, CS, MDS, MCS)
Fired Clay Brick

S-08: Unmortared/mortared joints (CB, MCB)
Bituminous
S-09: Sand Seal
S-10: Slurry Seal
S-11: Chip Seal
S-12: Cape Seal
S-13: Otta Seal
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Concrete
S-14: Non-reinforced concrete (NRC)
An outline description of the above surfacing types is presented in the following pages. Many
of the paving and surfacing techniques have beneficial attributes with regard to good use of
local resources and labour based methods. Some of the options have low energy and carbon
footprint attributes with low levels of imported components. The surface options vary
significantly in their maintenance liability attributes, which must be an important consideration
in the design process.
7.1.2 Basic surfacings

S-01: Engineered Natural Surface (ENS)
An Engineered Natural Surface using the compacted in situ soil at the road location to form a
basic surface for traffic. Essential provisions are a compacted camber (4-6%), side drains and
an effective drainage system. Typically soils with an in service CBR of a minimum of about
15% or more can provide a year round running surface for light motor traffic. Route sections
with steep gradients, or weak or problematic soils can be improved in situ by upgrading to
higher standard surface under a spot improvement or EOD strategy to improve their traffic
carrying capacity throughout the year.
S-02: Natural Gravel

One or more layers of natural gravel placed directly on the existing shaped earth formation
and compacted with an appropriate surface camber (typically 4-6%). The layers could be
mechanically stabilised or blended with other material to improve the material properties.
7.1.3 Stone paving

These are a number of proven techniques to use natural stone to provide satisfactory paving
for LVRs.
S-03: Waterbound/Drybound Macadam

A Macadam layer essentially consists of a stone skeleton of single sized coarse aggregate in
which the voids are filled with finer material. The stone skeleton, because of its single size
large material will contain considerable voids but will have the potential for high shear
strength if confined properly. The stone skeleton forms the “backbone” of the macadam and is
largely responsible for the strength of the constructed layer. The material used to fill the voids
provides lateral stability to the stone skeleton but adds little bearing capacity.
In Waterbound Macadam (WBM) the aggregate fines are washed or slushed into the coarse
skeleton with water. Dry-bound macadam is a similar technique to the original WBM, however
instead of water and deadweight compaction being used in the consolidation of fine material,
a vibrating roller is used. The development of small vibrating rollers has made the use of this
technique attractive for labour based rural road works in some locations.
WBM or DBM are commonly used as layers within a sealed flexible pavement, but in the
appropriate circumstances may be used as an unsealed option with a suitably cohesive
material being used as the fines component. The WBM or DBM may be constructed as a low
cost, initial surface to be later sealed and upgraded in a ‘stage construction’ strategy.
104
S-04: Hand-packed stone

Hand Packed Stone is a proven labour based technique. The surfacing consists of a layer
(typically 150 – 300 mm thick) of large broken stones pieces, laid by hand and tightly packed
together and wedged in place with smaller stone chips rammed by hand into the joints using
hammers and steel rods. The remaining voids are filled with sand. The Hand Packed Stone is
normally bedded on a thin layer of sand or gravel. For use by heavy traffic, the layer should
be compacted with a vibrating or heavy non-vibrating roller. An edge restraint or kerb
constructed of large or mortar jointed stones improves durability and lateral stability.
S-05: Stone setts or pavé

Stone sett surfacing or Pavé is an historically well-established labour based technique that
has been adapted successfully as a robust option on low volume rural roads where there is a
good local supply of suitable stone. It consists of a layer of roughly cubic (100mm) stone setts
laid on a bed of sand or fine aggregate within mortared stone or concrete edge restraints
(kerbs). The individual stones should have at least one face that is fairly smooth, to be the
upper or surface face when placed. Each stone sett is adjusted with a small (mason’s)
hammer and then tapped into position to the level of the surrounding stones. Sand or fine
aggregates is brushed into the spaces between the stones and the layer then compacted with
a roller.
S-06: Mortared stone

Mortared Stone Paving is another labour based technique that consists of a layer of natural
selected stones, laid on a bed of loose sand or fine aggregate with the joints filled with sand–
cement mortar. The stones do not need to be dressed to a regular shape. The individual
stones should have at least one face that is fairly smooth and even, to be the upper or surface
face when placed. Stone size is typically from 100 – 300mm. The bedding sand around each
stone is adjusted with a small hammer and the stone is then tapped into position and to the
final level of the surrounding stones. Sand–cement mortar and small stones are used to fill
the joints between the individual stones. When the mortar has set the layer should be covered
in sand or other moisture retaining material and kept wet for a few days to aid curing.
Mortared Stone paving should not be trafficked until 7 days after laying.
S-07: Dressed stone/cobble stone paving

Dressed or Cobble Stone Paving has been used for centuries as a strong, durable road
surface using labour based methods. The technique is similar to Stone Setts or Pavé,
however the individual stones are larger; normally of size 100 – 300mm. They are cut from
suitable hard rock and ‘dressed’ manually to a cubic shape with a smooth, flat finish on at
least one face using hammers and chisels. The dressed stones are laid on a bedding sand
layer (20 – 70mm) and tapped into final position with a hammer. Sand is brushed into the
joints between the stones. Temporarily covering with loose sand and compacting with a heavy
roller can improve durability. The excess sand is removed after compaction. An edge restraint
or kerb constructed (for example) of large or mortared stones is required for durability. Sand-
cement mortar joints and bedding can be used to improve durability and prevent water
penetrating to moisture susceptible foundation layers and weakening them.
105
7.1.4 Fired clay brick

S-08: Fired clay brick - unmortared or mortared joints
Bricks suitable for road surfacing can be produced by firing clay in large or small scale kilns
using coal, wood or some agricultural wastes as a fuel. The bricks must achieve certain
strength, shape and durability requirements. The fired bricks are generally laid on edge to
form a layer of typical 100mm thickness on sand or sand-cement bedding layer and jointed
similarly. Kerbs or edge restraints are necessary and can be provided by sand-cement
bedded and mortared fired bricks. The fired bricks are normally laid in a herring bone or other
approved pattern to enhance load spreading characteristics. Un-mortared brick paving is
compacted with a plate compactor and the jointing sand is topped up if necessary. For
mortar-bedded and jointed-fired clay brick paving, no compaction is required. When the
mortar has set the layer should be covered in sand or other moisture retaining material and
kept wet for a few days to aid curing. If mortared bedding and jointing are used the surface
should not be trafficked until 7 days after laying.
7.1.5 Bituminous surfacings

Bituminous surfacings or surface treatments generally comprise an admixture of different
proportions of stone or sand, and bitumen. The bitumen may be a penetration grade, cutback
or emulsion (the last being particularly suitable for labour based methods of construction as
heating is avoided; or for small scale works). The bituminous surfacings usually require good
quality, screened or crushed stone or sand, but lower quality aggregate may be used for
some types of seals (e.g. Otta Seal).
An effective bond between the surface treatment and the surface of the roadbase is essential
for good performance. This can be achieved through the use of an appropriate grade of
bitumen (the prime or prime coat) before the start of construction of the surface treatment.
Some typical types of bituminous surface treatment are shown in Figure 7.1.
106
Figure 7.1: Examples of typical bituminous surface treatments
S-09: Sand seal

This seal consists of a spray of bituminous binder followed by the application of a coarse,
clean sand or crusher dust as aggregate. This surfacing is used on low-volume roads,
especially in drier regions, but can also be used for maintenance resealing, or for temporary
by-passes or diversions. Single sand seals are generally not a recommended option. For new
construction, two layers are usually specified as single layers tend not to be durable. There is
an extended curing period (typically 8 – 12 weeks) between the first and second seal
applications to ensure complete loss of volatiles from the first seal and thus minimise the risk
of bleeding.
S-10: Slurry seal

A Slurry Seal consists of a homogeneous mixture of pre-mixed materials comprising fine
aggregate, stable-mix grade emulsion (anionic or cationic) or a modified emulsion, water and
filler (cement or lime). The production of a slurry can be undertaken in simple concrete mixers
and laid by hand, or more sophisticated purpose-designed machines which mix and spread
the slurry.
107
Slurry Seals can be used for treating various defects on an existing road surface carrying
relatively low traffic for which the following are typical applications:
 Arrest loss of chippings;
 Restore surface texture;
 Reduce unevenness because of bumps, slacks and/or ruts;
 Rectify low activity surface cracking;
 New construction as a grout seal following a single Chip Seal or in multiple layers
directly on the roadbase of low traffic roads;
 A component of a Cape Seal.
S-11: Chip seal

This seal (single or double) consists of a spray(s) of bituminous binder followed by the
application of a layer(s) of aggregate (stone chippings). The binder acts as a waterproofing
seal preventing entry of surface water into the road structure while the chippings protect this
film from damage by vehicle tyres.
Chip Seals can be used for a number of purposes, including:
 New construction (normally double surface dressings only);
 Temporary by-passes or diversions (normally single surface dressings);
 Maintenance resealing (normally single surface dressing);
 First layer of a Cape Seal.
S-12: Cape seal

A Cape Seal consists of a single 13mm or 19mm aggregate, penetrated with a binder and
covered with a slurry seal. If 19mm aggregate is used, the slurry is applied in two layers. The
function of the slurry is to provide a dense void filler to enhance the stability of the single-
sized coarse aggregate layer. The coarse aggregate is left proud to provide the macro texture
for skid resistance.
S-13: Otta seal

An Otta Seal is a sprayed bituminous surfacing comprising a mixture of graded aggregates
ranging from natural gravel to crushed rock with relatively soft (low viscosity) binder, with or
without a sand cover seal. This type of seal contrasts with the single sized crushed aggregate
and relatively hard (high viscosity) binders used in Chip seals. Otta seals can be single or
double (two layers).
Otta Seals can be used for a variety of purposes, including:
 New construction (single or double Otta Seals with/without sand seal);
 Temporary seal (normally single Otta Seal - diversions, haul roads, temporary
accesses, etc.);
 Maintenance reseal (normally single Otta Seal).
Performance characteristics of Bituminous Seals

The mechanism of performance of surface treatments varies in relation to the composition of
their constituents as illustrated in Figure 7.2 and described below.
Type A: (e.g. sand seal and Otta seal):

These seal types, like hot-mix asphalt, rely to varying extents on a combination of mechanical
particle interlock and the binding effect of bitumen for their strength. Early trafficking and/or
108
heavy rolling are necessary to develop the relatively thick bitumen film coating around the
particles. Under trafficking, the seal acts as a stress-dispersing mat comprising the
bitumen/aggregate mixture.
Type B: (e.g. ship seal, cape seal):

These seal types rely on the binder to “glue” the aggregate particles to the roadbase. Where
shoulder-to-shoulder contact between the stones occurs, some mechanical interlock is
mobilised. Under trafficking, the aggregate is in direct contact with the tyre and requires
relatively high resistance to crushing and abrasion to disperse the stresses without distress.
Figure 7.2: Differing mechanisms of performance of surface treatments
Typical service lives

The life of a bituminous surfacing treatment can vary widely in relation to a number of factors
as indicated below:
 Climate: Very high temperatures cause rapid binder hardening through accelerated
loss of volatiles, while low temperatures can lead to brittleness of the binder leading
to cracking or aggregate loss resulting in reduced surfacing life.
 Pavement strength: Lack of underlying pavement stiffness will lead to fatigue
cracking and reduced surfacing life.
 Base materials: Unsatisfactory roadbase performance and absorption of binder into
certain base materials (e.g. pedogenic materials) will lead to reduced surfacing life.
 Binder durability: The lower the durability of the binder, the higher the rate of its
hardening, and the shorter the surfacing life.
 Design and construction of surfacing: Improper design and poor construction
techniques (e.g. inadequate prime, uneven rate of binder application or ‘dirty’
aggregates) will lead to reduced surfacing life.
 Traffic: The higher the volume of heavy traffic the shorter the surfacing life.
 Stone polishing: The faster the polishing of the stone, the earlier the requirement for
resurfacing.
Typical service lives of bituminous surface treatments are given in Table 7.1.
109
(1)
Table 7.1: Typical bituminous surfacing service lives
Type of surfacing Typical service life (years)
Double sand seal (DSS) 3-6
Slurry seal (SIS) 2-4
Single chip seal (SCS) 3-5
Double chip seal (DCS) 7 - 10
Single Otta seal (SOS) 6 - 10
Single Otta seal plus sand seal (SOS+SS) 8 - 12
Cape seal (13mm + single slurry) (CS13) 6 - 10
Cape seal (19mm + double slurry) (CS19) 8 - 14
Double Otta seal (DOS) 12 - 16
Note
1. Assumes that timeous routine and periodic maintenance are carried out. T
Factors affecting choice of bituminous surface treatments

The various factors affecting the choice of surface treatments in relation to the operational
requirements are indicated in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2: Selected factors affecting choice of bituminous surface treatments
Type of Surfacing
Parameter Degree
SS SIS SCS DCS CS SOS+ DOS
SS
Service life Short (<5)    ? ? ? ?

required X X X    ?
(years) Medium (5-10)
Long (>10) X X X ? ? ? 
Traffic level Light (<100)    ? ? ? ?
(AADT) Medium (100-300) X X X    ?
Heavy (>300) X X X    
Impact of Low (no trucks)    ? ? ? ?

traffic turning X X X    ?
action Medium (trucks)
High (3-axle trucks) X X X ? ? ? 
Gradient Mild ( <5%)       ?
Moderate (5-10%) X X X    ?
Steep (>10%) X X X    
Material Poor X X X X X  
Quality ? ? ? ? ?  
Moderate
Good      ? ?
110
Existing Poor X X X ? ? ? 
pavement and ? ? ?    
base quality Moderate
Good       
Suitable for
labour-based      X X
methods
Contractor Low ? ? X X X  
experience/  ? ? ? ?  
capability Moderate
High       
Maintenance Low X X X X X  
capability X X X    
Moderate
High       
Key
 Suitable/preferred ? OK, but maybe not optimal X Not suitable/applicable
SS Sand seal SlS Slurry seal SCS Single chip seal
DCS Double chip seal CS Cape seal SOS Single Otta seal
DOS Double Otta seal
The final choice of a surface treatment should be based on the Surfacing Decision
Management System (SDMS) described in Section 7.2 of this Chapter and a life-cycle cost
analysis in which the various factors discussed above, as well as the service life of the
treatment, should all be taken into account.
7.1.6 Concrete surfacing

Non-reinforced concrete slab surfacing
Un-reinforced or reinforced cement concrete slab pavements can be used to provide a high
strength, durable road surface with very low maintenance requirements. The concrete must
have a minimum strength of 20MPa. Joints are required to accommodate thermal expansion
and contraction and particular care is required to construct them properly. When the concrete
has set the layer should be covered in sand or other moisture retaining material and kept wet
for a few days to aid curing. Concrete surfaces should normally not be trafficked until 7 days
after casting.
Reinforced concrete slab paving: It will be difficult to justify normal reinforced concrete
paving for LVRs, so that design of such pavements is not included in this Manual.
Concrete brick paving: Concrete brick or block paving (including the use of geo-cell on-site
formers) may be used for LVR roads and design and construction requirements are similar to
Fired Clay brick incremental paving.
7.2 Choice of Pavement and Surfacing

The various factors that typically affect the choice of a paving and surfacing can be grouped
under the following headings:
 Available materials;
111
 Operational environment;
 Road task;
 Natural environment.
These factors are illustrated in Figure 7.3.
AVAILABLE MATERIALS
Local materials
Surface/Paving Options
Specifications
NATURAL OPERATIONAL
ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT
Climate OPTIMUM OR Construction Regime
Hydrology APPROPRIATE Maintenance Regime
Terrain DESIGN Policies
Subgrade Socio-economic factors
ROAD TASK
Traffic
Axle Loads
Standards
Figure 7.3: General Road Surface selection factors
The final selection of surfacing should then be made on the basis of life-cycle costing.
7.2.1 Evaluation framework

A rational method is required for the selection of the most appropriate surface or paving
structure for a particular section of low volume rural or urban road. The Surfacing Decision
Management System (SDMS) provides such a procedure for assessing the various factors
that influence the suitability of surface-paving options for a specific section of rural road.
When ENS or natural gravel are considered to be unsuitable options, the separate Matrices of
Surfacing and Paving Options (Tables 7.5 to 7.8) will further guide the user to identify the
most appropriate options.
The key objective is the elimination of unsuitable or high risk options using a series of road
environment related “screens” before proceeding to Final Engineering Design (FED) for the
surfacing/paving and their Whole Life Costing. Figure 7.4 shows the basic steps in the SDMS
procedure.
112
Figure 7.4: Overview of the SDMS procedure
113
7.2.2 SDMS Procedure

Step 1 of the three-step SDMS procedure is illustrated in Figure 8.5 while each of the
explanatory sheets (Sheets 1-3) supporting the sequential activities are presented in Figures
7.6 to 7.8.
STEP 1 - Consideration of ENS or Natural Gravel as a Road Surface Option
ENS ENGINEERING & Social & Whole Life Cost

Sheet 1 OPERATIONAL OK?
ASSESSMENT ASSESSMENT
US*
US* = Unsuitable
NATURAL GRAVEL
Sheet 2 ENGINEERING ASSESSMENT
OPERATIONAL
Sheet 3 ASSESSMENT
Sheet 3 POLICY ASSESSMENT
DECISION ON SUITABILITY Social & Whole Life Cost

OF GRAVEL OK? ASSESSMENT
STEP 2 - Consideration of other Surfacing-Paving options
Social & Whole Life Cost

TABLES 7.3 - 7.8
ASSESSMENT
Figure 7.5: Overview of SDMS procedure
114
SHEET 1 - Assessment of Suitability and Engineered Natural Surface - ENS (Engineered

Earth Road) as a feasible option
No upgrading option will be

Routine sustainable, consider
will sufficient FUNDING Maintenance* No maintenance support
be available for: of the road? initiative
Yes
Can ENS will likely not be viable

is MAINTENANCE on at least 50% of the No maintenance No
Road Manager's network? due to the maintenance
effective: capacity be liability to retain passability
made effective
Yes within 2 years?
Yes
will the in situ soil and camber crossfall of 3 - 6% can be

cambered surface have maintained and side+turnout drainage No Option Inappropriate
a wet season system will be provided and maintained?
compacted CBR of >15
Yes
< 1000 1000 - 2000 > 2000

is RAINFALL: No No Yes Option Inappropriate
mm/year? mm/year? mm/year?
Yes Yes
OPERATIONAL ASSESSMENT
is longitudinal > 6% ? > 4% ? Option Probably

ROAD GRADIENT: Yes Inappropriate
Option Probably
No Yes Inappropriate
No
is TRAFFIC: < 100 ADT# Option Probably

No
(see ADT# Note) / day? Inappropriate
Yes
can TRAFFIC:
by natural conditions or by No Option may be Inappropriate
be prevented from using
physical barriers
the road in wet weather
Yes
by over-topping more Option Inappropriate

is road FLOODED: than one day/year?
Yes
No
ENS is Technically a feasible option

Make a Social & Whole Life Cost assessment
For Option Inappropriate outcome proceed to Sheet 2 for Natural Gravel assessment.
Figure 7.6: Decision flow chart for the preliminary consideration of LVR surface
options for a road section – STEP 1
115
SHEET 2 - Engineering Assessment of Natural Gravel Surface Option
is gravel of in sufficient quantities within 50km haul Option probably Inappropriate

Specification QUALITY for the construction and 10 year's No But check blending options to
available: maintenance meet specifications
Yes
< 1000 1000 - 2500 > 2500 Option Inappropriate

is RAINFALL: No No Yes
mm/year? mm/year? mm/year?
Yes Yes
is longitudinal > 6% ? > 4% ? Yes Option Inappropriate

ROAD GRADIENT:
No Yes Option Inappropriate
No
ENGINEERING ASSESSMENT
is wet weather in- Consider Engineered In-situ Material

is TRAFFIC: < 100 ADT# situ material Option (Engineered Natural Surface)
Yes Yes
(see ADT# Note) / day? >15CBR? (Sheet 1)
No No
> 200 ADT#

Yes Option Inappropriate
/ day?
No
by over-topping more Option Inappropriate

is road FLOODED: than one day/year?
Yes
No
Option probably
is gravel material more than 10km? Inappropriate: Check by
Yes
HAULAGE: Whole Life Costing analysis
No
Natural Gravel is Technically

a feasible option.
Proceed to Non-technical
Assessment (Sheet 3)
Figure 7.7: Decision flow chart for the preliminary consideration of LVR surface
options for a road section – Step 1 continued
116
SHEET 3 - Operational, Socio-economic and Economic Assessment of Natural Gravel as a

surface option.
KEY CONSIDERATIONS
Who will be responsible for funding/resourcing ROUTINE maintenance of the road? ........................
Who will be responsible for funding PERIODIC maintenance of the road? ........................
Who is responsible for managing the maintenance of the road? …………………..
What is the annual rate of gravel loss predicted, that must be replaced by Periodic Maintenance? …………………..mm/year
Routine No upgrading option will be

will sufficient FUNDING Maintenance* sustainable, consider
No
be available for: of the road? maintenance support
initiative
Yes
Can Gravel will likely not be viable

OPERATIONAL ASSESSMENT
is MAINTENANCE on at least 50% of the maintenance due to the high maintenance

No No
effective: Road Manager's network? capacity be liability and additional burden
made effective
Yes within 2 years?
Yes
Gravel will not be viable as
Periodic
will sufficient FUNDING Maintenance** Will the road be material losses will not be
No No
be available for: of the road? upgraded within replaced & road will revert to
2 years? (Stage earth standard
Yes Construction)
Yes
available to test & ensure the Gravel will likely not be viable
will sufficient QUALITY constructed materials comply with No unless improved Quality
ASSURANCE be: specifications? Assurance is provided
Yes
Natural Gravel is Operationally

a feasible option. Proceed to Policy
Assessment (below)
applicable to the road that will

are there any local or prejudice the use of gravel on
POLICY ASSESSMENT
national POLICY the grounds of dust nuisance, Yes Option probably Inappropriate
considerations: pollution, resource depletion,
social considerations etc?
No
Natural Gravel complies with Policy

requirements & is an acceptable option.
Proceed to Economic Assessment (below)
KEY CONSIDERATIONS
Carry out a Whole Life Costing of infrastructure improvement & maintenance costs, and road user costs for feasible paving options.
is gravel the lowest of all the technically,

WHOLE LIFE COST
ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT
operationally and No Option probably Inappropriate

option: socio-economically
feasible options?
Yes
Note: In Whole Life Costing,

Natural Gravel is an acceptable include damage to haul routes
option on Technical, Operational, Socio- caused by initial and periodic
economic & Economic grounds maintenance regravelling vehicles.
If neither ENS nor Natural Gravel is an Appropriate Option proceed to alternative surface options assessment
Figure 7.8: Decision flow Cchart for the preliminary consideration of LVR surface –
Step 1 continued
117
Step 2 involves the consideration of surfacing/paving options (S-01 to S-14) as listed in

Section 7.1.1.
If the Step 1 assessment indicates that neither ENS nor Natural Gravel are viable options for
a particular road section, then the assessment should proceed to the ‘screening’ process (see
Tables 7.5 to 7.8) to select a shortlist of appropriate and viable surface and/or paving options
based on the evaluation criteria included in these tables.
In the screening process the Tables 7.3 and 7.4 set out the evaluation criteria in terms of
indicative traffic regime and erosion potential.
Table 7.3: Definition of indicative traffic regime
Indicative Category Traffic Description
Mainly non-motorised, pedestrian and animal modes, motorbikes & less than
Light 25 motor vehicles per day, with few medium/heavy vehicles. No access for
overloaded vehicles. Typical of a Rural Road with individual axle loads up to 2.5
tonne.
Moderate Up to about 100 motor vehicles per day including up to 20 medium (10t) goods
vehicles, with no significant overloading. Typical of a Rural Road with individual
axle loads up to 6 tonne.
High Between 100 and 300 motor vehicles per day. Accessible by all vehicle types
including heavy and multi-axle (3 axle +) trucks, Construction & timber materials
haulage routes. Specific design methodology to be applied.
Table 7.4: Definition of erosion potential
Road alignment Annual Rainfall (mm)

longitudinal gradient
< 1000 1000 - 2500 2500 - 4000 >4000
Flat ( < 1% ) A A B C
Moderate ( 1-3% ) A B B C
High ( 3-6% ) B C C D
Very High ( >6% ) C C D D
A = Low; B = Moderate; C High; D = Very High
Note:
1. Areas prone to regular flooding should be classed as “High Risk” irrespective of rainfall.
In the following Tables
 Indicates suitable for evaluation  Mortared
Note: Cost ratings are indicative only and will depend on local factors.
118
Table 7.5: Preliminary engineering filter - surfacing
PAVING CATEGORY BASIC STONE BR BITUMEN CONC
Fired Clay Brick Pavement: Un-/mortared Joints

Waterbround/Drybound Macadam
Dressed Stone/Cobble Stone

Engineered Natural Surface
Non-Reinforced Concrete
Bituminous Slurry Seal
Bituminous Sand Seal
Bituminous Chip Seal

Stone Setts or Pavé
Hand Packed Stone
Mortared Stone
Gravel Surface
Cape Seal
Ottaseal
Economically
available Materials
S01
S02
S03
S04
S05
S06
S07
S08
S09
S10
S11
S12
S13
S14
Crushed stone      
aggregate
Stone pieces/blocks    
Natural gravel  
Colluvial/alluvial  
gravel
Weathered rock 
Fired clay bricks 
Clay soil 
Sand       
Cement   
Lime 
Bitumen    
Bitumen Emulsion    
119
Table 7.6: Preliminary engineering filter - pavement layers / shoulders
SHOULDERS
SUB-BASES
CATEGORY
PAVING
BASES
Emulsion s tabilised soil
Emulsion stabilised soil

Waterbound macadam
Waterbound macadam
Cement stabilised soil

Drybound macadam
Drybound macadam
Lime stabilisede soil

Armoured gravel
Stone macadam
Natural gravel
Natural gravel
Natural gravel
Economically
available
Materials
Crushed stone      
aggregate
Stone pieces/
blocks
Natural gravel    
Colluvial/alluvial    
gravel
Weathered rock    
Fired clay bricks
Clay soil   
Sand     
Cement   
Lime   
Bitumen
Bitumen Emulsion  
120
Table 7.7: Secondary engineering filters – surfacing
PAVING CATEGORY BASIC STONE BR BITUMEN CONC
Fired Clay Brick Pavement: Un-/mortared Joints

Waterbround/Drybound Macadam
Bituminous Chip Seal (double)

Dressed Stone/Cobble Stone
Bituminous Chip Seal (single)

Engineered Natural Surface
Non-Reinforced Concrete
Bituminous Slurry Seal
Bituminous Sand Seal
Stone Setts or Pavé
Hand Packed Stone
Ottaseal (double)
Ottaseal (single)
Mortared Stone
Gravel Surface
Cape Seal
S11
S13
S01
S02
S03
S04
S05
S06
S07
S08
S09
S10
S11
S12
S13
S14
Traffic Regime:
See Table 8.3
Light traffic                
Moderate traffic            
Heavy traffic
(overload risk)     
Construction Regime
High labour content             
Intermediate          
machinery
Low cost      
Moderate cost       
High cost   
Maintenance Requirement
Low     
Moderate        
High   
Erosion Regime (See Table 8.4)
A: low erosion regime                
B: Moderate erosion          
regime
C: High erosion regime     
D: Very high erosion     

regime
121
Table 7.8: Secondary engineering filters - pavement layers / shoulders
BASES SUB-BASES SHOULDERS
Emulsion s tabilised soil
Emulsion stabilised soil

Waterbound macadam
Waterbound macadam

Drybound macadam
Drybound macadam

Armoured gravel
Stone macadam
Natural gravel
Natural gravel
Natural gravel
Sealed
Traffic Regime:
See Table 8.3
Light traffic              
√
Moderate traffic            
Heavy traffic
     
(overload risk)
Construction Regime
High labour
    
content
Intermediate
                 
machinery
Low cost    
Moderate cost            
High cost  
Maintenance Requirement
Low             
Moderate    
High 
Erosion Regime (See Table 8.4)
A Low erosion
    
regime
B Moderate
 
erosion regime
C High erosion

regime
D Very high

erosion regime
122
7.2.3 Design of bituminous surfacing

The design of a particular type of surface treatment is usually project specific and related to
such factors as traffic volume, climatic conditions, available type and quality of materials.
Various methods of design have been developed by various authorities for the design of
surface treatments. The approach to the design of surface treatments given in this section is
generic, with the objective of presenting typical binder and aggregate application rates for
planning or tendering purposes only. Where applicable, reference has been made to the
source document for the design of the particular surface treatment which should be consulted
for detailed design purposes.
Prime coat
This is used to provide an effective bond between the surface treatment and the existing road
surface or underlying pavement layer and is essential for good performance of a bituminous
surfacing. This generally requires that the non-bituminous road surface or base layer must be
primed with an appropriate grade of bitumen before the start of construction of the surface
treatment.
Typical primes are:
1. Bitumen primes: Low viscosity, medium curing cutback bitumens such as MC-30,
MC-70, or in rare circumstances, MC-250, can be used for prime coats.
2. Emulsion primes: Bitumen emulsion primes are not suitable for priming stabilised
bases as they tend to form a skin on the road surface and to not penetrate this
surface.
3. Tar primes: Low-viscosity tar primes such as 3/12 EVT are suitable for priming road
surfaces but are no longer in common use because of their carcinogenic properties
which are potentially harmful to humans and the environment.
The choice of prime depends principally on the texture and density of the surface being
primed. Low viscosity primes are necessary for dense cement or lime stabilised surfaces
while higher viscosity primes are used for untreated, coarse-textured surfaces. Emulsion
primes are not recommended for saline base courses.
The grade of prime and the nominal rates of application to be used on the various types of
pavements are given in Table 7.9.
Table 7.9: Typical prime application rates in relation to pavement surface type
Pavement surface Prime
2
Grade Rate of application (l/m )
Tightly bonded
(light primer) MC-70 0.6 – 0.7
Medium porosity
(medium primer) MC-30 / MC-70 0.7 – 0.8
Porous
(heavy primer MC-30 0.85 – 1.1
Sand seal (S-09)

Design: There are no formal methods for the design of sand seals with the binder and
aggregate application rates being based on local experience.
123
Materials: Typical constituents for sand seals are:

 Binder: The following grades of binder are typically used:
• MC-800 cut-back bitumen;
• MC-3000 cut-back bitumen;
• Spray-grade emulsion (65% or 70% of net bitumen);
• 150/200 penetration grade bitumen.
 Aggregate: The grading of the sand may vary to a fair degree, but the conditions of
Table 7.10 must be met.
Table 7.10: Grading of sand for use in sand seal

Percentage by mass
Sieve size (mm) Passing through sieve
6.7 100
0.300 0 – 15
0.150 0-2
Sand equivalent (%): 35 Min
Application rates: For planning or tender purposes, typical binder and aggregate application
rates for sand seals are given in Table 7.11.
Table 7.11: Binder and aggregate application rates for sand seals
Hot spray rates of Aggregate application rate
Application MC3000 cut-back
3 2
(m /m )
2
Bitumen (l/m )
Double sand seal used as a permanent

1.2 – 1.4 per layer 0.010 – 0.012 per layer
seal
Single sand seal used as a cover seal

0.8 – 1.0 0.010 – 0.012
over an Otta Seal or Surface Dressing
Single seal used as a maintenance

1.0 – 1.2 0.010 – 0.012
remedy on an existing surfaced road
Slurry seal (S-10)

Design: The design of a Slurry Seal surfacing is based on semi-empirical methods or
experience with the exact proportions of the mix being determined by trial mixes for which the
following guidelines may be used:
Materials: The typical composition of a slurry is as follows:
 Filler should be between 1% and 2% of the mass of fine aggregate;
 Undiluted Bitumen Emulsion should be approximately 20% by weight of fine
aggregate.
Application rates: For planning or tender purposes, the typical composition of the slurry may
be based on the mass proportions indicated in Table 7.12.
124
Table 7.12: Nominal slurry seal mix components
Material Proportion (Parts)
Fine aggregate (dry) 100

Cement (or lime) 1.0 – 1.5
60% Stable grade emulsion 20
Water +/- 15
.
Chip seal (S-11)
Design: The design methods for both single and double chip seals are presented in Overseas
Road Note 31 (2nd edition): A guide to surface dressing in tropical and sub-tropical countries.
In essence, the design is based the concept of partially filling the voids in the covering
aggregate and that the volume of these voids is controlled by the Average Least Dimension
(ALD) of the sealing chips. Corrections to the spray rate need to be subsequently carried out
to take account of site conditions as described in the guide.
Materials: Typical constituents for chip seals are:
 Binder: The bituminous binder can consist of any of the following:
• 80/100 or 150/200 penetration grade bitumen;
• MC 3000 grade cutback bitumen;
• spray grade anionic (60) or cationic (65 or 70);
• Modified binders (polymer modified and bitumen rubber);
• Foamed bitumen.
 Aggregate: The aggregate for a Chip Seal shall be durable and free from organic
matter or any other contamination. Typical grading requirements for Chip Seals are
given in Table 7.13.
Table 7.13: Aggregate requirements for bituminous chip seals
Nominal Aggregate Size (mm)

Sieve Size
19.0 13.2 9.5 6.7
(mm)
Grading (%passing)
26.5 100
19.0 85 - 100 100
13.2 0 - 30 85 – 100 100
9.5 0-5 0 – 30 85 - 100 100
6.7 - - 0-5 0 - 40
4.75 - - 0-5 0 - 40
2.36 - - - 0-5
0.425 (fines) < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 2.0
0.075 (dust) < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 1.0
Materials Properties
Flakiness Index Max 20 Max 25 Max 25 Max 30
10% FACT (dry) AADT > 1000vpd: Min 160kN ; AADT < 1000vpd: 120kN
10% (wet) Min 75% of corresponding 10% FACT dry
Application rates: For planning purposes, typical binder and aggregate application rates for
single bituminous Chip Seals are given in Table 7.14.
125
Table 7.14: Binder and application rates for chip seals
Item Double Chip Seal Single Chip Seal (Reseal)

nd nd
2 9.5 mm 2 6.7 mm
st st 13.2 mm 9.5 mm
1 19.0 mm 1 13.2 mm
3 2
Aggregate spread rates (m /m )
nd
2 layer 0.09 0.007
st
1 layer 0.015 0.011 0.012 0.010
2
Hot spray rates of 80/100 pen grade bitumen (l/m )
Traffic
3.0 (total) 2.3 (total) 1.6 1.3
AADT < 200
Traffic
2.5 (total) 1.9 (total) 1.3 1.0
AADT 200 - 1000
Note: See also Table 7.15
Conversions from hot spray rates in volume (litres) to tonnes for payment purposes must be
o
made for the bitumen density at a spraying temperature of 180 C. For planning purposes, a
hot density of 0.90 kg/l should be used until reliable data for the particular bitumen is
available.
Adhesion agents: The success of a bituminous seal depends not only upon the strength of
the two main constituents – the binder and the aggregate – but also upon the attainment of
adhesion between these materials - a condition that is sometimes not achieved in practice. In
such a case a proprietary adhesion agent could be used to facilitate the attainment of a strong
and continuing bond between the binder and the aggregate. The agent can be used in the
aggregate pre-coating material (see below), in the binder or in both.
Precoating agents: Surfacing aggregates are often contaminated with dust on construction
sites and, in that condition, the dust tends to prevent actual contact between the aggregate
and the binder. This prevents or retards the setting action of the binder which results in poor
adhesion between the constituents. This problem can be overcome by sprinkling the
aggregate with water or, alternatively, by using an appropriate pre-coating material which
increases the ability of the binder to wet the aggregate and improve adhesion between binder
and aggregate.
A number of materials may be used for pre-coating aggregates including diesel fuel oil,
cutback bitumen, bitumen pre-coating emulsion and proprietary products.
Cape seal (S-12)
Design: As a combination single seal + slurry seal, the design of a Cape Seal is similar to
that for a Chip Seal and Slurry Seal as described above.
Materials: Typical constituents for Cape Seals are:
 Binder: As is the case with Chip Seals, a variety of binder types may be used for
constructing a Cape Seal;
 Aggregate: The same requirements are required as for Chip Seals and Slurry Seals.
Application rates: For planning purposes, typical binder and aggregate application rates for
single Chip seals are given in Table 7.15.
126
Table 7.15 Nominal bituminous chip seal application rates

Nominal size of aggregate Nominal rates of application
(mm) For planning / tender purposes
Binder (litres of net Aggregate (m3/m2)
2
Bitumen cold per m )
13.2 1.4 0.009
19.0 1.6 0.014
Otta seal (S-13)

General Design Principles: The design of the Otta Seal relies on an empirical approach in
terms of the selection of both an appropriate type of binder and an aggregate application rate.
Full details of the design methods are given in the Botswana Guideline No. 1: The Design,
Construction and maintenance of Otta Seals (1999).
As a general guide, the choice of binder in relation to traffic and aggregate grading is given in
Table 7.16.
Table 7.16: Choice of Otta Seal binder in relation to traffic and grading
AADT (vpd) at time Type of Bitumen
of construction Open Grading Medium Grading Dense Grading
> 1000 N/A 150/200 pen. Grade MC 3000
MC 800 in cold weather
100 - 1000 150/200 pen. grade 150/200 pen. Grade MC 3000
In cold weather MC 800 in cold weather
< 100 150/200 pen. grade MC 3000 MC 800
For design purposes, preferred grading in relation to traffic.
Application Rates: The following Application rates for binder and aggregates are
recommended:
 Binder: As a general guide, Table 7.17 gives the hot spray rates for primed base
courses.
2
Table 7.17: Nominal binder application rates for Otta seals (l/m )
Grading
Dense
Type of Otta seal Open
Medium AADT < 100 AADT > 100
Double
st
1 Layer 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.7
nd
2 Layer 1.6 1.4 2.0 1.9
Single with Sand Cover Seal
st
1 Layer 1.7 1.8 2.0 1.9
Fine Sand 0.8 0.7 - 0.9
Crusher Dust/Coarse River Sand 0.9 0.8 - 0.7
Single 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.0
Maintenance Reseal (Single) 1.7 1.8 2.0 1.8
The following points should be noted with regard to the binder application rates:
 Hot spray rates lower than 1.6 l/m should not be allowed.
2
127
 Binder for the sand seal cover seal shall be MC 3000 for crusher dust or coarse river
sand and MC 800 for fine sand.
 Where the aggregate has a water absorbency of more than 2%, the hot spray rate
2
should be increased by 0.3 l/m .
Aggregate: As a general guide, Table 7.18 gives the aggregate application rates for Otta
Seals.
Table 7.18: Nominal Otta seal aggregate application rates

3 2
Aggregate Application Rates (m /m )
Type of Seal
Open Grading Medium Grading Dense Grading
Otta Seals 0.013 – 0.016 0.013 – 0.016 0.016 – 0.020
Sand Cover Seals 0.010 – 0.012
The following points should be noted with regard to the aggregate application rates:
1. Sufficient amounts of aggregate should be applied to ensure that there is some
surplus material during rolling (to prevent aggregate pick-up) and through the initial
curing period of the seal.
2. Aggregate embedment will normally take about 3 – 6 weeks to be achieved where
crushed rock is used, after which any excess aggregate can be swept off. Where
natural gravel is used the initial curing period will be considerably longer (typically 6 –
10 weeks).
7.3 Paving Design Traffic Classes for LVR

Surfacing design is considered separately for Paved roads and Unpaved roads.
For the structural pavement design of paved roads, five traffic classes have been defined as
shown in Table 7.19. If the estimate of cumulative traffic is close to the boundaries of a traffic
class, then the basic traffic data and forecasts should be re-evaluated and sensitivity analyses
carried out to ensure that the choice of traffic class is appropriate. If there is any doubt about
the accuracy of the traffic estimates the next higher traffic class should be selected for the
design.
Table 7.19 : Traffic classes for LVR pavement design
Traffic range LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5/T2(1)

(mesas) < 0.01 0.01 – 0.1 0.1 – 0.3 0.3 – 0.5 0.5 – 1.0
LV5/T2 is the transition traffic zone between low-volume and high-volume roads with the
former traffic class (LV5) applying to the lower boundary of the traffic range and the latter
traffic class (T2) applying to the upper boundary.
Roads expected to carry more than 1.0 mesa during their design life should be designed as
HVR according to the 2006 Pavement Design Manual.
For Unpaved roads (earth and gravel surface), the design is based principally on traffic flow
volumes DC1 to DC4 (See Chapter 1).
7.4 Subgrade
Subgrades are classified in engineering terms on the basis of the laboratory soaked CBR
tests on samples. The structural catalogues given in this manual require that the subgrade
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strength for design be assigned to a strength class reflecting the sensitivity of thickness
design to subgrade strength. The classes are defined in Table 7.20.
Table 7.20 Subgrade classes
Design CBR S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
Range % 3-4 5-8 9 - 14 15 - 29 30+
It is critical that the nominal subgrade strength is available to a reasonable depth in order that
the pavement structure performs satisfactorily. The concept of “material depth” is used to
denote the depth below the finished level of the road to which soil characteristics have a
significant effect on pavement behaviour. In addition, the moisture regime may need to be
controlled by, for example, the provision of adequate subsurface drainage and/or surface
drainage. Below this depth the strength and density of the soils are assumed to have a
negligible effect on the pavement.
Figure 7.21 shows the material depth in relation to the main structural components of the road
pavement, while Table 7.22 specifies typical material depths used for determining the design
CBR of the subgrade for the various road categories.
Figure 7.21 Material depth
Table 7.22 Typical material depth by road category
Road Category Material depth (mm)
1 1000 - 1200
High Volume
2,3 800 - 1000
4 800
Low volume
5 700
It should be clearly understood that the minimum depths indicated in Table 7.22 are not
depths to which re-compaction and reworking is necessarily required. Rather, they are the
depths to which the Engineer should confirm that the nominal subgrade strength is available.
In general, unnecessary working of the subgrade should be avoided and limited to rolling prior
to constructing overlying layers.
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7.5 Design of Engineered Natural Surfaces (ENS)

The following design standards are recommended for Engineered Natural Surfaces (ENS) in
the DC1 design class carrying (AADT) < 25 vpd. Traffic flow volume is the determining design
criteria for this type of road surface. In some circumstances ENS can satisfactorily
accommodate higher traffic flows. The details of the cross-section are given in Chapter 6 but
shown schematically in Figure 7.9 for convenience.
Figure 7.9: Typical Engineered Natural Surface road cross section in flat terrain
1. The side drain may be trapezoidal, V or rectangular (lined) in shape. The edge of
road/shoulder should be at least 30cm above the bed or invert of the side drain, whatever
the side drain cross section shape, or the surrounding ground level. These requirements
do not apply in sandy free-draining soil or expansive soil subgrades.
2. The crown height of the earth road should be at least 35 cm above the bed or invert of the
side drain, whatever the side drain cross section shape, or the ground level.
3. Where the topography allows, wide, shallow trapezoidal side drains for earth roads are
preferred. They minimise erosion risk, and will not block as easily as narrow ditches. The
ditches usually grass over in time, binding the soil surface and further slowing down the
speed of water, both of which act to prevent or reduce erosion.
4. The surface of earth roads should be mechanically graded or manually shaped and
compacted to provide a suitably robust and running surface for traffic and the road
surface should have a minimum camber of 4% to ensure water runs off the surface and
into the side drains.
5. Areas where there are specific problems (usually due to water or to the poor condition of
the subgrade) may be treated in isolation by localised replacement of subgrade,
gravelling or other surface upgrade, installation of culverts, raising the roadway or by
installing other drainage measures. This is the basis of a “spot improvement” approach
6. Water should be drained away from the carriageway side drains by installing lead off
(mitre or turn out) drains, to divert the flow into open space away from the road.
7. These requirements need to be maintained to keep the ENS in a satisfactory serviceable
condition.
Expansive soil formations

For a considerable area of the country (particularly the north east) the in situ surface material
consists of expansive clays. These are extremely problematic as a road formation or running
surface. The soils generally lose most of their traffic bearing strength when wet or soaked.
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Side drains should not be constructed unless they are absolutely essential to stop ponding.
Where side drains are necessary, they should be as shallow as possible and located as far
from the toe of the fill as possible. Vegetation cover should be encouraged in suitable growing
environment to counter erosion tendencies.
Ideally, construction over expansive soil should be done when the in-situ moisture content is
at its highest, i.e. at the end of rainy season.
It is essential to maintain the road surface camber to shed rainwater as quickly as possible
and avoid ponding or standing water in potholes. This maintenance should be achieved
regularly during the rainy season.
Consideration should be given to closing the road with managed barriers during periods of
rain. A maintained camber will quickly dry out and allow vehicle passage within a reasonable
period afterwards without undue damage to the ENS running surface. These are important
political and economic decisions to be shared with the appropriate authorities and
stakeholders.
7.6 Design of Natural Gravel Roads

7.6.1 Overview
Many of the design considerations for ENS apply for Natural Gravel-surfaced roads.
A Natural Gravel surface is often considered as the usual upgrade option for ENS roads
where improvement is justified. However, particular care should be taken in considering this
option.
The following design standards are recommended for Natural Gravel or crushed stone LVR
surfaces carrying up to a maximum traffic flow (AADT) of 200 vpd in the DC1 to DC4 design
classes. Traffic flow volume is the principal determining design criterion for this type of road
surface.
Local environment factors may further restrict the satisfactory use of natural gravel surface for
sections of route that are affected by:
 Longitudinal gradient >6%;
 Annual rainfall >2,000mm;
 Excessive haul distances for initial and maintenance (re-)gravelling;
 Available gravel material does not meet specifications;
 Dust emissions in settlements or adjacent to high value crops;
 Seasonal flooding.
As annual gravel loss rates or costs may be excessive in these cases, other surface options
should be considered.
A gravel road can be considered to consist of a wearing course and a structural layer (base)
which covers the in situ material and provides adequate structural protection for the road
foundation. The wearing course will suffer material losses due to traffic and weather and
should be regularly reshaped and replenished under the maintenance regime to ensure that
the structural gravel layer retains at the minimum design thickness. In practical terms the
wearing and structural layers will usually be of the same material and source and be laid in
accordance with the requirements discussed hereafter.
131
Wearing course gravel material losses can be of the order of 25-50mm/100vpd on flat
sections of route. Higher losses may occur due to factors of rainfall, gradient, poor quality
material, or poor (or lack of) maintenance practices.
For the Gravel Road cross section, the side drain may be trapezoidal, V or rectangular (lined)
in shape. The edge of road/shoulder should be at least 30cm above the bed or invert of the
side drain whatever the side drain cross section shape or the surrounding ground level. These
requirements do not apply in sandy free-draining soil or expansive clay subgrades.
To achieve adequate external drainage, the road must also be raised above the level of
existing ground such that the crown of the road is always maintained at a minimum height
(hmin) above the side drain inverts or adjacent ground level, allowing for the variation in
wearing course thickness. Cross sections are shown in detail in Chapter 6 and shown here
schematically for convenience (Figure 7.10).
Figure 7.10: Typical gravel road cross section in flat terrain

The minimum height (hmin) is dependent on the climate and road design class as shown in
Table 7.23.
Table 7.23: Required minimum height (hmin) between road crown of structural gravel
layer and invert level of side drain or adjacent ground in relation to climate
Climate
Road Class Wet (N < 4) Dry (N > 4)
Hmin (mm) Hmin (mm)
DC1 350 250
DC2 400 300
DC3 450 350
DC4 500 400
Gravel roads passing through settlement areas or with adjacent high value crops in particular
require materials that do not generate excessive dust in dry weather. Consideration should
therefore be given to the type of gravel wearing course material to be used in particular
locations such as towns or settlements, or adjacent to high value crops.
Much of the information presented in this Section of the LVR Manual is based on the
"Pavement and Materials Design Manual" prepared by the United Republic of Tanzania
132
Ministry of Works 1999, and on relevant ERA and TRL publications. Available information has
been modified to provide a simple procedure to design LVR gravel surfaces, which is
appropriate to South Sudanese conditions.
7.6.2 Design principles for gravel roads

The design procedure consists of the following steps:
1. Assess likely Maintenance regime.
2. Traffic (Baseline flow and forecast).
3. Material and geotechnical information (Field survey and material properties).
4. Subgrade (Classification, foundation for expansive soils and material strength).
5. Thickness design (Gravel wearing coarse thickness).
6. Materials design.
It is an essential consideration in the design of gravel roads to ensure all-weather access.
This requirement places particular emphasis on the need for sufficient bearing capacity of the
base structural gravel layer and provision of drainage and sufficient earthworks in flood or
problem soil areas (e.g. over black cotton soils).
Performance characteristics that will assist in identifying suitable material are shown in
Figure.8.1 in Sub-section 8.3.7.
7.6.3 Maintenance
The material requirements for the gravel wearing course include provision of a gravel surface
that is effectively maintainable. Adherence to the limits on oversize particles in the material is
of particular importance in this regard and will sometimes necessitate the use of crushing or
screening equipment or activities during material production.
Regular and timely maintenance of a gravel surface is vital. If this is not arranged or
achieved, then the gravel surfacing will quickly deteriorate and the road will rapidly revert to a
poor standard earth track with an associated loss of considerable investment and access. It is
important to assess the likely maintenance regime for the constructed gravel surface LVR. If
the maintenance authority does not have the arrangements, resources or funds for regular
maintenance, then it is likely that the benefits of the gravel surface investment will not be
sustained and full access will be lost. An initial indicator of maintenance capacity would be to
determine whether more than 50% of the existing gravel surface network under management
is satisfactorily maintained. If it is not, then investment in improved maintenance capacity or
other surface options may be appropriate.
7.6.4 Design method

The required gravel thickness shall be determined as follows:
1. Determine the minimum thickness necessary to avoid excessive compressive strain in
the subgrade (Base Gravel layer thickness and any necessary subgrade improvement:
D1).
2. Determine the extra thickness needed to compensate for the gravel loss under traffic
during the period between re-gravelling maintenance operations (GW: Wearing Gravel
layer thickness: D2).
3. Determine the total gravel thickness required by adding the above two thicknesses (D1+
D2).
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Thickness
GW
D2
Thickness
Base
D1
7.6.5 Minimum thickness required

It is necessary to limit the compressive strain in the subgrade to prevent excessive permanent
deformation at the surface of the road. Figure 7.11 gives the minimum gravel thickness
required for each traffic category with the required thickness of Wearing Gravel Layer – GW
(D2) and Base Gravel layer or improved subgrade materials depending on subgrade strength
category.
Sub AADT
grade < 20 20 - 50 50 - 200
S5/6
CBR 150 mm GW 175 mm GW 200 mm GW
>15
S4
200 mm 150 mm GW 175 mm GW
CBR
8 - 14 GW 150 mm G25 150 mm G25
S3 Dry Zones Wet Zones Dry Zones Wet Zones Dry Zones Wet Zones
CBR mm GW mm GW
mm mm mm GW 150 mm GW 200
5-7
150 G25 200 G25
150 GW 200 200
150 GW 150 G25 150 G25
G15 G15 G15
150 G15 300 150 G15 200 200 G15 250
Figure 7.11: Minimum thickness for surfacing and improved subgrade for gravel Roads
for ADDTs < 200
Notes
Subgrade classifications from Table 8.2
GW = G45 or better in Table 8.1
G15 and G25 defined in Table 8.1
7.6.6 Gravel loss

The GW gravel wearing course material losses will depend on a range of factors as
previously discussed in 7.5.1. It is important to assess the likely annual rate of loss to
determine maintenance liabilities and ensure that adequate arrangements are in place for the
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relatively expensive occasional maintenance re-gravelling. The following provides guidance

on likely surface gravel loss rates for gravel surface material that is within specification and
adequately maintained.
According to TRL Laboratory Report LR 1111, an estimate of the annual average gravel loss
for rolling terrain can be estimated from the following equation:
2 2 2
GL = f.(4.2 + 0.092 T + 3.50 R + 1.88V).T / (T + 50)
Where
GL = the annual gravel loss measured in mm
T = the total traffic volume in the first year in both directions, measured in
thousands of vehicles
R = the average annual rainfall measured in m
V = the total (rise + fall) as a percentage of the length of the road
f = 0.94 to 1.29 for lateritic gravels
= 1.1 to 1.51 for quartizitic gravels
= 0.7 to 0.96 for volcanic gravels (weathered lava or tuff)
= 1.5 for coral gravels
= 1.38 for sandstone gravels
These gravel loss estimates are only indicative, and there is no substitute for analysis of local
gravel road performance/maintenance records to develop realistic estimates of actual gravel
losses in the local environment. Loss rates will be significantly higher on steep grades.
7.6.7 Total thickness required

The wearing course of a new gravel road shall have a total thickness D calculated from:
D = D1 + N.GL
Where D1 is the minimum thickness base thickness from Figure 7.11
N is the period between regravelling operations in years
GL is the annual gravel loss calculated above,
and N.GL is at least the minimum GW thickness from Figure 7.11
Maintenance re-gravelling operations should be programmed to ensure that the actual gravel
thickness never falls below the minimum thickness D1.
7.6.8 Pavement and materials

Experience with local materials
Knowledge of past performance of locally occurring materials for gravel roads is essential.
Material standards may be altered to take advantage of available gravel sources provided
they have proved to give satisfactory performance under similar conditions. See chapter 8
and Appendix C.
Improved subgrade layer

Depending on the characteristics of the subgrade, improved subgrade layers shall be
constructed if required according to Subsection 7.3.2, on which the gravel base and wearing
course are placed according to Figure 7.11.
135
The use of Subgrade Improvement can save on the use of more expensive, high quality
gravel on weaker subgrades. In general the use of improved subgrade layers has the
following advantages:
 Provision of extra protection under heavy axle loads;
 Protection of underlying earthworks;
 Provides running surface for construction traffic;
 Assists compaction of upper pavement layers;
 Can act as a drainage filter layer;
 More economical use of available materials.
Subgrade CBR
All subgrade materials shall normally be brought to a strength of at least a minimum CBR of
7% for minor gravel roads (AADT <50) through Subgrade Improvement, and at least a
minimum CBR 25 % for major gravel roads (AADT >50).
Treatment of expansive soil formations

The treatment operations to be considered on Expansive Formations are outlined in Appendix
D.
7.6.9 Determination of CBRdesign

The CBRdesign is the CBR value of a homogenous section for which the subgrade strength is
classified into S3, S4 or S5 for the purpose of gravel surfacing design. The procedure to
determine CBRdesign is shown in the flow chart in Figure 7.12.
Homogenous sections
Identification of sections deemed to have homogenous subgrade conditions is carried out by
desk studies of appropriate documents such as geological maps, followed by site
reconnaissance that might include excavation of inspection pits and initial indicator testing for
confirmation of the site observations. The identification of localised areas that require
individual treatment is an essential part of the site reconnaissance. Demarcation of
homogenous sections shall be reviewed and changed as required when the CBR test results
of the centre line soil survey are available.
136
Minimum 3
Site Compiliation Demarcation of
CBR tests per
Reconnaissance of input data homogeneous
section
sections
Yes
Yes
Design improved CBR design Use lowest CBR
In Cutting?
subgrade as Classify as value
required S3, S4 or S5/6
No
No
Special Minimum 5
assessment of the CBR tests per
section section
Yes
Determine 90%-ile Plot values in
at the 0.1X(n-1) ascending order
point on the curve
Figure 7.12: Flow chart for gravel surface subgrade design
Statistical analysis
The CBRdesign for cuttings is the lowest CBR value encountered for the homogenous section.
The CBRdesign for sections that do not require special assessment or are not within cuttings
are determined by the 90%-ile value of the CBR test results. The 90%-ile value for a section
of this type is the CBR value which 10% of the test results fall below. The following example
shows how this is calculated.
1. CBR values are plotted in ascending order (number of tests on the "x axis" and the CBR
test result values on the "y axis");
2. Calculate d = 0.1 x (n-1), where n = number of tests;
3. d is measured along the "x axis" and the CBRdesign is determined from the "y axis".
Laboratory testing
Each CBR value shall be determined by laboratory measurement carried out for a minimum of
three density values to give a CBR - Density relationship for the material. The CBR value is
determined at the normal field density specified for the respective operation (i.e. a minimum
in-situ density of 95% of the maximum dry density determined in accordance with the
requirements of AASHTO T180). See Appendix B for further guidance on testing.
7.6.10 Crossfall and drainage

The crossfall of carriageway and shoulders for gravel roads shall be a minimum of 4% as
stipulated in Chapter 6. This is to ensure that potholes do not develop by avoiding standing
137
water and rapidly removing surface water. To ensure that excessive crossfall does not cause
erosion of the surface, the crossfall should not be greater than 6%. Provision and
maintenance of adequate drainage is extremely important for the performance of gravel
roads. The road surface crossfall should be maintained at between 4 and 6% under the
maintenance regime. The drainage system must be maintained to ensure that surface water
is conducted away from the roadway with minimum erosion and siltation risk to the road
infrastructure and adjoining land.
7.7 Structural Design of Paved Roads

The structure of a paved road consists typically of one or more layers of material with different
strength characteristics (Figure 7.13), each layer serving the purpose of distributing the load it
receives at the top over a wider area at the bottom. The layers in the upper part of the
structure are subjected to higher stress levels than those lower down and therefore need to
be constructed from stronger material. The surfacing may be either structural or non-structural
in terms of its contribution to the overall strength of the road pavement.
Surfacing (structural or non-structural)

Base
Pavement Structure
Subbase
Formation
Subgrade
Improved subgrade layer(s), if required
Figure 7.13: Paved road - typical pavement layers
7.7.1 Design methods

There are a number of methods that have been developed for the design of flexible paved
roads ranging from the simple to the complex and based on both mechanistic/analytical and
empirical methods. The purely empirical design methods are limited in their application to
conditions similar to those for which they were developed whilst the mechanistic/analytical
methods require not only a calibration against empirical data but also a considerable amount
of material testing and computational effort and their application to highly variable, naturally
occurring materials which make up the bulk of LVR pavements is questionable. The
pavement design method used in this manual is an empirically-based design method.
The DCP method of materials assessment and pavement design is useful where a basic or
more developed pavement structure is already in place and needs to be enhanced or
upgraded.
7.7.2 Design method for bituminous surfaced roads

Design charts or catalogue methods are the easiest to use because all the practical and
theoretical works have been carried out and different structures are presented in chart form
for various combinations of traffic, environmental effects, pavement materials and design
options.
138
The design method presented in this manual is based on research undertaken in a number of
countries in southern Africa (SADC, 2003). It differs from the traditionally accepted design
criteria applied to the design of heavily trafficked roads in that it recognises the controlling
influence of the road environment on the deterioration of lighter pavement structures. By
incorporating a recognised climatic variable, the N-value (Chapter 4), the geographical
transferability of the research findings can be undertaken with confidence in South Sudan.
The LVR design process for bituminous surfaced roads is outlined in the flow chart presented
in Figure 7.14. This process indicates the sequence of steps that are required to produce a
pavement design that is appropriate and adequate for an individual road.
Subgrade Evaluation
Sections 4.4 & 10.6
Traffic
Section 6.2
Pavement Materials
Section 8.3
Geo-climatic Factor Geo-climatic Factor

N<4 N>4
Sealed Width Sealed Width 8m (or Sealed Width Sealed Width 8m (or
< 7m 7m on embankments < 7m 7m on embankments
> 1.2m in height) > 1.2m in height)
Design Chart 1 Design Chart 2 Design Chart 1 Design Chart 2
Materials Materials relaxation: Materials relaxation: Materials relaxation:

relaxation: Increase limit on Increase limit on Increase limits on
None allowed PM by 20% PM by 40% PM by 40%
PI by 3 units
Figure 7.14: Flow chart for bituminous surfaced road pavement design process
Climate:
The design method utilises two design charts each applicable to a different climatic zone
characterised by the Weinert N-values (Chapter 4) and the shoulder and drainage design
adopted.
Approximate N-values for South Sudan are shown in Chapter 4, Table 4.2 and provides the
means of placing the road in the appropriate climatic zone for design purposes. The two
design charts are presented in Section 7.6: Design Standards, and offer a total of sixty
different pavement structures depending on traffic and subgrade class.
139
Traffic and environmental effects:

For a correctly constructed pavement carrying low levels of traffic, there is a low risk of a
pavement failure being induced by traffic, and deterioration is controlled mainly by
environmental factors. However, as the traffic levels increase, the specification for roadbases
should approach those of traffic design charts for high volume roads presented in ORN 31
(TRL, 1997). Experience suggests that the transition from low-volume to high-volume roads is
typically in the 1.0 Mesa range.
Sealed width:
When the total sealed width is 7 metres or less, the outer wheel-track of normal motor traffic
is within one metre of the edge of the seal. This affects pavement performance adversely
because of seasonal moisture ingress. Therefore, relatively stronger pavements are
necessary in these situations. If the road width is sufficient for the outer wheel to be more
than 1.5 metres from the pavement edge, and good drainage is ensured by maintaining the
crown height at least 750mm above the ditch invert, an improvement in pavement
performance occurs.
This is reflected in the catalogues where different sealed surface widths are treated
separately. Thus a wider sealed cross-section in climatic zones where N<4 (a relatively wet
environment) allows a shift from Catalogue 1 (N<4) to Catalogue 2 (N>4). This allows the use
of thinner pavement layers and a relaxation of the quality requirements for the base.
When a road is on an embankment of more than 1.2 m in height, the material in the roadbase
and sub-base stays relatively dry, even in the wet season. In this case, the design category
can be relaxed, and a pavement with a 7 m total sealed width can be designed to the same
criteria as for an 8 m seal.
7.7.3 Use of the design charts

For guidance, the following design options are used in the catalogues related to the design
traffic class shown in Table 7.19:
Climatic zones N < 4

1. Where the total sealed surface is 8 m or less, use Pavement Design Chart 1 (Table
7.24. No roadbase materials adjustments are allowed.
2. Where the total sealed surface is 8 m or more, use Pavement Design Chart 2 (Table
7.25). The limit on the plasticity modulus of the roadbase may be increased by 20 per
cent.
3. Where the total sealed surface is less than 8m but the pavement is on an
embankment in excess of 1.2 m in height, use Pavement Design Chart 2 (Table
7.25). The limit on the plasticity modulus of the roadbase may be increased by 20 per
cent.
4. If the Engineer deems that other risk factors (e.g. poor maintenance and/or
construction quality) are too high, then Pavement Design Chart 1 should be used.
Climatic zones N > 4

Use Pavement Design Chart 2 (Table 7.25).
1. Where the total sealed surface is less than 8 metres, the limit on the plasticity
modulus of the roadbase may be increased by 40%.
140
2. Where the total sealed surface is over 8 metres and when the pavement is on an
embankment in excess of 1.2 metres in height, the plasticity modulus of the road
base may be increased by up to 40% and the plasticity index by 3 units.
The design flow chart in Figure 7.14 should be used iteratively depending on conditions on
the individual project as in the following example:
Once the quality of the available materials and haul distances are known, the flow chart and
the design charts can be used to review the most economical cross-section and pavement;
this involves assessment of design traffic class, design period, cross-section and other
environmental and design considerations. It may be more economical to use a wider cross-
section in the seasonal tropical and wet climate zone, and then shift to Design Chart 2 than to
design a narrow cross-section and a pavement using Design Chart 1, however the minimum
width of carriageway and shoulders is controlled by the geometric standards adopted and this
depends on traffic volume and composition.
The design charts do not cater for weak subgrades (CBR < 3%) and other problems soils.
Design guidance for these conditions is given in Section 7.4.
Reducing risks in special cases:

When the project is located close to the border between the two climatic zones, the lower N-
value should be used to reduce risks. When close to the borderline between two traffic design
classes, and in the absence of more reliable data, the next highest design class should be
used.
Table 7.24: Bituminous pavement design chart 1 (mm)
Traffic range (mesas) LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5
Subgrade class < 0.01 0.01 – 0.1 0.1 – 0.3 0.3 – 0.5 0.5 – 1.0
(CBR)
150 G65 150 G65 150 G65 175 G80 200 G80
S2 (3-4%) 150 G15 125 G30 150 G30 175 G30 175 G30
130 G15 175 G15 175 G15 200 G15
125 G65 150 G65 150 G65 175 G65 200 G80
S3 (5-7%) 150 G15 100 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30
100 G15 150 G15 150 G15 150 G15
175 G45 150 G65 150 G65 175 G65 200 G80
S4 (8-14%)
120 G30 200 G30 200 G30 200 G30
175 G45 125 G65 175 G65 175 G65 175 G80
S5 (15-29%)
125 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30
S6 (>30%) 150 G45 150 G65 175 G65 175 G65 200 G80
141
Table 7.25: Bituminous pavement design chart 2 (mm)
Subgrade class < 0.01 0.01 – 0.1 0.1 – 0.3 0.3 – 0.5 0.5 – 1.0
(CBR)
150 G45 150 G65 150 G80 175 G80 200 G80
S2 (3-4%) 150 G15 120 G30 150 G30 150 G30 175 G30
120 G15 150 G15 150 G15 175 G15
125 G45 150 G55 175 G65 200 G65 200 G65
S3 (5-7%)
125 G15 150 G30 175 G30 200 G30 250 G30
150 G45 150 G45 150 G55 175 G55 175 G65
S4 (8-14%)
100 G30 150 G30 175 G30 200 G30
S5 (15-29%) 150 G45 175 G55 175 G55 175 G55 175 G65
S6 (>30%) 150 G45 150 G45 150 G55 150 G55 175 G65
7.7.4 Non bituminous surfaced roads

Table 7.26 lists the non-bituminous pavement (NBP) options with their respective design
charts.
Table 7.26: Non-bituminous pavement surfacing options
NBP Option Code Ref. Table
Water-bound and Dry-bound Macadams WBM and DBM 7.28

Hand-Packed Stone HPS 7.29
Stone Setts or Pavé SSP and MSSP 7.30
Cobblestone / Dressed Stone CS, DS & MCS, MDS 7.30
Fired Clay Brick CB, MCB 7.30
Non-reinforced Concrete NRC 7.31
In Tables 7.28 to 7.31, unbound gravel material is assumed to be used for layers. In many
cases the specifications for the strength of these materials is flexible and, depending on the
materials available, substitutions can be made. It is indicated in the Tables where
substitutions are allowed and where they are restricted. Table 7.27 defines the allowable
substitutions. Table 7.27 is used by simply taking the ratio of thicknesses of the material to be
used and the material designated in the thickness designs in Tables 7.28 to 7.31 and scaling
the thickness given in the Tables appropriately. For example, if the thickness of a G45
material is given as 150mm in the Tables and a G80 material was more readily available the
thickness required becomes:
150 x 65/80 = 122mm
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Table 7.27: Substitution of pavement layer material
Material Material CBR Required thickness

Designation (%) (mm)
G15 15 100
G30 30 90
G45 45 80
G65 65 70
G80 80 65
Water-bound and Dry-bound Macadam (WBM and DBM)

For the introduction to Water and Dry Bound Macadam, refer to Sub section 7.1.3. The WBM
or DBM may be constructed as a low cost, initial surface to be later sealed and upgraded in a
‘stage construction’ strategy.
WBM or DBM is suitable for labour based construction and should provide a relatively high
quality surface layer similar to a good quality natural gravel surface. However, like gravel, it is
worn away by traffic and rainfall and therefore requires similar levels of maintenance.
The structural designs for WBM and DBM are as shown in Table 7.28 with the WBM or DBM
itself acting as the wearing course. A capping layers and a sub-base are required as indicated
but thicknesses can be reduced if stronger material is available.
Table 7.28: Thickness designs for WBM and DBM pavements (mm)
Subgrade class
< 0.01 0.01 – 0.1 0.1 – 0.3 0.3 – 0.5 0.5 – 1.0
(CBR)
150 WBM 150 WBM 150 WBM

S2 (3-4%) 150 G30 150 G30 175 G20 NA NA
150 G15 200 G15
150 WBM 150 WBM 150 WBM
S3 (5-7%) 125 G30 125 G30 150 G30 NA NA
100 G15 150 G15
150 WBM 150 WBM 150 WBM
S4 (8-14%) NA NA
100 G30 150 G30 200 G30
150 WBM 150 WBM 150 WBM
S5 (15-29%) NA NA
NOTE NOTE NOTE
150 WBM 150 WBM 150 WBM
S6 (>30%) NA NA
NOTE NOTE NOTE
Notes:
1. The capping layer of G15 material and the sub-base layer of G30 material can be reduced in
thickness if stronger material is available (Table 7.27)
2. On subgrade > 15%, the material should be scarified and re-compacted to ensure the depth of
material of in situ CBR >15% is in agreement with the recommendations in Table 7.22
143
Hand-packed stone (HPS)

For the introduction to Hand Packed Stone, refer to Sub section 7.1.3.
Hand Packed Stone is a proven labour based technique. The Hand Packed Stone is normally
bedded on a thin layer of sand or gravel.
For use by heavy traffic, the layer should be compacted with a vibrating or heavy non-
vibrating roller. An edge restraint or kerb constructed of large or mortar jointed stones
improves durability and lateral stability.
A degree of interlock is achieved and has been assumed in the designs shown in Table 7.29.
The structures also require a capping layer when the subgrade is weak and a conventional
sub-base of G30 material or stronger.
Table 7.29: Thicknesses designs for Hand Packed Stone (HPS) pavement (mm)
Subgrade class < 0.01 0.01 – 0.1 0.1 – 0.3 0.3 – 0.5 0.5 – 1.0
(CBR)
150 HPS 200 HPS 200 HPS 250 HPS
50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL
S2 (3-4%) NA
175 G30 125 G30 150 G30 150 G30
150 G15 200 G15 200 G15
150 HPS 200 HPS 200HPS 250 HPS
50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL
S3 (5-7%) NA
125 G30 200 G30 150 G30 150 G30
150 G15 150 G15
150 HPS 200 HPS 200 HPS 250 HPS
S4 (8-14%) 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 30 SBL NA
100 G30 150 G30 200 G30 200 G30
150 HPS 200 HPS 200 HPS 250 HPS
S5 (15-29%) 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL NA
NOTE NOTE NOTE NOTE
150 HPS 200 HPS 200 HPS 250 HPS
S6 (>30%) 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL NA
NOTE NOTE NOTE NOTE
Notes:
thickness if stronger material is available (Table 7.27)
2. On subgrade > 15%, the material should be scarified and re-compacted to ensure the depth of
material of in situ CBR >15% is in agreement with the recommendations in Table 7.22.
Stone sett or pavé pavements (SSP or MSSP).

Stone sett surfacing or Pavé consists of a layer of roughly cubic (100mm) stone setts laid on a
bed of sand or fine aggregate within mortared stone or concrete edge restraints. The
individual stones should have at least one face that is fairly smooth to be the upper or surface
face when placed. Each stone sett is adjusted with a small (mason’s) hammer and then
tapped into position to the level of the surrounding stones. Sand or fine aggregate is brushed
144
into the spaces between the stones and the layer is then compacted with a roller or plate
compactor. Suitable structural designs are shown in Table 7.30.
Table 7.30 Thicknesses designs for various discrete element surfacings (mm)
Traffic range LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5
(mesas)
Subgrade class < 0.01 0.01 – 0.1 0.1 – 0.3 0.3 – 0.5 0.5 – 1.0
(CBR)
100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP
25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL
S2 (3-4%) 100 G65 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80
100 G30 150 G30 150 G30 175 G30 200 G30
100 G15 175 G15 175 G15 200 G15 200 G15
S3 (5-7%) 125 G65 125 G80 125 G80 150 G80 150 G80
100 G30 125 G30 125 G30 150 G30 175 G30
150 G15 150 G15 150 G15 175 G15
S4 (8-14%)
150 G65 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80 175 G80
150 G30 200 G30 200 G30 225 G30
S5 (15-29%)
125 G65 125 G80 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80
125 G30 125 G30 125 G30 150 G30
S6 (>30%)
125 G65 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80 175 G80
NOTE NOTE NOTE NOTE NOTE
Notes:
thickness if stronger material is available
2. The capping layer can be G10 provided it is laid 7% thicker
3. The roadbase layers (G65 and G80) must not be weaker
4. The sub-base layers can be material stronger than G30 and laid to reduced thickness; Table 7.27
5. On subgrades > 15%, the material should be scarified and re-compacted to ensure the depth of
Cobblestone or dressed stone pavement (CS, DS, MCS or MDS)

Cobble or Dressed Stone surfacing consists of a layer of roughly rectangular dressed stone
laid on a bed of sand or fine aggregate within mortared stone or concrete edge restraints. The
individual stones should have at least one face that is fairly smooth, to be the upper or surface
face when placed. Each stone is adjusted with a small (mason’s) hammer and then tapped
into position to the level of the surrounding stones. Sand or fine aggregates is brushed into
the spaces between the stones and the layer then compacted with a roller or plate compacter.
Cobble stones are generally 150 mm thick and dressed stones generally 150-200mm thick.
These options are suited to homogeneous rock types that have inherent orthogonal stress
patterns (such as granite) that allow for easy break of the fresh rock into the required shapes
by labour based means. The thickness designs are given in Table 7.30 except that the
thickness of the cobblestone is generally 150mm instead of 100mm shown in the Table.
145
Fired clay brick pavement

Fired Clay Bricks are the product of firing moulded blocks of clay. The surfacing consists of a
layer of edge-on engineering quality bricks within mortar bedded and jointed edge restraints,
or kerbs, on each side of the pavement. The thickness designs are as shown in Table 7.30 for
LV1 and LV2. Fired clay brick surfacings are not suitable for traffic classes above LV2.
Mortared options
In some circumstances (e.g. on slopes in high rainfall areas and volume susceptible
subgrade) it may be advantageous to use mortared options. This can be done with Hand-
packed Stone, Stone Setts (or Pavé), Cobblestone (or Dressed Stone), and Fired Clay Brick
pavements. The construction procedure is largely the same as for the un-mortared options
except that cement mortar is used instead of sand for bedding and joint filling. The behaviour
of mortared pavements is different to that of sand-bedded pavements and is more analogous
to a rigid pavement than a flexible one. There is, however, little formal guidance on mortared
option, although empirical evidence indicates that inter-block cracking may occur. For this
reason the option is currently only recommended for the lightest traffic divisions up to LV2
(Table 7.30) until further locally relevant evidence is available.
Non reinforced concrete (NRC)
The non-reinforced cement concrete option for LVRs involves casting slabs of 4.0 to 5.0
metres in length between formwork with load transfer dowels between them. In some cases,
where continuity of traffic demands it, these slabs may be half carriageway width. The
thickness designs are given in Table 7.31 The end slab panels of a section of NRC paving
should be increased in thickness by 50mm or lightly reinforced with a steel grid to counteract
the wheel impact loading as traffic moves onto the end slab from adjacent surfacing.
Table 7.31 Thicknesses designs (mm) - Non-Reinforced Concrete Pavement (NRC)
Subgrade class < 0.01 0.01 – 0.1 0.1 – 0.3 0.3 – 0.5 0.5 – 1.0
(CBR)
160 NRC 170 NRC 175 NRC 180 NRC 190 NRC
S2 (3-4%)
150 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30
S3 (5-7%)
125 G30 125 G30 125 G30 125 G30 125 G30
S4 (8-14%)
100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30
S5 (15-29%)
100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30
S6 (>30%) 150 NRC 150 NRC 160 NRC 170 NRC 180 NRC
Notes:
1. Cube strength = 30 MPa at 28 days.
2. On subgrades > 30%, the material should be scarified and re-compacted to ensure the depth of
Other options
Reinforced Concrete Paving (RCP) is unlikely to be economic for LVR application in South
Sudan. There are other surfacing and paving options that may be appropriate for application
in South Sudan. These could be considered after the necessary investigation and trialling in
local conditions.
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7.8 Pavement Drainage and Shoulders

Moisture is the single most important factor affecting pavement performance and long-term
maintenance costs. Thus one of the significant challenges faced by the designer is to provide
a pavement structure in which the detrimental effects of moisture are contained to acceptable
limits in relation to the traffic loading, nature of the materials being used, construction and
maintenance provisions and degree of acceptable risk. This challenge is accentuated by the
fact that most low volume roads will be constructed from natural, often unprocessed,
materials which tend to be moisture sensitive. This places extra emphasis on drainage and
moisture control for achieving satisfactory pavement life. Two inter-related aspects of
drainage need to be considered during road design, namely internal and external drainage.
This section focuses on internal drainage only which is concerned with water that enters the
road structure directly from above the road pavement or directly from below and the
measures that can be adopted to avoid trapping water within the pavement structure. External
drainage which seeks to control water before it enters the pavement structure is discussed in
Chapter 9: Drainage.
7.8.1 Sources of moisture entry into a pavement

The various causes of water ingress to, and egress from, a pavement are listed in Table 8.30
and discussed in this Section.
Table 7.32: Typical causes of water ingress to, and egress from a road pavement
Means of Water
Causes
Ingress
Through the pavement through cracks due to pavement failure

surface penetration through intact layers
artesian head in the subgrade
From the subgrade pumping action at formation level
capillary action in the sub-base
seepage from higher ground, particularly in cuttings
reverse falls at formation level
From the road margins lateral/median drain surcharging
capillary action in the sub-base
through an unsealed shoulder collecting pavement and ground run-off
Through hydrogenesis condensation and collection of water from vapour phase onto underside of
(aerial well effect) an impermeable surface
Means of Water Egress Causes

Through the pavement
through cracks under pumping action through the intact surfacing
surface
soakaway action
Into the subgrade
subgrade suction
into lateral/median drains under gravitational flow in the sub-base
To the road margins
into positive drains through cross-drains acting as collectors
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7.8.2 Permeability
Permeability is a measure of the ease with which water passes through a material and is one
of the key material parameters affecting drainage. Moisture ingress to, or egress from, a
pavement will be influenced by the permeability of the pavement, subgrade and surrounding
materials. The relative permeability of adjacent materials may also govern moisture
conditions. A significant decrease in permeability with depth or across boundaries between
materials (i.e. permeability inversion) can lead to saturation of the materials in the vicinity of
the inversion. Typical permeability values for saturated soils are presented in Table 7.31.
Table 7.33: Typical material permeabilities (Lay, 1998)
Material Permeability Description
Gap-graded crushed rock > 30 mm/s
Gravel > 10 mm/s Free draining
Coarse sand > 1 mm/s
Medium sand 1 mm/s

Permeable
Fine sand 10 µm/s
Sandy loam 1 µm/s

Practically impermeable
Silt 100 nm/s
Clay 10 nm/s
Impermeable
(1)
Bituminous surfacing 1 nm/s
Note:
(1) Applies to well-maintained double chip seal. Thicker asphalt layers can exhibit significant
permeability as a result of a linking of air voids. Permeability increases as the void content of the
mix increases, with typical values ranging from 300 µm/s at 2% air voids to 30 µm/s at 12% air
voids. Typically, a 1% increase in air voids content will result in a three-fold increase in
permeability (Waters, 1982).
7.8.3 Achieving effective internal drainage

The following guidance is provided for achieving effective internal drainage of the road
structure.
Side drainage and crown height above drain invert:

Side drainage is one of the most significant factors affecting pavement performance. The
“drainage factor” is the product of the height of the crown of the road above the bottom of the
ditch (h) and the horizontal distance from the centreline of the road to the bottom of the ditch
(d) and can be used to classify the type of drainage prevailing at the road site. This
classification of road drainage is shown in Table 7.34.
Implied in the Table is the critical nature of the crown height which correlates well with the
actual service life of pavements constructed from natural gravels. A minimum value, h, of
0.75m is recommended.
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Table 7.34: Classification of road drainage

Drainage Factor
DF = d x h Classification
< 2.5 Very poor
2.6 – 5.0 Poor
5.1 – 7.5 Moderate
> 7.5 or free draining Good

Note
1. Classification can move up one class if longitudinal gradient > 1%
Irrespective of climatic region, if the site has effective side drains and adequate crown height,
then the in-situ subgrade strength stays above the design value. If the drainage is poor, the
in-situ strengths will fall to below the design value.
Drainage within pavement layers: Drainage within the pavement layers themselves is an
essential element of structural design because the strength of the subgrade in service
depends critically on the moisture content during the most likely adverse conditions. Since it is
impossible to guarantee that road surfaces will remain waterproof throughout their lives, it is
critical to ensure that water is able to drain away quickly from within the pavement. This can
be achieved by a number of measures as discussed below.
Avoiding permeability inversion: A permeability inversion exists when the permeability of
the pavement and subgrade layers decreases with depth. Under infiltration of rainwater, there
is potential for moisture accumulation at the interface of the layers. The creation of a perched
water table could lead to shoulder saturation and rapid lateral wetting under the seal may
occur. This may lead to base or sub-base saturation in the outer wheel track and result in
catastrophic failure of the base layer when trafficked. A permeability inversion often occurs at
the interface between sub-base and subgrade since many subgrades are cohesive fine-
grained materials. Under these circumstances, a more conservative design approach is
required that specifically caters for these conditions.
In view of the foregoing, it is desirable for good internal drainage that permeability inversion
does not occur. This is achieved by ensuring that the permeability of the pavement and
subgrade layers are at least equal or are increasing with depth. For example, the permeability
of the base must be less than or equal to the permeability of the sub-base in a three layered
system.
Where permeability inversion is unavoidable, the road shoulder should be sealed to an
appropriate width to ensure that a lateral wetting front does not extend under the outer wheel
track of the pavement.
Ensuring proper shoulder design: When permeable roadbase materials are used,
particular attention must be given to the drainage of this layer. Ideally, the roadbase and sub-
base should extend right across the shoulders to the drainage ditches. In addition, proper
crossfall is needed to assist the shedding of water into the side drains. A suitable value for
paved roads is about 2.5 to 3% for the carriageway, with a slope of about 4-6% for the
shoulders.
Increased crossfalls of 4-6%, are required for unpaved roads (earth and gravel).
Lateral drainage can also be encouraged by constructing the pavement layers with an
exaggerated crossfall, especially where a permeability inversion occurs. This can be achieved
by constructing the top of the sub-base with a crossfall of 3-4% and the top of the subgrade
149
with a crossfall of 4-5%. Although this is not an efficient way to drain the pavement it is
relatively inexpensive and therefore worthwhile of consideration, particularly as full under
pavement drainage is rarely likely to be economically justified for LVRs. Figure 7.15 illustrates
the recommended drainage arrangements for a paved LVR.
Figure 7.15: Recommended pavement drainage arrangements
If it is too costly to extend the roadbase and sub-base material across the shoulder, drainage
channels or ‘grips’ at 3m to 5m intervals should be cut through the shoulder to a depth of
50mm below sub-base level. These channels should be back-filled with material of roadbase
quality but which is more permeable than the roadbase itself, and should be given a fall of 1 in
10 to the side ditch. Alternatively, a preferable option would be to provide a continuous layer
of pervious material of 75mm to 100mm thickness laid under the shoulder such that the
bottom of the drainage layer is at the level of the top of the sub-base. The purpose of such
measures should be clearly stated on construction drawings.
Sealing of shoulders: It is generally recommended that, wherever possible for South Sudan,
shoulders of paved roads should be sealed, for the following reasons:
 They provide better support and moisture protection for the pavement layers and also
reduces erosion of the shoulders (especially on steep gradients);
 They improve pavement performance by ensuring that the zone of seasonal moisture
variation does not penetrate to under the outer wheel track (see Figure 7.16);
 They reduce maintenance costs by avoiding the need for reshaping and re-gravelling
at regular intervals;
 They reduce the risk of road accidents, especially where the edge drop between the
shoulder and the pavement is significant or the shoulders are relatively soft.
For the above reasons, it is generally the case that if it is economically justifiable to pave a
road then it is very likely that it will also be economically justifiable to provide paved rather
than unpaved shoulders. This should be undertaken as part of the design consideration of the
pavement cross-section.
Unsealed shoulders: A common problem associated with the use of unsealed shoulders is
water infiltration into the roadbase and sub-base for a number of reasons, which are
illustrated in Figure 7.17 and include:
 Rutting adjacent to the sealed surface;
 Build-up of deposits of grass and debris;
150
 Poor joint between the base and shoulder (common when a paved shoulder has been
added after initial construction).
Figure 7.16 Typical drainage deficiencies associated with pavement shoulder

construction (adapted from Birgisson and Ruth, 2003)
Avoiding ‘trench’ construction: Under no circumstances should the trench (or boxed in)
type of cross section be used in which the pavement layers are confined between continuous
impervious shoulders. This type of construction has the undesirable feature of trapping water
at the pavement/shoulder interface and inhibiting flow into drainage ditches which, in turn,
facilitates damage to the pavement and shoulders under even light trafficking. This ancient
type of road construction is totally unsuited to modern traffic loading. “Boxed” construction is
a common cause of road failure due to the reduction in strength and stiffness of the pavement
material and the subgrade below that required to sustain the traffic loading.
Adopting an appropriate pavement cross-section: In terms of pavement cross-section, the
two moisture zones in the pavement which are of critical significance are the equilibrium zone
and the zone of seasonal moisture variation (see Figure 7.17: Right with a sealed shoulder;
left with an unsealed shoulder).
151
Figure 7.17: Moisture zones in a typical paved LVR
From extensive research work carried out in a number of tropical regions of the world (e.g.
Morris and Gray, 1976; Gourley and Greening, 1999), it has been found that:
1. In sealed pavements over a deep water table, moisture contents in the equilibrium zone
normally reach an equilibrium value after about two years from construction and remain
sensibly constant thereafter.
2. In the zone of seasonal variation, the pavement moisture does not reach an equilibrium
and fluctuates with variation in rainfall. Generally, this zone is wetter than the equilibrium
zone in the rainy season and it is drier in the dry season. Thus, the edge of the pavement
is of extreme importance to ultimate pavement performance, with or without paved
shoulders, and is the most failure-prone region of a pavement when moisture conditions
are relatively severe.
In order to ensure that the moisture and strength conditions under the outer wheel track will
remain fairly stable and largely independent of seasonal variations, the shoulders should be
sealed to a width of between about 1.0 and 1.2 m from the edge of the carriageway.
Adopting a holistic and integrated approach: The foregoing highlighted pavement
drainage measures are all aimed at:
 Preventing water from entering the pavement in the first place;
 Facilitating its outflow as quickly as is reasonable, given the cost implications;
 Ensuring that the presence of water in the road for an extended period of time does
not cause failures.
It should be appreciated, however, that the adoption of any single measure on its own is
unlikely to be as effective as the adoption of a judicious mixture of a number of
complementary measures applied simultaneously. Such an approach forms part of the
philosophy of minimising the risks associated with using locally occurring natural materials in
the pavements of LVRs.
References
Birgisson B, and Byron R, 2003. Improving performance through consideration of terrain
conditions: soils, drainage, and climate. Transportation Research Record. Washington.
Botswana MOWTC, 1999. The design, construction and maintenance of Otta seals. Ministry
of Works, Transport and Communication.
152
Gourley, C.S. and P.A.K. Greening. 1999. Performance of low-volume sealed roads: Results
and recommendations from studies in Southern Africa. TRL Published Report
PR/OSC/167/99. Crowthorne.
Jones, T E, 1984. The Kenya maintenance study on unpaved roads: research on
deterioration TRL Report LR 1111
Ministry of Works, Tanzania, 1999. Pavement and materials design manual.
Morris, P.O. and W.J. Gray. 1976. Moisture conditions under roads in the Australian
environment. Australian Road Research Board. Research Report, ARR No. 69.
Rolt J, Gourley C S, Hayes J P. 2002. Rational drainage of road pavements. TRL Report
PR/INT/244/2002
TRL. 1997. Overseas Road Note 31. A Guide to the structural design of bitumen-surfaced
roads in tropical and sub-tropical climates. Crowthorne. HMSO, London.
Weinert H. H. 1974. A Climatic Index of weathering and its application to road construction.
Geotechnique, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp 475-488.
153
8 Construction Materials
8.1 Introduction
As indicated in Chapter 4 construction materials are a key element of the LVR road
environment and their identification and characterisation are vital factors in the development
of appropriate road LVR designs.
Sources of appropriate road-building materials have to be identified within an economic
haulage distance and they must be available in sufficient quantity and of sufficient quality for
the purposes intended. Previous experience in the area may assist with this but additional
survey is usually essential.
Two of the most common reasons for construction costs to escalate, once construction has
started and material sources fully explored, are that the materials are found to be deficient in
quality or quantity. This leads to expensive delays whilst new sources are investigated or the
road is redesigned to take account of the actual materials available.
8.2 The Use of Locally Available Materials

The maximum use of naturally occurring unprocessed materials is a central pillar of the LVR
design philosophy. Current specifications tend to exclude the use of many naturally occurring,
unprocessed materials (natural soils, gravel-soil mixtures and gravels) in pavement layers in
favour of more expensive crushed rock, because they often do not comply with traditional
requirements. However, recent research work has shown quite clearly that so-called “non-
standard” materials can often be used successfully and cost-effectively in LVR pavements
provided appropriate precautions are observed.
The adoption of this approach provides the scope to consider a reduction in specification
standard when considering particular material types within defined environments.
Recognising the material’s “fitness for purpose” is central to assessing the appropriate use of
non-standard materials. However, the use of such materials requires a sound knowledge of
their properties and behaviour in the prevailing environment.
A key objective in sustainable rural road construction is to best match the available
construction material to the road task and the local environment. The benefits of utilising
locally available materials arise from: a reduction in haulage costs; less damage to existing
pavements from extended haul; stimulation of the local economy and local enterprise; road
designs compatible with local maintenance capabilities and, generally, reduced whole life
costs.
When reserves are limited or of marginal quality, their relevant usage is a priority and it is
important to use materials to ensure that they are neither sub-standard nor wastefully above
the standards demanded by their engineering task. Hence the necessity of deriving locally
relevant specifications and either adapting designs or modifying materials to suit. Further
guidance on the use of marginal materials is contained in Appendix C to this document.
If the project is in an area where good quality construction materials are scarce or
unavailable, consideration should be given to:
 Modifying the design requirements;
 Modifying the material (eg mechanical or chemical stabilisation);
 Material processing (eg crushing, screening, blending);
 Innovative use of non-standard materials (particularly important for low traffic roads.
154
8.3 Construction Material Requirements

8.3.1 General material types
The material code and outline characteristics of the material types for both paved and
unpaved LVRs that are used in the Catalogues of Designs adopted in the manual are
described in Chapter 7.
Table 8.1 Pavement material types and abbreviated nominal specifications
Code Material Abbreviated Specifications
Min. CBR: 80% @ 98/100% AASHTO T180 and 4 days soaking

Max. Swell: 0.2%
G80 Natural gravel
Max. Size and grading: Max size 37.5mm, grading as
specified. PI: < 6 or as otherwise specified (material specific).
Max. Swell: 0.2%
G65 Natural gravel
Max. Size and grading: Max size 37.5mm, grading as specified
PI: < 6 or as otherwise specified (material specific)
Max. Swell: 0.2%
G55 Natural gravel
Max. Swell: 0.2%
G45 Natural gravel
Min. CBR: 30% @ 95/97% AASHTO T180 & highest anticipated
moisture content
G30 Natural gravel Max. Swell: 1.0% 1.5% @ 100% AASHTO T180
Max. Size and grading: Max size 63mm or 2/3 layer thickness
moisture content
G25 Natural gravel Max. Swell: 1.0% @ 100% AASHTO T180
Max. Size and grading: Max sixe 63mm or 2/3 layer
thickness. PI: <12 or as otherwise specified (material
specific)
moisture content
G15 Gravel/soil Max. Swell: 1.5% @ 100% AASHTO T180
Max. Size: 2/3 of layer thickness
PI: < 12 or 3GM + 10 or as otherwise specified (material specific)
moisture content
Max. Swell: 1.5% @ 100% AASHTO T180
G7 Gravel/soil Max. Size: 2/3 layer thickness
PI: < 12 or 3GM + 10 or as otherwise specified (material specific)
moisture content
Max. Swell: N/A
G3 Gravel/soil
Max. Size: 2/3 layer thickness
Road construction materials required may be summarised as:

 Common embankment fill;
 Capping layer / imported subgrade;
 Sub-base and road-base aggregate;
155
 Road surfacing aggregate;

 Paving stone (eg for cobblestone pavements);
 Aggregates for structural concrete;
 Filter/drainage material;
 Special requirements (eg rock-fill for gabion baskets).
8.3.2 Common embankment fill

In general, location and selection of fill material for low volume roads poses few problems.
Exceptions include organic soils and clays with high liquid limit and plasticity. Problems may
also exist in lacustrine and flood plain deposits where very fine materials are abundant.
Where possible, fill should be taken from within the road alignment (balanced cut-fill
operations) or by excavation of the side drains (exception in areas of expansive soils). Borrow
pits producing fills should be avoided as far as possible and special consideration should be
given to the impacts of winning fill in agriculturally productive areas where land expropriation
costs can be high.
8.3.3 Subgrade and improved subgrade

The subgrade can be made of the same material as any fill. Where in-situ and alignment soils
are weak or problematic, import of improved subgrade may be necessary. As far as possible
the requirement to import material from borrow areas should be avoided due to the additional
haulage costs. However, import of strong (CBR>9) subgrade materials can provide
economies with regard to the pavement thickness design. Where improvement is necessary
or unavoidable, mechanical and chemical stabilisation methods can be considered.
Subgrades are classified on the basis of the laboratory soaked CBR tests on samples
compacted to 97% AASHTO T180 compaction. Samples are soaked for four days or until
zero swell is recorded. The subgrade strength for design is assigned to one of six strength
classes reflecting the sensitivity of thickness design to subgrade strength. The classes are
defined in Table.8.1.
Table 8.2: Subgrade classes
Design CBR class S2 S3 S4 S5 S6

CBR range (%) 3-4 5-7 8 - 14 15 - 29 30+
No allowance for CBRs below 3% has been made because, from both a technical and
economic perspective, it would normally be inappropriate to lay a pavement on soils of such
poor bearing capacity. For such materials, special treatment is required.
The use of Class S2 soils as direct support for the pavement should be avoided as much as
possible. Wherever practicable, such relatively poor soils should be excavated and replaced,
or covered with an improved subgrade.
There are many advantages to improving the CBR strength of the in situ subgrade to a
minimum of 15% (Subgrade Class S5) by constructing one or more improved layers where
necessary. In principle, where a sufficient thickness of improved subgrade is placed, the
overall subgrade bearing strength is increased to that of a higher class and the sub-base
thickness may be reduced accordingly. This is often an economic advantage as sub-base
quality materials are generally more expensive than fill materials, hence the decision whether
or not to consider the use of an improved subgrade layer(s) will generally depend on the
respective costs of sub-base and improved subgrade materials.
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8.3.4 Roadbase and sub-base

Where possible, naturally occurring unprocessed materials should be selected for sub-base
and roadbase in paved low volume roads. A wide range of materials including lateritic,
calcareous and quartzitic gravels, river gravels and other transported and residual gravels, or
granular materials resulting from weathering of rocks can be used successfully as roadbase
material. Sub-base and roadbase materials are expected to meet requirements related to
maximum particle size, grading, plasticity, and CBR. However, under certain circumstances,
mechanical treatments may be required to improve the quality to the required standard. This
often requires the use of special equipment and processing plants that are relatively immobile
or static. For this reason, the borrow pits for roadbase and sub-base materials are usually
spaced widely. In current practices, distances between these pits of about 50km are not
unusual. Main sources of sub-base and base materials are rocky hillsides and cliffs, high
steep hills, and river banks.
The minimum thickness of a deposit normally considered workable for excavation for
materials for subgrade, sub-base and roadbase is of the order of one metre. However, thinner
horizons could also be exploited if there are no alternatives. The absolute minimum depends
on material availability and the thickness of the overburden. If there is no overburden, as may
be the case in arid areas, horizons as thin as 300mm may be excavated.
The grading envelopes to be used for roadbase are shown in Table 8.3. Envelope A varies
depending whether the nominal maximum particle size is 37.5mm, 20mm or 10mm. A
requirement of five to ten per cent retained on successive sieves may be specified at higher
traffic (>0.3Mesa) to prevent excessive loss in stability. Envelope C extends the upper limit of
envelope B to allow the use of sandy materials, but its use is not permitted in wet climates.
Envelope D is similar to a gravel wearing course specification and is used for very low traffic
volumes. The grading is specified only in terms of the grading modulus (GM) and can be used
in both wet and dry climates.
Table 8.3 Particle Size Distribution for Natural Gravel Base
Per cent by mass of total aggregate passing test sieve

Envelope A
Test Sieve size Nominal maximum particle size
Envelope B Envelope C
37.5mm 20mm 10mm
50mm 100 1
0
37.5mm 80-100 100 80-100
0
20mm 55-95 80-100 100 55-100
10mm 40-80 55-85 60-100 40-100
5mm 30-65 30-65 45-80 30-80
2.36mm 20-50 20-50 35-75 20-70 20-100
1.18mm - - - - -
425µm 8-30 12-30 12-45 8-45 8-80
300µm - - - - -
75µm 5-20 5-20 5-20 5 5-30
-
Envelope D 2
1.65 < GM < 2.65 0
The strength requirement varies depending on the traffic level and climate, as outlined in the
Catalogue of Structures. The soaked CBR test is used to specify the minimum strength of
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roadbase material. The plasticity requirement also varies depending on the traffic level and
climate as shown in Tables 8.4 and 8.5. A maximum plasticity index of 6 has been retained
for higher traffic levels, where the design chart merges to standard design documents, and
also on weaker subgrades. For designs in dry environments the plasticity modulus for each
traffic and subgrade class can be increased depending on the crown height and whether
unsealed or sealed shoulders are used.
Table 8.4 Plasticity requirements for natural gravel roadbase materials

Subgrade
Property
of base Traffic class (mesas)
4
class
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
Ip <12 <9 <6 <6 <6

S2 PM <400 <150 <120 <90 <90
Grading B B A5 A5 A5
Ip <15 <12 <9 <6 <6

S3 PM <550 <250 <180 <90 <90
Grading C1 B B A5 A5
2
Ip Note <12 <12 <9 <9
S4 PM <800 <320 <300 <200 <90
Grading D3 B B B A5
2
Ip Note <15 <12 <12 <9
S5 PM <400 <350 <250 <150
Grading D3 B B B A5
2
Ip Note <15 <15 <12 <9
S6 PM <550 <500 <300 <180
Grading D3 C1 B B A5
Notes:
1. Grading ‘C’ is not permitted in wet environments or climates (N<4); grading ‘B’ is the minimum
requirement
2. Maximum Ip = 8 x GM
3. Grading ‘D’ is based on the grading modulus 1.65 < GM < 2.65
4. All base materials are natural gravels; Subgrades are non-expansive
5. Envelope A varies depending on whether the nominal maximum particle size is 37.5, 20 or
10mm
8.3.5 Lateritic roadbase gravels

A large number of factors control how a particular type of laterite is developed and the
material tends to exhibit both vertical and lateral variability within a deep and irregular
weathering profile.
The behaviour of lateritic materials in pavement structures depends mainly on their particle
size characteristics, the nature and strength of the gravel sized particles, the degree of
compaction as well as traffic and environmental conditions. The most important requirements
for a laterite to show good field performance are that the material is well graded with a high
content of hard, or quartz particles with adequate fines content. However, when judging the
gradation of a lateritic gravel, it is important to assess its composition to decide if separate
specific gravity determinations of the fines and coarse fractions should be made. For
example, for nodular laterites, the coarse fraction is iron-rich whilst the fine fraction is
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kaolinite. Thus, if there is a significant difference in the specific gravities of the coarse and fine
fractions, the grading should be calculated by use of both volume and mass proportions.
The requirements for selection and use of lateritic gravels for bases are slightly different to
those given for other natural gravels. The maximum plasticity index of the lateritic roadbase is
also relaxed. A maximum plasticity index of 9 has been specified for higher traffic levels and
weak subgrades. For design traffic levels greater than 0.3 Mesa, a requirement is set that the
liquid limit should be less than 30. Below this traffic level, this requirement is relaxed to a
liquid limit of less than 35. Where sealed shoulders over one metre wide are specified in the
design, the maximum plasticity modulus may be increased by 40 per cent. A minimum field
3
compacted dry density of 2.0 mg/m is required for these materials.
Table 8.5: Guidelines for the selection of lateritic gravel roadbase materials
Subgrade
Property
Traffic class (mesas)

class
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
Ip <15 <12 <9 <9 <6

S2 PM <400 <150 <150 <120 <90
Grading B B A A A
Ip <18 <15 <12 <9 <6

PM <550 <250 <180 <120 <90
S3
Grading C(1) B B A A
Ip <201 <15 <15 <9 <9

PM <800 <320 <300 <200 <90
S4
Grading GM 1.6-2.6 B B B A
Ip <25(1) <18 <15 <12 <9

PM - <400 <350 <250 <150
S5
Grading GM 1.6-2.6 B B B B
Ip <25(1) <20 <18 <15 <12

PM - <550 <400 <300 <180
S6
Grading GM 1.6-2.6 B B B A
Notes:
1. Maximum Ip = 8 x GM
2. Unsealed shoulders are assumed. Further modification to the limits can be made if the
shoulders are sealed.
3. The compaction requirement for the soaked CBR test to define the subgrade classes is 100%
Mod. AASHTO with a minimum soaking time of 4 days or until zero swell is recorded. This is a
relaxation of the soaked CBR requirement for natural gravel base materials given in the
catalogues.
8.3.6 Material requirements for sub-base

Strength requirements: A minimum CBR of 30% is required at the highest anticipated
moisture content when compacted to the specified field density, usually a minimum of 95%
(preferably 97% where practicable) AASHTO T180 compaction.
Under conditions of good drainage and when the water table is not near the ground surface,
the field moisture content under a sealed pavement will be equal to or less than the optimum
moisture content in the AASHTO T180 compaction test. In such conditions, the sub-base
material should be tested in the laboratory in an unsaturated state.
159
If the roadbase allows water to drain into the lower layers, as may occur with unsealed
shoulders and under conditions of poor surface maintenance where the roadbase is pervious,
saturation of the sub-base is likely. In these circumstances the bearing capacity should be
determined on samples soaked in water for a period of four days. The test should be
conducted on samples prepared at the density and moisture content likely to be achieved in
the field.
Particle size distribution and plasticity requirements: In order to achieve the required
bearing capacity, and for uniform support to be provided to the upper pavement, limits on soil
plasticity and particle size distribution may be required. Materials which meet the
recommendations of Tables 8.6 and 8.7 will usually be found to have adequate bearing
capacity.
Table 8.6: Typical particle size distribution for sub-bases
Per cent by mass of total

Sieve Size (mm)
aggregate passing test sieve
50 100
37.5 80 – 100
20 60 – 100
5 30 – 100
1.18 17 – 75
0.3 9 – 50
0.075 5 - 25
Table 8.7 Plasticity characteristics for granular sub-bases
Climate Liquid Limit Plasticity Index Linear Shrinkage

Moist tropical and wet tropical
< 35 <6 <3
(N<4)
Seasonally wet tropical (N<4) < 45 < 12 <6
Arid and semi-arid (N>4) <55 < 20 <10
8.3.7 Material requirements for gravel wearing course

Ideally, the wearing course material should be durable and of consistent quality to ensure it
wears evenly. The desirable characteristics of such a material are:
 Good skid resistance;
 Smooth riding characteristics;
 Cohesive properties;
 Resistance to ravelling and scouring;
 Wet and dry stability;
 Low permeability;
 Load spreading ability.
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For ease of construction and maintenance, a wearing course material should also be easy to
grade and compact. The material properties having the greatest influence on these
characteristics are the particle size distribution and the properties of the coarse particles.
Performance-related specifications: Performance related specifications for wearing course
materials have been developed for southern Africa based on extensive sampling, testing and
monitoring of a large number of test sections. These specifications have been successfully
implemented in a number of African countries and are considered to be generally applicable
to the South Sudan environment. The specifications identify the most suitable materials in
terms of two basic soil parameters; Shrinkage Product and Grading Coefficient, which are
determined from particle size distribution and linear shrinkage tests. Their use as criteria for
selecting appropriate GWC materials is illustrated in Figure 8.1 and defined in Table 8.8.
Figure 8.1: Material quality zones
The material quality zones define material quality in relation to their anticipated in-service
performance. The combination of grading coefficient and shrinkage product of each material
determines which material quality zone it falls into. The characteristics of materials in each
zone are as follows:
A: Materials in this area generally perform satisfactorily but are finely graded and
particularly prone to erosion. They should be avoided if possible, especially on steep
grades and sections with steep cross-falls and super-elevations. Roads constructed from
these materials require frequent periodic labour intensive maintenance over short lengths
and have high gravel losses due to erosion.
B: These materials generally lack cohesion and are highly susceptible to the formation of
loose material (ravelling) and corrugations. Regular maintenance is necessary if these
materials are used and the road roughness is to be restricted to reasonable levels.
C: Materials in this zone generally comprise fine, gap-graded gravels lacking adequate
cohesion, resulting in ravelling and the production of loose material.
D: Materials with a shrinkage product in excess of 365 tend to be slippery when wet.
E: Materials in this zone perform well in general, provided the oversize material is restricted
to the recommended limits.
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(1,3)
Table 8.8 Material specifications for unsealed rural roads
Maximum size (mm) 37.5

Oversize index (Io) ≤5%
Shrinkage product (Sp) 100 to 365 (max.240 preferable)
Grading coefficient (Gc) 16 to 34
Soaked CBR (at 95% Mod. AASHTO) ≥15%
Treton impact value (%) 20 to 65
a Io = % retained on 37.5mm sieve)
b Sp = Linear shrinkage x passing 0.425 sieve
c Gc = (% passing 26.5mm – % passing 2.00mm) x (% passing4.75mm)/100
Notes:
1. Specifications should be applicable after placement and compaction
2. The Grading Coefficient and Shrinkage Product must be based on a conventional particle size
distribution determination which must be normalised for 100% passing the 37.5 mm screen.
3. Only representative material samples are to be tested.
4. The Treton Impact Value (TIV) limits exclude those materials that are too hard to be broken
with a grid roller (TIV < 20%) or too soft to resist excessive crushing under traffic (TIV > 65%).
8.3.8 Road surfacing aggregate

The general requirements for aggregate to be used in a bituminous surfacing layer are that
must be durable, strong and should also show good adhesion with bituminous binders. It
should also be resistant both to the to the polishing and abrasion action of traffic. The main
qualities for surfacing aggregate are summarised in Table 8.9.
Table 8.9 Basic requirements for surfacing aggregate
Key Engineering Factor Material Requirement
Aggregate particles need to be load resistant to any loads and

Strength abrasion imposed during construction and the design life of the
pavement.
Aggregate particles need to be resistant mineralogical change and to

Durability physical breakdown due to any wetting and drying cycles and
abrasion imposed during construction or pavement design life.
Skid Resistance (Surface

Aggregate particles must be resistant to polishing.
aggregate only)
Aggregate must be capable of adhesion to bitumen and sustaining that

Adhesiveness
adhesion for its design life.
Adhesion failure implies a breakdown of the bonding forces between a stone aggregate and
its coating of bituminous binder, leading to physical separation. Mechanical failure by fretting
and subsequent ravelling of the surface is one possible, but invariable, consequence of
adhesion failure.
Basic rocks are considered to have better adhesion properties than acidic rocks. The
comparatively poor performance of acid rocks may not only be related to the high silica
content but to the formation of sodium, potassium and aluminium hydroxides. This is
considered more likely in felspathic minerals. Experience has indicated, for example, that
coarse granite with large feldspar inclusions is likely to experience bitumen adhesion
difficulties.
162
Apart from the petrological nature of the material, its cleanliness or freedom from dust is also
a factor. Limits of less that 1% dust (<75 microns) are difficult to obtain by screening alone
and washing of the aggregate may be required.
The resistance to abrasion is related to the petrological properties of the material: the
proportion of hard minerals; the proportion and orientation of cleaved minerals; grain size; the
nature of the interparticle bonding or cementation and the proportion of stable minerals
resistant to weathering.
Resistance to polishing is considered a function of material fabric, texture and mineralogy.
Rocks which contain minerals of differing hardness and which show a degree of friability tend
to give high polishing resistance. Rocks that exhibit a moderate degree of decomposition give
higher PSV results then fresh unweathered rocks. There is, therefore, an inverse relationship
between polishing resistance and abrasion resistance.
Table 8.10: Aggregate requirements for chip seals
Nominal Aggregate Size (mm)

Sieve Size
(mm) 19.0 13.2 9.5 6.7
Grading (% passing)
26.5 100
19.0 85-100 100
13.2 0-30 85-100 100
9.5 0-5 0-30 85-100 100
6.7 - 0-5 0-40
4.75 - - 0-5 0-40
2.36 - - - 0-5
0.425 (fines) <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <2.0
0.075 (dust) <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <1.0
Materials Properties
Flakiness Index Max 20 Max 25 Max 25 Max 30
10% FACT (dry) AADT > 1000 vpd: Min 160 kN; AADT < 1000 vpd: 120 kN
10% (wet) Min 75% of corresponding 10% FACT dry
8.3.9 Block or paving stone

The block stones should be a strong, homogenous, isotropic rock, free from significant
discontinuities such as cavities, joints, faults and bedding planes. Rocks such as fresh
granite, basalt and crystalline limestone have proven to be suitable materials. Quartzite rock
is not suitable, nor is any rock that polishes or develops a slippery surface, or erodes under
traffic. Rock for cobble stone should be tested to ensure it meets the specified requirements;
 Uniaxial compressive strength >75MPa;
 Los Angeles Abrasion value: <25%;
 Sodium Sulphate Soundness <10% loss.
The material infilling the spaces between the cobble stones should be a loose, dry natural or
crushed stone material with a particle size distribution equivalent to a well-graded coarse
163
sand to fine gravel. It must be clean and free from clay coating, organic debris and other
deleterious materials.
8.3.10 Aggregates for structural concrete

The aggregate is divided into two parts: coarse aggregate and fine aggregate. The fine
aggregate is normally naturally occurring sand, with particles up to about 2mm in size. The
coarse aggregate is normally stone with a range of sizes from about 5mm to 20mm (or
sometimes larger); it may be naturally occurring gravel, or more commonly crushed or hand-
broken quarry stone. In areas without hard stone resources and with an established fired clay
brick industry, burnt bricks can be machine or hand crushed to be used in concrete.
Aggregates must be entirely free from soil or organic materials such as grass and leaves, as
well as fine particles such as silt and clay, otherwise the resulting concrete will be of poor
quality. Some aggregates, particularly those from salty environments, may need to be washed
to make them suitable for use.
Both the coarse and fine aggregates need to contain a range of particle sizes, and are mixed
together in such a way that the fine aggregates fill the space between the coarse aggregate
particles. A ratio by volume of one part fine aggregate to two parts coarse aggregate is
generally used. Aggregates can be crushed and screened by hand or by machine.
8.3.11 Filter/drainage material

Filter materials have crucial roles in assisting in the prevention or in controlling the ingress of
water and in the reduction of pore water pressures within both the earthworks and the
pavement. Filter materials can account for a significant proportion of the construction material
costs, particularly in wetter regions where road designs need to cater for the dispersion of
large volumes of water, both as external drains and as internal layers within wet-fill
embankments. The general requirements for filter material are a highly permeable mix
comprising a durable aggregate that is resistant to chemical alteration, Table 8.11.
Table 8.11. Basic Requirements for filter/drainage materials
Key Engineering
Material Requirement
Factor
The fundamental filter property is primarily a function of material grading. It is

generally desirable for filter aggregates to be equi-dimensional as this aids
Permeability
flow distribution and facilitates packing. It is also considered better to use
material with rounded to sub-rounded rather than angular particles.
Aggregate particles need to be load resistant to abrasion and any loads

Strength
imposed by the road design.
Resistance to Aggregate particles need to be resistant to breakdown due to wetting and

Degradation drying and weathering during construction and for the life of the project.
Resistance to Erosion The as-placed material must be resistant to internal and external erosion.
Aggregate should generally be inert and resistant to alteration by

Chemical Stability groundwater. Weak surface coatings such as clay, iron oxide, calcium
carbonate, gypsum etc. are undesirable.
164
8.4 Material Improvement

Obtaining materials that comply with the necessary grading (particle size distribution-PSD)
and plasticity specifications for a gravel wearing course in South Sudan can be difficult. Many
of the natural gravels tend to be coarsely graded and relatively non plastic and the use of
such materials results in very high roughness levels and high rates of gravel loss in service
and, in the final analysis, very high life-cycle costs.
In order to achieve suitable wearing course properties a suitable PSD can be obtained by
breaking down oversized material to a maximum size of 50 mm or smaller. Atterberg limits
may be modified by granular/mechanical stabilisation (blending) with other materials. These
material improvement measures are discussed briefly below and further options are
presented in Appendix C: Marginal Materials.
Reducing oversize: Various measures are available for reducing oversize including the use
of labour, mobile crushers, grid rollers or rock crushers. The choice of method will depend on
the type of project and material to be broken down:
1. Hand labour: This is quite feasible, especially on relatively small, labour-based
projects where material can either be hand screened and/or broken down to various
sizes and stockpiled in advance of construction.
2. Mobile crushers: The crushing of borrow pit materials may be achieved with a single
stage crushing unit or, in the other extreme, stage crushing and screening plant.
3. Grid rollers: These are manufactured as a heavy mesh drum designed to produce a
high contact pressure and then to allow the smaller particles resulting from the
breakdown to fall clear of the contact zone.
4. Rock crusher: The “Rockbuster” is a patented plant item which is basically a tractor-
towed hammermill. The hammermill action of the Rockbuster will act on the material
that it passes over, breaking down both large and small sizes. There is the potential
to “over-crush” a material and create too many fines in the product. It may be
necessary to rill out only the larger particles in a material and process these with the
Rockbuster, with the crushed material then blended back into the original product.
Where materials with a suitable grading and/or plasticity are unavailable locally, granular
mechanical stabilisation may be possible by undertaking the following:
 Mixing of materials from various parts of a deposit at the source of supply;
 Mixing of selected, imported material with in-situ materials;
 Mixing two or more selected imported natural gravels, soils and/or quarry products
on-site or in a mixing plant.
Such stabilisation can achieve the following:
 Correction of grading generally associated with gap graded or high fines content
gravels;
 Correction of grading and increasing plasticity of dune or river-deposited sands which
are often single sized;
 Correction of grading and/or plasticity in crushed quarry products.
The following methodology, using a ternary diagram (Figure 8.2), has been developed for
determining the optimal mix ratio for blending two or more materials to meet the required
specification.
165
Figure 8.2: Ternary Diagram for Blending Unsealed Road Materials
1. Identify potential material sources that can be used to improve the available material.
2. Determine the particle size distribution of the available material and that considered
for addition or blending (wet sieve analysis recalculated with 100 per cent passing the
37.5 mm sieve).
3. Determine the percentages of silt and clay (<0.075 mm), sand (0.075 - 2.0 mm) and
gravel (2.0 -37.5 mm) for each source.
4. Plot the material properties on the ternary diagram as points a and b respectively
(see example in Figure 8.2);
5. Connect the points. When the two points are connected, any point on the portion of
the line in the shaded area indicates a feasible mixture of the two materials. The
optimum mixture should be at point c in the centre of the shaded area.
6. The mix proportions are then the ratio of the line ac:bc. This can be equated to truck
loads and dump spacing.
7. Once the mix proportions have been established, the Atterberg Limits of the mixture
should be determined to check that the shrinkage product is within the desirable
range (100 – 365 (or 240 if necessary). The quantity of binder added should be
adjusted until the required shrinkage product is obtained, but ensuring that the mix
quantities remain within the acceptable zone.
If the line does not intersect the shaded area at any point, the two materials cannot be
successfully blended and alternative sources will have to be located, or a third source used
for blending.
References
Smith
166
9 Road Drainage
9.1 Introduction
Road drainage design is the general term that is applied to two separate topics namely:
Internal road drainage. The process of minimising the quantity of water that remains within a
road pavement by maximising the ability of the road to lose water to an external drainage
system. Sometimes this definition also includes minimising the quantity of water that gets into a
road pavement in the first place.
External drainage. This consists of three components:
1. The process of determining the quantity of water that falls upon the road itself and its
associated works that needs to be channelled away from the road by the drainage
system. This is water that falls upon the road as rain.
2. The process of determining the quantity of water that flows in the streams, rivers and
natural drains that the road has to cross. This is water that falls as rainfall at locations
away from the road.
3. Design of the individual engineering features of the drainage system to accommodate
the flow of water.
This Chapter is concerned with the external drainage system and the drainage standards for
roads carrying less than 300 two-axled (and larger) motorised vehicles per day. The Chapter is
essentially a guide containing appropriate technical explanations of all the steps in designing
the surface water drainage system for LVRs.
Internal pavement drainage is considered in Chapter 7. This Chapter does not deal with route
surveying, site investigations, route selection or the actual structural design of bridges and
major water crossings. The planning and structural design of river crossings of less than 10m
span and drainage structures for roads being considered in this Manual is given in Volume 2.
Larger structures are dealt with in the current MRB Road and Bridge Design Manuals.
Neither rainfall nor rivers distinguish between roads carrying low and high volumes of traffic.
Therefore, the basic costs of protecting a road from the effects of water are essentially the
same and largely independent of traffic. Hence, for LVRs the cost of the drainage system can
comprise a larger proportion of the costs of the road.
There are, of course, different levels of protection associated with the risk of serious damage to
the road. For principal trunk roads little risk can be tolerated and so expensive drainage
measures must be employed. For LVRs the consequences of failure in the drainage system are
correspondingly lower but, within the range covered by LVRs, there are some significant
differences depending on the length of the road and the availability of an alternative route.
The challenge for the engineer is to choose a level of protection that is suitable for the class of
road and the consequences of drainage failure. Thus a certain amount of engineering
judgement is required.
Unfortunately, although it is possible to define the probability of specific storm events from
extensive rainfall records, if such records are available, it is practically impossible to define the
overall level of risk inherent in a drainage system design itself. This is because there are so
many other factors that influence its performance. First of all, simply calculating the water
volumes flowing in the drainage system following a specific storm involves several important
assumptions.
Secondly, the drainage system is not a fixed, unchanging system despite every effort by the
designer to protect it and to make it so. Changes are always occurring as a result of aspects
such as sedimentation, erosion, the transport of debris, growth of vegetation and landslides.
For example, sedimentation will always occur in some places within the drainage system. This
167
affects water flow and drainage capacities in complex ways. Partial blockage by debris or
landslides, a particularly important problem in mountainous areas, can quickly lead to full
blockage and catastrophic failures unless cleared by maintenance activities.
Erosion is also a formidable enemy of the drainage designer. Very erodible soils can be found
extensively in many parts of South Sudan and catastrophic levels of erosion can arise from
small disruptions in the smooth flow of water leading to failure of the drainage system.
Naturally the designer attempts to minimise these affects but the effectiveness in doing so is
directly related to the cost and to the effectiveness of maintenance (also a function of cost).
Hence different levels of risk, and therefore cost, are applied to roads of different standard.
9.2 Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards

9.2.1 Design standards and storm return period
Once the drainage design has been completed, and provided maintenance is carried out to
remove potential blockages and repair minor damage, a road drainage system should operate
successfully for many years. However, drainage systems cannot be designed for the very
worst conditions that might occur on extremely rare occasions because it is too expensive to
do so. The various standards for the design of drainage are based on different levels of risk
that are attached to the likely occurrence of the different storm intensities for which they are
designed, assuming that appropriate routine maintenance is carried out.
Storm events are defined by the intensity and duration of rainfall and are extremely variable in
nature over periods of many years. Thus a statistical distribution of storm severities shows
that very severe storms are quite rare and that less severe storms are more common. The
risk of a severe storm occurring is defined by the statistical concept of its likely return period
which is directly related to the probability of such a storm occurring in any one year. Thus a
very severe storm may be expected, say, once every 50 years but a less severe storm may
be expected every 10 years.
This does not mean that such storms will occur on such a regular basis. A severe storm
expected once every 50 years has, on average, a probability of occurring in any year of 1 in
50 (or 0.02 or 2%). Similarly a storm of lower intensity that is expected to occur, on average,
once every 10 years has a probability of occurring in any one year of 1 in 10 (or 0.1 or 10%).
The operative words here are “on average” and it is useful to realise that there is always a
finite probability that the worst storm for 200 years may occur tomorrow.
Most drainage structures are likely to be severely damaged if their capacity is exceeded for
any length of time hence their capacity is the most important aspect of their design. In
general, the more severe the storm for which the structure is designed, the more expensive it
is to build; and the cost of designing for the highest possible storm severity (i.e. zero risk) is
prohibitive. Drainage standards are therefore defined by the level of risk. This is done using
the concept of return period of the maximum storm for which they are designed.
There are three factors that determine the level of risk that is appropriate for each structure
namely:
 The standard of the road (i.e. the traffic level);

 The cost of the drainage structure itself;
 The severity of the consequences should the road become impassable because of a
failure of the drainage system.
If a drainage structure on a road carrying high levels of traffic is damaged or fails completely,
the disruption and associated costs to the traffic can be very high and therefore the structures
168
on such a road are designed for low risk (i.e. for storms of long return periods). They are
therefore relatively expensive. On the other hand, if a drainage structure should fail on a road
carrying low levels of traffic, the likely disruption to traffic and the associated costs are less
and hence the higher cost of designing the drainage for low risk cannot be justified. The
drainage is therefore designed for shorter storm return periods.
Similarly, the cost of replacement or repair of large and expensive drainage structures is high
and therefore they are designed to minimise this risk by designing for very severe storms (i.e.
storms with long return periods). This increases their cost but reduces the risk of damage.
Higher risks can be tolerated for smaller and less expensive structures that are usually easier
to repair; hence these are designed for less severe storms (i.e. shorter return periods).
An overriding principle for the designer is to consider the consequences of a drainage failure.
In situations where the road is relatively short and an alternative route, albeit a longer one is
available, the social and economic consequences of a drainage failure that makes the road
impassable for any length of time are not high. In contrast, there are also many situations in
South Sudan where there is no alternative route at all or, if there is one, it is very long. Under
these circumstances additional expenditure to reduce the risk of such an occurrence is
justified. This is done by designing for a larger storm (i.e. a longer storm return period).
It is difficult to calculate the exact trade-off between the cost of designing for low risk and the
costs and consequences of failure of a drainage structure. Furthermore, the precision with
which design storms can be calculated depends on the availability of detailed rainfall data that
are required to have been collected over a period of many years. Even with good rainfall data,
there are other uncertain assumptions that need to be made in carrying out the calculations.
Thus, in most situations the accuracy of the calculations of the required water flow capacity is
not very high despite the apparent sophistication that is apparent in some methods of
drainage design and it is therefore important to include a factor of safety.
Because of these issues the drainage standards can only be based on a review of practices
throughout the world combined with local engineering judgement and consensus. Table 9.1
indicates the design standards for LVRs in South Sudan. For strategic routes, routes of very
high economic or social importance or if the alternative route in the event of a drainage failure
is more than an additional 75km or if there is no alternative route suitable for vehicles, Table
9.2 should be used instead.
Table 9.1: Design storm return period (years)
Geometric design standard

Structure type
DC3-4 DC1-2
Gutters and inlets 2 2
Side ditches 5 5
Ford 5 5
Drift 5 5
Culvert diameter <2m 10 10
Large culvert diameter >2m 15 10
Gabion abutment bridge 20 15
Short span bridge (<10m) 25 15
Masonry arch bridge 25 25
Medium span bridge (15 – 50m) 50 25
Long span bridge >50m 100 50
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Table 9.2: Design storm return period (years) for severe risk situations
Geometric design standard

Structure type
DC3-4 DC1-2
Gutters and inlets 5 5
Side ditches 10 10
Ford 10 10
Drift 10 10
Culvert diameter <2m 20 20
Large culvert diameter >2m 25 20
Short span bridge (<10m) 50 25
Masonry arch bridge 50 25
Medium span bridge (15 – 50m) 100 50
Long span bridge >50m 100 100
9.2.2 Methods of design

The simplest method of all is essentially a stage construction process whereby simple rules of
thumb are used for the initial design with little or no calculation. The road is built and then, in
the following year or two, problems that arise where there is inadequate capacity in the
drainage system are rectified as quickly as possible. Such an approach is normally used only
for very low volume roads and may be applicable if the engineering resources are readily
available during the required period following initial construction. It should be noted that in
South Sudan mobilization costs due to long haul distances to site and general high
construction costs are unlikely to result in repairs being carried out at a later date, with the
exception of the lowest level of road, which could possibly be maintained through community
engagement and labour based methods. Therefore it may be more cost effective to design
conservatively where haul distances and distance to site are noted to be high.
Very few national standards specifically address the problem of designing drainage for LVRs.
The implication is that the methods used for all roads should be applied to LVRs but this is
impracticable. The methods described in this manual range from the simplest approach
appropriate to the lowest standards up to more comprehensive methods that could be used
whenever sufficient data are available. The manual does not include the full range of methods
suitable for the higher road classes.
9.2.3 Departures from standards

It is fundamental to the concept of setting standards that they should be applied at all times.
However, the basic standards for drainage structures and drainage design cannot be
precisely defined because sufficient data may not be available to carry out the designs in the
ideal way. As a result, the designer must use simpler methods. Furthermore, even if data are
available to allow more sophisticated methods to be used, there are worrying large
differences in the results that the various methods give. Thus whether sophisticated numerical
methods or simple methods are used, different answers will arise from the various methods.
All that can be done is for the designer to use the methods available and to exercise a degree
of engineering judgement in selecting the result for the design.
The same arguments do not apply to the detailed engineering design of the components of
the drainage system once the maximum water flow has been estimated. If the designer
wishes to depart from these, then written approval will be required from Ministry of Roads and
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Bridges. The designer should submit all proposals for departures from standards to the
appropriate client officer for evaluation.
9.3 Hydrology: Estimating Maximum Flow for Drainage Design

Before a drainage structure can be designed, it is necessary to determine the maximum likely
flow of water to be accommodated by the structure. Estimation of maximum peak flow for
design of cross drainage structures is detailed in Chapter 6 of Volume 2, and is not detailed
further here. Information may be needed on:
 Water catchment area;
 Rainfall characteristics;
 Topography;
 Vegetation and soils;
 Catchment shape;
 Stream and river flows if available;
 Available storage in lakes and swamps;
 Rural and urban development plans;
 Water management plans (e.g. river basin master plans).
The remainder of this Chapter deals primarily with external drainage and erosion control.
9.4 Components of External Drainage

An effective external drainage system must fulfil several functions:
 Prevent or minimise the entry of surface water into the pavement;
 Prevent or minimise the adverse effects of sub-surface water;
 Remove water from the vicinity of the pavement as quickly as possible;
 Allow water to flow from one side of the road to the other.
This must be achieved without endangering the road or adjacent areas through increased
erosion or risk of instability. Thus an external drainage system consists of several
complementary components:
 Surface drainage to remove water from the road surface quickly (i.e. camber);
 Side drainage to take water from the road and to prevent water from reaching the
road;
 Turnouts to take the water in the side drain away from the road;
 Cross drainage to allow the water in the side drains, and from any other sources, to
cross the road line by channelling it under or across the road;
 Interceptor drains to collect surface water before it reaches the road;
 Sub-surface drains to cut off sub-surface water and to lower the water table when
required;
 Erosion control (often simple scour checks) to slow down the water in the side drains
and prevent erosion in the drains themselves and downstream of drainage outlets or
crossings.
All these types of drains have to work together in order to protect the road from being damaged
by water. Cross-drainage includes structures to allow permanent or seasonal watercourses to
cross the road line and therefore includes bridges. The appropriate cross drainage structures
for low volume roads are dealt with in Volume 2.
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9.4.1 General principles

Conservation of the natural drainage system around the road alignment is one of the most
important concerns during design and construction. By effectively creating a barrier to natural
surface drainage that is only crossed at intervals by constructed drainage crossings, road
construction can lead to significant local increases in catchment areas and increased water
flows. Furthermore, in the case of paved roads especially, road drainage reduces the time
taken to reach maximum flow by shedding water from impermeable surfaces relatively
quickly. Therefore, in addition to constructing a drainage system to convey the design run-off
without surcharge, blockage by sediments, or scour, attention must be paid to strengthening
those parts of the natural slope drainage system that experience increased run-off, and hence
erosion potential, as a result of road construction. The main ways of doing this are to:
 Control road surface drainage;
 Design culverts or drifts that convey water and debris load efficiently;
 Ensure there are enough drainage crossings to prevent excessive concentration of
flow;
 Protect drainage structures and stream channels for as far downstream as is
necessary to ensure their safety and prevent erosion of land adjacent to the water
course;
 Plant vegetation on all new slopes and poorly-vegetated areas, around the edges of
drainage structures and appropriately along stream courses, without impairing their
hydraulic efficiency or capacity.
9.4.2 Sources of water

This chapter is concerned with dealing with the water that flows outside the road prism.
Minimising the amount of water that gets into the structure of the road itself and minimising
the damage that it can cause are dealt with in Chapter 7.
9.4.3 Road surface drainage

Camber is a critical part of the road drainage system, removing water from the road surface
and transferring it to the side drains or verge. Camber and cross-fall are part of the geometric
design of the road. Their values are discussed in the geometric design chapter (Chapter 6) and
surfacing and pavement design chapter (Chapter 7) of this Manual. Chapter 6 details the
camber to be applied for each road classification.
9.4.4 Side drains

Side drains serve two main functions namely to collect and remove surface water from the
immediate vicinity of the road and, where needed, to prevent any sub-surface water from
adversely affecting the road pavement structure.
Seepage may occur where the road is in cut and may result in groundwater entering the sub-
base or subgrade layers as illustrated in Figures 9.1 and 9.2. Inadequate surface or
subsurface drainage can therefore adversely affect the pavement by weakening the soil
support, and initiating creep or failure of the downhill fill or slope. Localised seepage can be
corrected in various ways but seepage along more impervious layers, such as shale or clay,
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combined with changes in road elevation grades, may require subsurface drains as well as
ditches as shown in Figure 9.3.
Figure 9.1: Inadequate side drains
Figure 9.2: Inadequate side drains and subsurface drainage
Figure 9.3: Proper interception of surface runoff and subsurface seepage
If the road has effective side drains and adequate crown height, then the in situ subgrade
strength is more likely to stay above the design value. If the drainage is poor, the in situ
strengths will fall to below the design value. Crown height is discussed in Chapter 7 of this
Manual.
Side drains can be constructed in three forms (Figure 9.4): V-shaped, rectangular or
trapezoidal.
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Figure 9.4: Side drains
The choice of side drain cross-section depends on the required hydraulic capacity,
arrangements for maintenance, space restrictions, traffic safety and any requirements relating
to the height between the crown of the pavement and the drain invert (as discussed in
Chapter 6). Construction method will also influence the design selection. It may be preferable
to opt for larger V-shaped drains rather than trapezoidal drains if an equipment based
construction method (i.e. including use of graders) or intermediate based technology (i.e.
including use of towed graders) are being applied. This should be considered at the design
stage.
Design volumes of run-off are usually estimated using the Rational Method (See Volume 2).
Flow velocities are calculated from the Manning equation (See Volume 2,) using roughness
values shown in Table 6.5 of Volume 2.
Where labour is available for the application of labour based methods, the adoption of a
trapezoidal cross-section will facilitate maintenance and will be acceptable from the point of
view of traffic safety. It is much easier and appropriate to dig and clean a trapezoidal drain
with hand tools and the risk of erosion is lower. The minimum recommended width of the side
drain is 500mm. This shape carries a high flow capacity and, by carefully selecting the
gradients of its side slopes, it will resist erosion.
The V-shape is the standard shape for a drainage ditch constructed by a motor-grader or
towed grader. It can be easily maintained by heavy or intermediate equipment but it has
relatively low capacity necessitating more frequent structures for emptying it. Furthermore the
shape concentrates flow at the invert and encourages erosion.
The rectangular shaped drain requires little space but needs to be lined with rock, brick or
stone masonry, or concrete to maintain its shape. Rectangular shaped side drains are usually
used in an urban or mountain road environment where space in the road corridor is limited.
In very flat terrain and reasonable soils it is often best to use wide unlined “meadow drains”.
These are formed shallow and continuous depressions in the surface that avoid abrupt
changes in surface profile. When properly designed, their capacity is high and the flow
velocity is low so that erosion should be controlled.
When the subgrade is an expansive soil, changes in moisture content near to the road itself
must be minimised.
As far as traffic safety is concerned, a wide and shallow drain for a given flow capacity is
preferable to a deeper one but, particularly on steep sidelong ground, the extra width required
to achieve this may be impracticable or too expensive.
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Side drains (as well as the road itself) should have a minimum longitudinal gradient of 0.5%,
except on crest and sag curves. Slackening of the side drain gradient in the lower reaches of
significant lengths of drain should be avoided in order to prevent siltation.
For the construction of LVRs the spoil material from the construction of the side drain is
usually used to provide the formation of the road and its camber. When roads are built using
labour-based methods this is usually the only source of material (unless the road is to be built
on an embankment) hence it is important that the size of the drain is wide and deep enough to
provide sufficient material. Failure to do so is often the reason for the resulting low camber
and early deterioration of gravel and earth roads. In most circumstances a wide trapezoidal
drain is the ideal solution.
Access across side drains for pedestrians, animals and vehicles needs to be considered.
Community representatives should be consulted with regard to locations, especially for
established routes. The methods that could be used are:
 Widening the drain and taking its alignment slightly away from the road;
 Hardening the invert and sides of the drain;
 Beam/slab covers or small culverts.
The arrangement must be maintainable and not risk blockage of the side drain. Failure to
accommodate these needs will usually result in later ad hoc arrangements which may partially
or fully block the side drain and, if not remedied, will lead to a local failure of the drainage
system and even the road itself.
Groundwater in the subgrade can be released either by using a drainage layer at sub-base
level or by incorporating gravel cross drains (grips) in the shoulder that exit via a weephole in
the side drain backed with a piece of filter fabric. The weepholes must be set at the correct
level to take the water from the appropriate pavement layer and the drain must be sufficiently
deep so that there is little possibility of the water in the drain being of sufficient depth for it to
flow back into the road.
Deeper drains, comprising a filter-wrapped perforated pipe within a graded gravel backfill, can
be constructed under very wet slope conditions to a depth of 1 to 1.5m below the level of the
side drain invert, and led to the nearest culvert inlet.
9.4.5 Erosion control in the side drain

When the water flows too fast, it will erode the bottom of the drain. The faster that water flows,
the more soil it can erode and carry away. There are various methods of reducing erosion, the
two most common being to build simple scour checks or to line the drains.
Scour checks (sometimes called check dams) reduce the speed of water and help prevent it
from eroding the road structure. Typical designs are shown in Figure 9.5. The scour check
acts as a small dam and, when naturally silted up on the upstream side, effectively reduces
the gradient of the drain on that side, and therefore the velocity of the water. The energy of
the water flowing over the dam is dissipated by allowing it to fall onto an apron of stones.
Scour checks are usually constructed with natural stone, masonry, concrete or with wooden
or bamboo stakes. By using natural building materials available along the road side, they can
be constructed at low cost and be easily maintained after the road has been completed.
There must be sufficient cross-sectional area above the scour check (i.e. where the water has
been slowed down) to accommodate the maximum design flow. Wide drains are also
preferred to reduce the velocity of the water and minimise erosion but space is at a premium
in the type of terrain where scour checks are required so wide drains may not always be
practicable.
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Figure 9.5: Typical design of scour checks
The distance between scour checks depends on the road gradient and the erosion potential of
the soils. Table 9.6 shows recommended values but these may need to be modified for more
erodible soils.
Table 9.6: Spacing between scour checks
Road gradient (%) Scour check interval (m)
3 Not required
4 17
5 13
6 10
7 8
8 7
9 6
10 5
11 4
12 4
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After the basic scour check has been constructed, an apron should be built immediately
downstream using stones. The apron will help resist the forces of the waterfall created by the
scour check. Sods of grass should be placed against the upstream face of the scour check
wall to prevent water seeping through it and to encourage silting to commence on the
upstream side. The long-term goal is to establish a complete grass covering over the silted
scour checks to stabilise them.
Sections of side drain with scour checks cannot be maintained by motor grader or towed
grader and will need to be maintained by hand.
Depending on the strength of the material in which the drains are excavated and the velocity
of run-off they are expected to carry, side drains may also need to be lined. The controlling
factor is the ease of erosion of the soil. Table 9.7 indicates the critical velocities for different
materials. With velocities greater than those shown, erosion protection measures will be
required.
The drains may be lined with heavy-duty polythene, or some other impermeable material,
before masonry pitching is applied. This will prevent water penetration if the masonry
becomes cracked by movement. The lining can also be extended up the banks to prevent
2
lateral erosion. When the cross-sectional area is less than about 0.1m and the gradient is
gentle, drains can be lined with unbound masonry. Larger and steeper drains are lined with
mortared masonry, although they are considerably more expensive. Any gap between the
drain and the hillside must be filled with compacted impermeable material (e.g. clay) sloping
towards the drain to minimise infiltration behind it.
Table 9.7: Permissible flow velocities (m/sec) in excavated ditch drains
Clear Water carrying Water carrying sand

Soil type
water fine silt and fine gravel
Fine sand 0.45 0.75 0.45
Sandy loam 0.55 0.75 0.6
Silty loam 0.6 0.9 0.6
‘Good’ loam 0.75 1.05 0.7
Lined with established grass
1.7 1.7 1.7
on good soil
Lined with bunched grasses
1.1 1.1 1.1
(exposed soil between plants)
Volcanic ash 0.75 1.05 0.6
Fine gravel 0.75 1.5 1.15
Stiff clay 1.15 1.5 0.9
Graded loam to cobbles 1.15 1.5 1.5
Graded silt to cobbles 1.2 1.7 1.5
Alluvial silts (non colloidal) 0.6 1.05 0.6
Alluvial silts (colloidal) 1.15 1.50 0.9
Coarse gravel 1.2 1.85 2.0
Cobbles and shingles 1.5 1.7 2.0
Shales 1.85 1.85 1.5
Rock Negligible scour at all velocities
Channels can also be lined with gabion, dry stone pitching, rip-rap or vegetation.
When constructing a channel lining it is important to reproduce, as a minimum, the
dimensions of the original channel. A curved rather than rectangular shaped cross-section to
177
the bed lining is preferable. The main disadvantage with channel linings is that a lower
channel roughness leads to an increase in flow velocity and hence an increase in scour
potential further downstream. In the case of masonry aprons, or gabion mattresses with
masonry screeds, some reduction in velocity can be achieved by grouting protruding stones
into the surface.
Masonry linings can be constructed to fit the streambed much more closely than gabion. They
are also less easily abraded, but they cannot tolerate significant settlements, loss of support
by seepage erosion or high groundwater pressure.
Dry stone pitching is usually only suitable where discharges are lower than 1 m/sec per metre
width, and where sediment load is relatively fine-grained.
Grass can provide some resistance to channel erosion and may be used where flow velocities
are not expected to be too high. The introduction of grass will also tend to reduce flow
velocities, although channel vegetation should not be so widespread as to inhibit or divert
flow, which could lead to bank scour. Where immediate effective protection is required, a
structural solution is preferable to a vegetative one.
The winning of boulders and cobbles from gully beds for road construction materials can
reduce the armouring effect provided by coarse material. If the bed material appears to be
weathered and static for much of the time, then its removal could expose more erodible
sediments beneath. In such cases, extraction from the channel bed should be discouraged or
prohibited. Conversely, where the entire bed deposit is fresh and evidently mobile, the
removal of material may not have a significant effect on channel stability, especially if the
quantities concerned are small compared to the volume of bed load.
Cascades or steps in the drain long-section can also be a useful means of reducing flow
velocity, although both scour checks and cascades can impede the transport of debris,
increasing the risk of blockage.
9.4.6 Mitre drains or turnouts

It is normally best practice to discharge the water from the side drains as frequently as
possible. If it can be discharged on the same side of the road as the drain, a turnout or mitre
drain is used to lead the water away. Mitre drains simply lead the water onto adjacent land
therefore care is required to design them to ensure that problems associated with the road are
not passed on to the farmer or landowner. It is advisable to consult adjacent land users
regarding the discharge of water onto their land to gain their support and agreement and to
avoid possible problems in the future.
The principle is to aim for low volumes and low velocities at each discharge point to minimise
local erosion and potential downstream problems. The maximum spacing of turnouts depends
on the volume of water flowing in the drain and therefore hydrological principles may need to
be used to estimate this. However, in many cases it is only water shed from the road itself that
flows in the side drain and this is relatively easy to estimate using the Rational Method
(Chapter 6, Volume 2).
Where soils are very erodible, it may be preferable to increase side drain capacity to convey
runoff to the next available safe discharge point rather than to construct side drain turnouts or
relief culverts on erodible slopes. With the extra volumes of water that this entails, the design
of these less frequent safe discharge points will usually be more expensive.
In mountainous terrain the discharge of water is considerably more difficult and consequently
more expensive. This is discussed in more detail in Section 9.6.
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Table 9.8 gives the maximum spacing. However, spacings of mitre drains should normally be
more frequent than this and values as low as one every 20 m may be required to satisfy
landowners.
Table 9.8: Maximum spacing of mitre drains
Maximum mitre drain

Road gradient (%)
interval (metres)
12 40
10 80
(1)
8 120
(1)
6 150
(1)
4 200
(2)
2 80
(2)
<2 50
Notes:
1. A maximum of 100m is preferred but not essential
2. At low gradients silting becomes a problem
In order to ensure that water flows out of the side drain into the mitre drain, a block-off is
required as shown in Figure 9.6. It is essential that the mitre drain is able to discharge all the
water from the side drain. If the slope of the mitre drain is insufficient, the mitre drain needs to
be made wide enough to ensure this.
The desirable slope of the mitre drains is 2%. The gradient should not exceed 5% otherwise
there may be erosion in the drain or on the land where the water is discharged. The drain
should lead gradually across the land, getting shallower and shallower. Stones may need to
be laid at the end of the drain to help prevent erosion.
In mountainous terrain, it may be necessary to accept steeper gradients. In such cases,
appropriate soil erosion measures should be considered.
In flat terrain, a small gradient of 1% or even 0.5% may be necessary to discharge water, or to
avoid very long drains. These low gradients should only be used when absolutely necessary.
The slope should be continuous with no high or low spots. For flat sections of road, mitre
drains are required at frequent intervals of 50m to minimise silting.
Angle of mitre drains
The angle between the mitre drain and the side drain should not be greater than 45 degrees.
An angle of 30 degrees is ideal (Figure 9.6).
Figure 9.6: Angle of mitre drain
179
If it is necessary to take water off at an angle greater than 45 degrees, it should be done in
two or more bends so that each bend is not greater than 45 degrees (Figure 9.7).
Figure 9.7: Mitre drain angle greater than 45 degrees
9.4.7 Wet lands

Road crossings in wet areas, including damp meadows, swamps, high groundwater areas,
and spring sources, are problematic and undesirable. Wet areas are ecologically valuable and
difficult for road building. Soils in these areas are often weak and require considerable
subgrade reinforcement. Drainage measures are expensive and may have limited
effectiveness. Therefore, if at all possible, such areas should be avoided.
If wet areas must be crossed, special drainage or construction methods should be used to
reduce impacts from the crossing, which will usually require an embankment. They include
multiple drainage pipes or coarse permeable rock fill to keep the flow dispersed, subgrade
reinforcement with coarse permeable rock, grade control, and the use of filter layers and
geotextiles. The objective is to maintain the natural groundwater level and flow patterns
dispersed across the meadow and, at the same time, provide for a stable, dry roadway
surface.
Local wet areas can be temporarily crossed, or ‘bridged’ over, using logs, landing mats, tyres,
aggregate, and so on. Ideally, the temporary structure will be separated from the wet area
with a layer of geotextile. This helps to facilitate removal of the temporary material and
minimizes damage to the site. Also, a layer of geotextile can provide some reinforcement
strength as well as provide separation to keep aggregate or other materials from punching
into the weak subgrade.
Subsurface drainage, through use of under-drains or aggregate filter blankets, is commonly
used along a road in localised wet or spring areas, such as a wet cut bank with seepage, to
specifically remove the groundwater and keep the roadway subgrade dry. A typical under-
drain design uses an interceptor trench1-2 metres deep and backfilled with drain rock, as
shown in Figure 9.8.
Subsurface drainage is typically needed in local wet areas and is much more cost-effective
than adding a thick structural section to the road or making frequent road repairs. In extensive
swamp or wet areas, subsurface drainage will often not be effective. Here, either the roadway
platform needs to be raised well above the water table, or the surfacing thickness design may
be based upon wet, weak subgrade conditions that will require a relatively thick structural
180
section. A thick aggregate layer is commonly used, with the thickness based upon the
strength of the soil and anticipated traffic loads.
Figure 9.8: Typical sub-surface drain
9.4.8 Interceptor, cut-off or catch-water drains

As its names imply, such drains are constructed to prevent water flowing into vulnerable
locations by ‘intercepting’, ‘cutting off’ or ‘catching’ the water flow and diverting it to a safe
place.
For example, where the road is situated in sidelong ground on a hillside, a significant amount
of rainwater may flow down the hill towards the road. This may cause damage to the face of
cuttings and even cause landslips. Where this danger exists an interceptor drain should be
installed to intercept this surface water and carry it to a safe point of discharge; usually a
natural watercourse (Figure 9.9).
The interceptor drain should be located so that:
 It drains at a satisfactory gradient throughout its length (2%);
 It is not too close to the cut face. It should be at least 3-5m away so that it does not
increase the danger of a landslip.
If steep gradients in the drain are unavoidable then scour checks (Section 9.4.5) should be
installed.
The material excavated to form the drain is usually placed on the downhill side to form a
bund. Vegetation cover should be established as soon as possible in the invert and sloping
sides of the interceptor drain and bund to resist erosion. However, where no seepage is
tolerable, consideration should be given to lining the drain so that it is truly impermeable
thereby minimising the risk that water will weaken the cut slope.
181
Figure 9.9: An interceptor, cut-off or catch-water drain
The interceptor drain should normally be 600mm wide, 400mm (minimum) deep with sides
back-sloped at 3:1 (vertical: horizontal).
Similar interceptor drains can be used whenever water is flowing towards the road; they are
not restricted to protecting cut slopes, but such drains are only useful when surface runoff
rates are significant.
Surface runoff can be expected only during high intensity rainfall on moderate to steeply
inclined slopes, on slopes of low permeability where vegetation is patchy, or where runoff
from agricultural land becomes concentrated onto un-vegetated soil slopes. If surface runoff is
substantial, and there is a clear threat of erosion or slope failure further downslope, the use of
such drains is justifiable. However, they are not without problems. They are easily damaged
or blocked by debris and are often not seen and therefore not cleaned on a regular basis. In
addition, differential settlement or ground movement will dislocate masonry drains, leading to
concentrated seepage if they are constructed without polythene lining. If there is any doubt
about their effectiveness, or whether they can be maintained in the long term, it is better not to
build them than have them become forgotten and allowed to fall into disrepair, making
drainage and instability problems worse.
Factors to be considered in the design of surface drains are:
 Water collected by the drain must be discharged safely in a manner that will not
initiate erosion elsewhere;
 Construction of masonry-lined drains should be limited to undisturbed slope materials;
differential settlement, which frequently occurs in made ground and particularly at the
interface between natural ground and fill, will lead to rupture;
 Drain gradients should not exceed 15 %;
 For ease of maintenance and to minimise erosion they should be wide and have
sloped sides;
 Where people have to cross the drain, easy side slopes should be provided so that
the people will not fill the drain to cross it.
 Stepped drain outlets should be provided with a cascade down to the collection point;
 Drains should discharge into a stream channel wherever possible, and preferably into
channels that already convey a sizeable flow in comparison to the drain discharge;
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 Low points in the drain system should be designed against overtopping by widening
or raising the side walls;
 Lengths of drain should be kept short by the construction of frequent outlets in order
to reduce erosion potential should drain failure occur.
Where it is not practicable to discharge cut-off drainage into an adjacent stream channel,
cascades can be constructed down the cut slope to convey water into the side drain.
However, these structures are often vulnerable to the effects of side splash, undermining by
seepage erosion and concentrated runoff along their margins. They must be designed to
contain the water, and their margins must be protected with vegetation or stone pitching.
In very sensitive locations a simple earth bund can be constructed instead of a cut-off drain.
The disadvantage is that material may have to be excavated a little way from the bund and
cast or transported. However, the distinct advantage is that the soil surface is not disturbed at
the bund and existing vegetation can be encouraged to grow onto the bund to stabilise it. A
range of bio-engineering measures can also be used in sensitive areas and specialist advice
should be sought on this.
9.4.9 Chutes
Chutes are structures intended to convey a concentration of water down a slope that, without
such protection, would be subject to scour. Since flow velocities are very high, stilling basins
are required to prevent downstream erosion. The entrance of the chute needs to be designed
to ensure that water is deflected from the side drain into the chute, particularly where the road
is on the steep grade.
9.5 General Erosion Control

Erosion forces are one of the most destructive forces an engineer has to contend with in
designing and constructing roads but the problem of erosion can be minimised by providing
suitable precautions at all stages in the design.
The construction of a road often requires land clearing and levelling in the preparation stage. It
involves removal of shrubs and trees that are normally acting as wind-breaks, rainfall ‘sponges’
and soil stabilisers and therefore, on removal, the soil erosion process is accelerated,
especially in sloping areas.
After construction, erosion often appears in road embankments as gullies in the shoulders and
embankment slopes; as gouges in the side drains, which endangers the traffic; and the actual
road foundation. It undermines fills and backslopes, initiating landslides, undermines bridge
foundations and other road structures, clogging drainage ditches, culverts and other waterways
in the watershed.
It is often impossible to make reliable predictions concerning the full extent of erosion protection
likely to be required until the road drainage system is fully functioning and the slopes and
drainage channels have responded to the new drainage regime. Constructed roads interrupt
the natural drainage of an area, and concentrated water discharge through culverts and drains
leads to soil erosion if the drainage is not properly designed.
The general design philosophy of stream course protection is to dissipate as much water
energy as possible in the vicinity of the road itself, where erosion is likely to be worst, and
protect outfall channels down to a point where they are large enough or sufficiently resistant to
withstand the increased flow.
Outfall channel protection usually consists of check dams, cascades and channel linings. It is
not uncommon to build protection works for 20-60m downstream of culverts, and there are
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instances where they have been constructed for distances of 500m or more. If investment to
this level of protection is considered necessary, it is clearly important to be sure that the
measures will be effective.
Protection of erodible channels upstream of culverts is usually accomplished by check dams
and cascades constructed over much shorter lengths, and usually within 20m of the inlet.
Good erosion control should preferably start at the top of the rainfall catchment with the
objective being the reduction of water run-off towards the road. The road should be designed
with sufficient numbers of culverts and mitre drains to avoid large concentrations of water
discharging through the structures. Below the road, water should be channelled safely to a
disposal point (e.g. a stream) or dispersed without causing damage to the land.
Often the problem of erosion extends beyond the road environment itself and affects dams,
slopes, rivers and streams well away from the road. The steepness of the cut slopes and
constructed embankments together with a deficiency in drainage means that landslides may
result.
The storage of spoil during road construction may kill local indigenous vegetation, which can
cause erosion and slope stability problems. In mountainous regions large quantities of spoil
can be generated and the balance between cut and fill is difficult to maintain. Storage of spoil or
disposal through haulage may be difficult; therefore the process will involve more effective
environmental management to avoid erosion problems.
The channelling of run-off through new routes will result in changes within the natural
equilibrium. Excessive water flows may be generated when drainage ditches and other water
control structures have become blocked or damaged. The excessive flows will find new routes,
which will result in an enlargement of the erosion problems.
Chain impacts, including soil contamination and damage will affect the road environment. Soil
contamination will possibly result in vegetation loss and therefore resistance to erosion.
Construction of the road may result in deforestation which, in turn, will lead to erosion of bare
slopes, the re-channelling of rivers and streams, possibly minor landslides and changes in the
microclimatic conditions. The roadworks themselves will temporarily increase waterborne
material because rainfall erodes the surface of temporary or new surfaces before they are
stabilised.
9.5.1 Identifying and assessing potential erosion problems

The initial project survey will possibly indicate the range of problems that may be
encountered, and the design should include measures to mitigate the problems. The following
should be considered:
1. Previous or similar construction projects. These can be useful indicators, and
evidence of erosion problems can be obtained from the local population.
2. Desk study as part of the pre-feasibility study. More detailed information can often be
obtained from a desk study, from maps (geological hydrological, and topographic)
and aerial photographs if available.
3. Historic evidence. Signs of erosion or soil instability and evidence of major floods and
local agricultural practices should be sought.
4. Drainage design. Consider how water flows will be concentrated by the construction
of the road.
5. Cleared areas. Review the areas that will no longer be vegetated after the
construction.
6. Cut or fill slopes. Review the slopes that will be at greater angles than previous
natural slopes.
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9.5.2 Mitigation measures to control erosion and scour

There are a wide range of methods and techniques that may be employed to prevent erosion
and allow for the construction of a road in an environment with little or no erosion impact. The
simple technique of replanting cleared areas will be effective generally, while the more difficult
cases may be addressed with measures such as retaining walls.
The simplest ways of controlling erosion of soil in road projects is by avoidance. This can be
achieved by:
 Reducing the area of ground that is to be cleared;
 Quickly replanting cleared areas, maintaining the planted areas and specific bio-
engineering measures;
 Avoiding erosion sensitive alignments;
 Controlling the rate and volume of water flows in the area.
Replanting
An important method for reducing erosion and stability problems is by replanting cleared
areas. It is suggested that this procedure should be carried out as early as possible during
the construction process, and before the erosion becomes too advanced. It is important to
select the correct vegetation that will address the specific engineering function required for
stabilisation.
The engineering functions of vegetation in erosion protection measures are:
 Retaining material from moving over the soil surface;
 Armour plating the surface against erosion and abrasion;
 Supporting the slope by stabilising it from the base;
 Reinforcing the soil by increasing its effective shear strength;
 Drain the soil profile by taking water into the roots.
Slope protection
Avoiding erosion by stabilising slopes requires good engineering design of the slope form and
drainage. This topic is dealt with in more detail in the Chapter 10 on Roadside Slope Stability.
Riprap
The size of riprap needed to protect the stream bank and not move is related to the speed of
flow as shown in Figure 9.12. The flow along a long tangent section of stream, or the flow
parallel (VP) to the stream, is assumed to be about 2/3, or 67%, of the average velocity
(VAVE). The flow in a curved section of stream, with an impinging flow, has an assumed
impinging velocity (VI) equal to about 4/3, or 133%, of the average velocity, VAVE. Thus,
riprap in an area with relatively fast flow, such as a bend in the channel, will have higher
stresses and require larger rock than the size needed in a straight part of the channel.
Note that most of the rock should be as large as, or larger than, the size indicated in Figure
9.10. The Isbash Curve indicates the maximum size rock that might be considered in a critical
application. If suitably large rock is not available then the use of cement grouted rock,
masonry, or gabions should be considered. Riprap installation details are shown in the Note in
Figure 9.10.
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Figure 9.10: Size of stone that will resist displacement for various velocities of water
flow and side slopes
Figures 9.11 and 9.12 illustrate the use of riprap. Ideally riprap should be placed upon a
stable foundation and upon a filter layer made either of coarse sand, gravel, or a geotextile.
The riprap itself should be graded to have a range of sizes that will minimise the voids and
form a dense layer. The riprap should be placed in a layer with a thickness that is at least 1.5
times the size (diameter) of the largest specified stone, with the thickest zone at the base of
the rock. In a stream channel, the riprap layer should cover the entire wetted channel sides,
with some freeboard, and it should be placed to a depth equal or greater than the depth of
expected scour.
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Figure 9.11: Use of riprap 1
Figure 9.12: Use of riprap 2
Filters
A filter serves as a transitional layer of small gravel or geotextile placed between a structure,
such as riprap, and the underlying soil. Its purpose is to prevent the movement of soil behind
riprap, gabions or into under-drains, and allow groundwater to drain from the soil without
building up pressure.
Traditionally, coarse sand or well-graded, free draining gravel have been used for filter
materials. A sand or gravel filter layer is typically about 150 to 300mm thick. In some
applications, two filter layers may be needed between fine soil and very large rock. Filter
criteria have been developed to determine the particle size and gradation relationships
needed between the fine soil, a filter material, and coarse rock such as riprap and are well
documented elsewhere.
Today, geotextiles are commonly used to provide filter zones between materials of different
size and gradation because they are economical if manufactured locally, easy to install, and
perform well with a wide range of soils. When using geotextiles the fabric should be pulled
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tight across the soil area to be protected before the rock is placed. The geotextile can be a
woven monofilament or a needle punched non-woven geotextile, but it must be permeable.
The geotextile needs to have an apparent opening size of 0.25 to 0.5 mm. In the absence of
2
other information, a 200 g/m needle-punched non- woven geotextile is commonly used for
many soil filtration and separation applications. Other common geotextile or geosynthetic
material applications on roads include subgrade reinforcement to reduce the thickness of
needed aggregate over very weak soils; separation of aggregate from soft subgrade soils;
reinforcement of soils in structures such as retaining walls and reinforced fills; and entrapment
of sediment with silt fences.
If knowledgeable engineers are not available, then geotextile distributors or manufacturers
should be consulted regarding the function and appropriate types of geotextile to use in
various engineering applications. Alternatively, information is available on the requirements of
different geotextiles for filter applications in the references.
Erosion and scour protection of the road itself

Water produces harmful effects on road shoulders, slopes, drainage ditches and all the other
road structures featured in the design. Spectacular failures can occur when cuttings collapse
or embankments and bridges are carried away by flood-water. High water velocities can result
in erosion that, if severe, can lead to the road being destroyed. For each type of structure
used in the road, specific erosion problems can occur. Section 9.4.5 describes methods of
minimising and controlling erosion in road side drains and other forms of drainage ditch. The
specific problems associated with fords, drifts and bridge foundations are discussed in
Volume 2.
It should also be noted that low flow velocities can result in silt being deposited which will, in
turn, block the various drainage structures. The blockage could result in the drainage
structure being overtopped at the next flood event. The diverted water then forges a new un-
planned route, which results in erosion and possible washout in a new area. It is for this
reason that the initial step in road drainage design is that of a hydrological assessment. This
will provide design discharges from all major drainage structures and for rivers and streams
adjacent to the road alignment.
9.6 Particular Drainage Problems in Severe Terrain

Much of what has been said already in previous sections is directly applicable in mountainous
areas. However, the situations in such terrain are usually much more severe. Drainage
structures have to resist scour and transmit debris every year and failure to do so will damage
or destroy them more effectively than a hydraulic surcharge. It is apparent from experience in
mountainous terrain that culverts and bridges are rarely subjected to surcharge or overtopping
before the foundations are undermined by scour or the waterway is blocked by debris, both of
which can occur during the course of a single flood.
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Figure 9.13: Suggested apron details for side drain turnout
9.6.1 Road Construction along valley floors

Valley floor and lower valley side alignments can encounter some or all of the following
landforms and hazards:
 Broad rivers that may rise and fall rapidly by several metres on a regular basis;
 Rivers which are actively meandering and changing their plan-form, which could
subsequently encroach on the alignment;
 Active river flood plains that are likely to flow full at least once a year - the erosive
power against the banks of a river in flood is very great;
 Vigorous tributary streams that are usually highly erosive and capable of transporting
large volumes of sediment;
 Fans from tributary valleys that are either eroding rapidly or building up by
accumulating debris;
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 Flood plain terraces that may be susceptible to river scour on numerous occasions
during the wet season, and inundation once every 2-3 years;
 Higher level terraces that may be subject to scour on a regular basis where they
protrude onto the active flood plain;
 Rock spurs or promontories that project into the flood plain, forming obstacles to river
flow and road alignment;
 Steep, and often eroded, rock slopes on the outside of valley meander bends;
 Slope instability on the lower valley sides in general.
These conditions are most common on youthful valley floors, and especially those with
gradients steeper than 1 in 20. The rivers that occupy these valley floors drain steep and
frequently unstable catchments. Their flood plains will be either so confined and erosive that
the development of terrace sequences has not been possible, or will be subject to cyclic
erosion and side slope instability over engineering time-scales to an extent that any preserved
terrace surfaces cannot be regarded as safe for road alignment. In such situations, valley floor
road alignments should be avoided altogether, otherwise frequent loss of significant sections
of road will be inevitable.
Where a valley floor is comparatively mature, and ancient high level terraces are well
preserved, then a road alignment located at the back of these terraces, combined with
intervening rock cut, may prove satisfactory. If valley side rock mass conditions are not
especially adverse to stability, it is usually preferable to construct a road in full cut, or a
combination of cut and retained fill through these rocky areas, with a freeboard above the
highest anticipated flood level. Where valley side stability conditions are unfavourable, or
where river flooding could cause erosion and slope failure to extend far enough upslope to
undermine road foundations, it is advisable to examine the practicalities and costs of an
alternative alignment altogether.
The cost of constructing roads in major river valleys in mountainous terrain is high and largely
independent of traffic levels.
The various design considerations associated with road construction in valley floor locations
are discussed below.
9.6.2 Freeboard
It is usual to provide the road surface and associated structures with a freeboard of 2m above
design flood level to accommodate surface waves and to provide some leeway in the
estimation of flood level. The freeboard can be reduced to 1-1.5m in cases where the
hydraulic analysis is more reliable. However, the calculation of the design flood is a
particularly difficult task when rainfall and flow gauging data are limited or non-existent; and
where a catchment run-off regime is subject to short term fluctuations brought about by road
construction, land use change, extreme rainstorms and cycles of slope instability, channel
incision and sedimentation. Although widely appreciated, it is also important to remember
that flood levels can be substantially higher on the outside of meander bends than anywhere
else along a given reach.
9.6.3 Flood plain scour and embankment protection

Flood plain scour, flood plain deposition and valley side instability usually occur at predictable
locations. However, external influences, such as tributary fan incursions onto the flood plain,
temporary landslide dams and engineering structures, can cause significant short-term
modifications to flood plain processes and flow patterns. These should be identified and
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monitored during the course of construction and maintenance, with appropriate steps taken to
protect or locally realign affected sections of road.
It can be assumed that maximum velocities around the concave (outside) banks of river
bends and in valley constrictions are between 1.5 - 2 times greater than average or calculated
velocities. On highly active flood plains with mobile bed material, predicted and actual scour
depths can frequently exceed 5m, and occasionally 10m. Foundation excavations for road
retaining walls and other structures are often impracticable at these depths, given the nature
of the bed material and the requirements for dewatering the excavation.
Mortared masonry walls are more durable than gabion walls in abrasive riverside locations
and they have the potential to arch over small areas of scour, where gabion walls are more
likely to deform. Even when heavy-duty selvedge wire is used, gabion boxes are easily
broken open by debris-laden water flowing at velocities greater than 4m/s, which is not
unusual.
Where there is no choice but to construct a retaining wall within the zone of highly erosive
floodwaters, it is worthwhile extending foundation excavations deeper than the depth required
for bearing capacity considerations alone, in the expectation that bedrock will be encountered,
to obtain a stable foundation for a masonry wall. Alternatively, where the foundation is
composed of a significant proportion (usually 50% or greater) of large boulders, the softer
materials can be excavated and replaced by concrete to provide a stable foundation for a
masonry wall.
However, it is frequently the case that neither of these foundation conditions is achievable
within practicable excavations depths, and especially on the outside of river bends where
scoured bedrock and boulders have been replaced by finer-grained materials. The potential
for foundation scour in these situations will usually dictate that a flexible gabion structure is
adopted in preference to a more rigid masonry one, and combined with whatever scour
protection works are feasible under the circumstances. Foundation stability can be improved
by constructing the retaining wall on a concrete raft, thus reducing differential settlements.
Sacrificial walls, double thicknesses of gabion mesh, gabion mattresses and stone rip-rap are
likely to prove effective during small and medium-sized flood events only, and will require
regular repair or replacement. Reinforced concrete rip-rap can be fabricated in situ if
sufficiently large local stone rip-rap is unavailable or cannot be transported to the site, as is
often the case. However, the cost of fabricating rip-rap to the required dimension (3m in some
cases) is usually prohibitive, and it is usual to adopt a compromise solution under conditions
of extreme scour potential.
9.6.4 Cross drainage and tributary fan crossings

Where alignments are located on the lower slopes of steep valley sides, cut slopes can
truncate drainage channels with the result that, during heavy rain, sediment and water may
overshoot culvert inlets and discharge directly onto the road surface. This is usually remedied
by constructing a large catch-wall between the culvert inlet and the road edge, or by providing
a dished (concave) concrete causeway. On occasions, concentrated run-off and slope failures
will erode new gullies that will require some form of culvert or other drainage provision. A
causeway is likely to be the only practicable remedy.
Tributary fans present a range of problems for road alignments. It is useful to differentiate
between:
 Mature and stable high level fans;
 Equilibrium fans;
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 Immature and unstable fans.

Mature and stable fan surfaces are usually preserved as old, high level landforms that have
become incised by rejuvenated stream channels. The principal problem for road construction
on high-level fans, other than alignment constraints, is the choice of a suitable site to cross
the incised channel, bearing in mind that its banks will be composed of unconsolidated and
erodible materials.
In the case of equilibrium fan surfaces, all sediment supplied to the fan is transported out of
the catchment by one or a number of well-defined channels. Equilibrium fans, and their wide
flood plains, will usually comprise a number of distributary flow channels with only one or two
of them occupied during normal flow conditions. Other channels may become occupied every
2-3 years or so, in response to floods or landslide (generated debris flows from further
upstream). These fans are usually associated with terrace sequences on the adjacent valley
floor and, therefore, represent a stage of drainage development between mature high level
fans and immature, active fans on flood plains (described below).
A thorough understanding of the flow patterns across equilibrium fan surfaces is required
before a road alignment and bridging structures are designed. Artificially increased
channelisation and bank protection of the normal flow channel may increase its definition and
capacity in order to allow the design of a road crossing that consists of:
 A relatively short span bridge;
 Approach embankments;
 Vented causeways and drifts (multi-culverted embankments to cater for other
distributary channels.
See Volume 2 for detail on raod crossing alternatives..
Immature and unstable fan surfaces are usually characterised by cyclical regimes of erosion
and deposition across the whole fan surface during the course of individual storms, and a
general process of fan aggradation from one year to the next. The crossing of these fans
presents severe problems to valley floor alignments. Sediments will accumulate wherever
flow velocity decreases as a result of an abrupt concavity in the channel profile or a sudden
increase in channel width. Ideally, valley floor alignments should cross fans immediately
upstream of these concavities and, if possible, at the fan apex.
Bridge clearance of at least 5 - 7m should be provided above the existing fan surface level
wherever a fan is actively aggrading and its tributary catchment is unstable. However, it is not
always possible to conform with this recommendation due to alignment constraints, unstable
valley sides adjacent to the fan apex, or the fact that the apex is poorly defined and the fan
itself extends upstream into the tributary valley. Under these circumstances, a combination of
the following may be the only viable option:
 Gabion check-dams in the stream channel above the fan and erosion control in the
catchment above, to control the stream bed level;
 River training and scour protection works upstream and downstream of the bridge, to
control the stream course;
 A commitment to regular maintenance and waterway clearing operations, to keep flow
within the channel and to provide room for the accumulation of debris during fan-
building episodes.
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Design strategies for crossing unstable fan surfaces are summarised below.
1. Where rates of fan deposition are low and where the flow path across the fan is
reasonably consistent, a road can be formed on a causeway, preferably constructed in
reinforced concrete or gabion. If gabion construction is used, no wire baskets should be
left exposed to abrasion by passing rocks. They should be protected with a mortar
rendering or equivalent durable surface.
2. Cross the fan via a track that is re-cut after every aggrading or eroding storm flow. This
approach will require the following considerations:
 Vehicular access must be prohibited during and for a few hours after each flood;
 As the fan surface builds up over time, temporary access will have to be cut deeper
into the fan surface and may eventually become waterlogged and impassable during
the entire wet season;
 An alternative to the above is an ever-enlarging detour downstream across the fan,
eventually coming to an end when the detour reached the flood plain at the base of
the fan;
 Flood flows will tend to run down either side of the fan and erode the road on the fan
approaches.
3. Select a relatively narrow channel across or, preferably to one side of the fan surface
(depending on drainage pattern). Use river training gabions and excavation to
concentrate flow through this channel. Construct a bridge over the entire width of the fan
with at least 7m clearance. This approach will require the following considerations:
 River training gabions will tend to be scoured and undermined towards the fan apex;
 Deposition of fine-grained material towards the end of each storm may bury the river
training gabions to the extent that during the next storm a new channel will be formed
and the existing gabions may be outflanked or destroyed;
 If the bridge does not extend the full width of the fan, there is a risk that it may be
outflanked by changes in flow pattern across the fan surface leading to bridge
redundancy and erosion of the approach embankments.
4. Extending the concept of river training further, construct a continuous masonry or
concrete spillway from the fan apex to a point downstream of the bridge. The slope and
cross-section of this structure must be such that flow velocities are sufficient to transport
bedload from the apex of the fan to the flood plain downstream. This approach will
require the following considerations:
 Flow along the external margins of the structure, leading to undermining, is likely to
occur unless its inlet is adequately keyed into both banks of the upstream channel;
 During peak run-off the floor of the spillway may be scoured and eventually destroyed
by passing boulders;
 During the later stages of storm run-off, the channel might still become blocked by
fine- grained sediment, which will require clearing- the shape of the channel should be
made to facilitate this and access to it provided for machinery.
5. Install check dams in the gulley upstream of the fan apex to retain sediment. This
approach will require the following considerations:
 The checkdams may be destroyed during the first few storms in a channel where
aggradation of the fan itself is rapid;
 The volume of sediment that can be trapped behind a check dam system is usually
insignificant in comparison with the volume transported and transportable material;
193
 Artificially raising the channel bed upstream of the fan apex could easily lead to
increased rates of aggradation.
References.
USAID, 2006. Bridge design manual. MRB, GoSS

USAID, 2006. Drainage design manual. MRB, GoSS.
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10 Earthworks and Roadside Slope Design and Stabilisation

10.1 Introduction
In order to comply with horizontal or vertical geometric guidelines and thus permit reasonable
access for users, LVR alignments in hilly or mountainous areas may require the construction
of cuts or embankment earthworks. On low plain areas liable to flood it may be necessary to
raise roads on embankment. In general terms these earthworks should be designed to
minimise subsequent slope failure by implementing designs and construction procedures that
are compatible with the engineering properties of the excavated soil-rock or the placed fill,
whilst at the same time taking into account the impact of these earthworks on existing slopes
or foundations.
The aim of any low cost approach to earthworks design is to excavate to safe slope angles
without having to resort to extensive use of support structures. However, the interaction of
LVR route alignment and the geometry or instability of the natural slopes may be such that
construction to recognised safe angles is not an economical or engineering feasibility
Engineered stabilisation may have to be considered, particularly in areas of identified natural
hazard. If temporary road closures and debris clearance can be tolerated and allowed for in
maintenance, then a steeper slope may be more economic.
10.2 Cut-slopes
Where possible, LVR cut slopes are generally designed on precedent or modified precedent
principles, based on past experience with similar soil and rock materials. Cut slopes greater
than 3-5m in height may require a more detailed engineering geological assessment
depending on the complexity of the ground conditions. This would include an assessment of
the strength of the soil-rock materials and the mass structure (See Chapter 5 and Appendix
E).
The slope angles indicated in Table 10.1 have been provided as a general guide for LVRs.
Note that these angles cannot be applied without due consideration of the ground conditions.
Table 10.1 Suggested Cut-Slope Gradients
Slopes (V:H) for Various Cut Heights

Soil –Rock Classification
<5m 5-10 m 10-15 m
Hard rock (without adverse structure) 1:0.3 – 1:0.8
Soft rock 1:0.5 – 1:1.2
Sand Loose, poorly graded 1:1.5
Dense or well graded 1:0.8 – 1:1.0 1:1.0 – 1:1.2 -

Sandy soil
Loose 1:1.0 – 1:1.2 1:1.2 – 1:1.5 -
Sandy soil, mixed Dense, well graded 1:0.8 – 1:1.2 1:1.0 – 1:1.2
with gravel or rock Loose, poorly graded 1:1.0 – 1:1.2 1:1.2 – 1:1.5
Cohesive soil 1:0.8 – 1:1.2 -
Cohesive soil, Mixed with rock or cobbles 1:1.0 – 1:1.2 1:1.2 – 1:1.5 -
Cuttings in strong homogenous rock masses can often be very steep where adverse structure
is not present, but in weathered rocks and soils it is necessary to use shallower slopes. In
heterogeneous slopes, where both weak and hard rock occur, the appropriate cut-slope angle
195
can be determined on the basis of the location, nature and structure of the different materials
and the variations in permeability between the different horizons. One of the most effective
ways to decide upon a suitable cut slope is to survey existing cuttings in similar materials along
other roads or natural exposures in the surrounding areas. Generally, new cuttings can be
formed at the same slope as stable existing cuttings if they are in the same material with the
same overall structure. In rock excavations, persistent joint, bedding or foliation surfaces may
determine the final cut slope profile.
Excavation of rock slopes should be undertaken in such a way that disturbance, for example
due to blasting, is minimised. It should also be undertaken in a manner to produce material of
such size that allows it to be placed in embankments in accordance with the requirements.
Cut slope profiles can be single-sloped, or benched. Single-sloped profiles are usually cut in
uniform soil or rock materials or excavations less than 5-10m. Benched slopes are generally
used in deeper cuts or where layered soil rock profiles are encountered. The construction of
benches should be considered to intercept falling debris and control the flow of water. There is
no hard rule regarding the dimension of benches, but a preliminary approach is to provide
bench widths that are one third of the height of the cut immediately above. Outward sloping
benches are generally not recommended because this may concentrate and erode channels
through the bench if the bench is in weathered rock or soil. If the bench is in strong,
unweathered rock then this erosion will not occur and outward sloping benches are permitted.
In weaker materials the water should be encouraged to drain along the bench to a discharge
point rather than over it. Maintenance of these drains is important to prevent water
accumulating on the bench.
10.3 Embankments
Embankments may be required to:
 Raise the road above flood level on low-lying flat ground;
 Reduce steep gradients and minimise excess spoil in hilly terrain;
 Facilitate suitable access in steep hilly or mountainous terrain.
Embankment design must accommodate two related elements; the design of the embankment
itself using available materials and the strength or compressibility of its foundation.
Embankment slopes should be designed taking into account both elements; angles for
embankment fill on sound foundations are presented in Table 10.2.
Table 10.2 Suggested Fill Slope Gradients
Embankment Side-slope (V:H) for Various Heights

Fill materials
5m 5-10m 10-15m 15-20m
Well graded sand, gravels,

1:1.5 – 1:1.8 1:1.8 – 1:2.0
sandy or silty gravels
Poorly graded sand 1:1.8 – 1:2.0
Weathered rock spoil 1:1.5 – 1:1.8 1:1.8 – 1:2.0
Sandy soils, hard clayey soil

1:1.5 – 1:1.8 1:1.8 – 1:2.0 --
and hard clay
Soft clayey soils 1:1.8 – 1:2.0 - --
Fill slopes over 3m in height or any embankment on soft soils, in unstable areas, or those on
expansive clays may require site-specific geotechnical assessment depending on specific
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ground conditions. Fill placed near or against a bridge abutment or foundation, or that can
impact on a nearby structure, may require specific stability analysis.
For embankments founded on soft soils the most usual design option in low-cost road
engineering is recommend excavation down to satisfactory strength materials where possible.
Where this is not feasible then detailed geotechnical analysis will be required. The options of
access route alignment to avoid soft soils areas is the most suitable course of action.
The overall stability of a fill slope on a hillside may be difficult to assess. Before constructing a
fill slope on side-long ground, it is necessary to terrace or step the formation in order to
prevent a possible slip surface from developing at the interface between the fill and the
natural ground. The potential for failure along a deeper surface in the ground beneath should
be considered, although this rarely happens since the strength of soils tends to increase with
depth. Problems can occur when strata or foliations in the rock masses beneath the fill are
dipping parallel to the ground slope, or where the groundwater table is at or very close to the
surface.
10.4 Cut-fill Cross Sections

Cut-fill cross sections are a combination of excavation into hillside above the alignment and
placement of the excavated fill on the “down” side. Although the cut-fill option is attractive in
terms of cut-fill balance and is a common situation in many hill or mountainous access routes,
it also a frequent cause of access failure unless adequate design and construction
precautions are adopted; Figure 10.1.
Uncompacted fill is
Water runs down Rain falling on fill
cut slope and portion permeates also liable to surface
across cut half of through the soil erosion or mass
road bench mass slumps
Steep cut slope:

increased risk of
slope failure
Half road bench cut in

original ground (more
consolidated, less
permeable) Half road bench
formed in fill (less
consolidated and
more permeable)
Fill tipped on unbenched slope:
Potential failures
original surface forms a
hydrologically active plane and may
Water flows act as a slip plane
Figure 10.1 The Cut-Fill Situation
Key requirements for an adequate design are:

 Suitable cut slope excavation (see above);
 Fill section key-in to natural slope;
 Adequate drainage to prevent pore pressure build-up or lubrication of the cut-fill
interface;
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 Specification for compaction of fill in layers and not simply dumped over the alignment
edge;
 Specification of complete removal of vegetation and organic material prior to
construction;
 construction of embankments on loose spoil material derived from earlier excavations;
 Prevention of erosion on slopes immediately below the embankment.
10.5 Roadside Slope Instability

Unstable natural slopes, cuts and embankments in South Sudan have the potential to disrupt
traffic flow and create a considerable problem to road users, particularly during rainy seasons.
These slope failures or landslides typically occur where a natural slope is too steep, a cut
slope in soil and/or weathered rock contains weak materials or adverse joints, or fill material is
not properly compacted. In all three cases, the change in groundwater regime following
rainfall can lead to an overall reduction in stability and possibly failure. Once slope failures are
initiated they can develop rapidly.
Erosion can also take place on unprotected fill slopes adjacent to river channels, especially
downstream of culverts, bridges and roadside turnouts. In addition, uncontrolled runoff can
erode the roadside drain, road pavement and the edge of the road (Chapter 9). Sediment
derived from the erosion not only impacts on the road, but also on the wider environment.
Large landslides can also contribute significant volumes of debris to watercourses, with
significant downstream effects.
Slope stabilisation and erosion control can employ a range of methods to reduce the causes
of failure, together with measures to improve the stability of slopes. It is important to select
affordable methods that are relevant to the class of the road, the type of landslide, the
materials involved and the extent of the slope instability problem. Techniques commonly used
to prevent the occurrence of landslides and to stabilise the existing slope failures include
earthworks (cuts and fills), retaining structures and revetments, surface and sub-soil drainage
and bioengineering. Stabilisation methods that involve more substantial engineering works
involve anchoring, piling and deep subsurface drainage, but these are rarely used on low
volume roads. For LVRs, a combination of bioengineering, low cost retaining walls such as
gabions, dry-stone and mortared masonry walls, and surface drainage structures is a cost-
effective method to stabilise slopes.
It should be noted that whilst this chapter is based on international best practice, the
recommendations may not be the only options needed to stabilise slopes and mitigate the
effects of landslides in South Sudan. The engineer should combine these recommendations
with effective existing local practice.
For most minor slope failures, any remedial work will often rely on visual observation and the
use of simple measures such as debris clearance, trimming, and the removal of overhangs.
While this may be acceptable for many situations along low volume roads, there are
occasions when additional measures are required.
10.6 Instability Types

Roadside instability may involve one or more of the following situations
 Above alignment erosion or failure of cut-slopes;
 Below alignment erosion or failure of embankment slopes;
 Failure in natural ground.
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Figure 10.2 and Table 10.3 summarise common instability scenarios.

Table 10.3. Common types of erosion and slope failure
Mechanism Description Depth

Rills and gullies form in weak,
unprotected surfaces. Most common on Usually in the top 0.1 metre,
Erosion on the surface. fill and tipped spoil. Erosion should be but can become deeper if
expected on all bare or freshly prepared not controlled.
slopes.
Erosion that is established on the slope
Usually in the top 0.5 metre,
Gully erosion. continues to develop and grow bigger.
but can become deeper if
Large gullies often have small landslides
not controlled.
along the sides.
Mass slope failure on a shallow slip
plane parallel to the surface. This is the
most common type of landslide, slip or Frequently 0.5 metre or less
Shear failure
debris fall. The plane of failure is usually below surface (or along a
(translational landslide,
visible but may not be straight, local discontinuity) but may
planar or debris slide). be several metres deep.
depending on site conditions. It may
occur on any scale, and large areas of
subsidence may also be due to these.
Mass slope failure on a deep, curved slip
plane, with the toe of the debris rising
Shear failure (rotational slightly. Some small, deep landslides in Often more than 1.5 metres
landslide). residual soil are the result of this deep, even in a small failure.
process, but generally they are not
common.
Slumping or flow where material is poorly
drained or has low cohesion between
particles and liquefaction is reached.
Slumping or flow of These sometimes appear afterwards like Frequently 0.5 metre or less
planar slides, but are due to flow rather
material when very wet. below surface.
than sliding. The resulting debris
normally has a rounded profile. They
may occur on steeply cultivated land
following intense rainfall.
Collapse due to failure of the supporting
material. This normally takes the form of
Rock or debris fall or a rock fall where there is a weakness or 0.5 to 2 metres in road cuts;
collapse. fracture in a rock mass, or where a deeper in natural cliffs.
weaker band of material has eroded to
undermine a harder band above.
In gullies and small, steep river channels
(bed gradient usually more than 15),
debris flows can occur following intensive
rain storms. This takes the form of a The flow depth is usually 1
Debris flow.
rapid but viscous flow of liquefied mud to 2 metres deep.
and debris. The depositional area may
cover a broad area below the outlet of
the channel.
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Failure by undercutting of natural

slope
Failure in cut-slope
Shallow failure in cut-slope
Erosion of cut slope
surface
Surface erosion
leading to failure
Deep failure
River or
stream
erosion Failure in Fill
Failure in fill & natural
ground
Failure natural ground
Figure 10.2 Typical Roadside Slope Failure Scenarios
10.6.1 Above-road instability

The types of slope failures and erosion processes commonly observed above a road
alignment include:
 Erosion of cut slope surface;
 Failures in cut slope;
 Failures in cut slope and hill-slope;
 Failures in hill-slope;
 Deep failure in original ground.
10.6.2 Below road instability

The types of slope failures and erosion processes commonly observed above a road
alignment include:
 Erosion of fill slope surfaces;
 Failure of embankment slopes;
 Failure of embankment foundation;
 Combination of the above.
10.6.3 Embankments on soft and organic soils
Embankments on soft soils, in unstable areas require site-specific geotechnical assessment

depending on specific ground conditions. Some options for designing and constructing
embankments on weak or problem spoils are outlined below.
Replacement: The weak or problem soil is removed, either partly or completely, and replaced
by suitable material. Removal deposit solves stability and settlement problems, the
embankment will be founded on firmer ground and settlement will be greatly reduced. In the
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partial excavation of soft materials the remaining soft deposit is later consolidated. If
necessary, surcharging is provided to accelerate settlement so that the majority of settlement
will be completed during construction.
Replacement by excavation method needs a considerable quantity of suitable material.
Borrow material should be available within acceptable economical hauling distance. Therefore
this method would be most suitable in cut and fill sections of alignment where fill material is
available from the cutting areas. Granular free draining material (sand, gravel or a mixture of
sand and gravel) should be used as fill material when filling is to be done below water.
Cohesive soil can be used when the excavation is dry and the fill material can be compacted
in lifts as normally specified.
In partial excavation a layer of free draining material may be required as a drainage blanket at
the base of the fill to speed up consolidation of the remaining soft layer during construction.
The economic limits to full removal would be around 3-4 m.
Counterweight berms: The principle of counterweight berms is to add weight to the toe of
the embankment to increase the resistance against slip or lateral spreading. When used in
front of approach fill to a bridge this method will increase stability thus reducing lateral
pressure on the substructure. This option is very effective in solving stability problems with
soft soils but will not solve the long term settlement problem that may be particularly
associated with organic materials.
Surcharging: Surcharging involves placing temporary additional load onto the proposed
embankment to increase primary settlement. The load applied should be sufficient that the
settlement during the construction period is equal to the total expected settlement from the
embankment less the allowable post construction settlement. When the desired settlement
has been achieved the surcharge is removed. The effectiveness of this method depends on
the following factors:
• Thickness of the soft soil;
• Permeability of the soft soil;
• The presence of drainage layers;
• Available construction time;
• Shear strength of the soft soil.
The time required to achieve a certain degree of consolidation is proportional to the square of
the length of the vertical drainage path. A relatively shallow or thin layer of soil can be
consolidated faster so that the desired amount of settlement can be achieved during
construction. Thick layers of soft compressible clayey soil could require tens of years to
achieve 90% consolidation.
Staged construction: As consolidation progresses in the soft soil under the embankment
load, the void ratio in the subsoil decreases and hence density increases and the undrained
strength increase and increase in shear strength of the subsoil is a function of the degree of
consolidation. Therefore the rate of filling can be controlled to allow sufficient consolidation to
provide the required strength increase. This method should be considered when the design
height of the embankment exceeds the critical height that can be safely supported by the
subsoil.
Use of light material: The stability and amount of settlement of road embankments
constructed on soft soil depend on the weight of the embankment; therefore reducing the
weight of the embankment will reduce stress in the subsoil and reduce excessive settlement
and instability. By using lighter fill material than ordinary fill the weight of embankment will be
reduced.
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10.6.4 Embankments in an expansive soil environment

Expansive soils are those which exhibit particularly large volumetric changes (swell and
shrinkage) following variations in moisture contents.
Expansive soils may be thick and laterally widespread which makes the implementation of
countermeasures costly, particularly for LVRs. Any such measures for dealing with such soils
need to strike a balance between the costs involved and the benefits to be derived over the
design life of the road.
Many countermeasures would be prohibitively expensive and difficult to economically justify
for application to LVRs. Nonetheless, there are a number of relatively low-cost measures that
can be adopted based on practical experience in a number of African countries.
Countermeasures that could be considered for LVRs are discussed in Appendix E
10.7 Slope Protection and Stabilisation

10.7.1 General approaches
The techniques commonly used to protect and stabilise slopes and prevent the occurrence of
landslides above a road alignment, especially along low volume roads, are summarised in
Tables 10.4 and 10.5.
The use of these techniques depends on site-specific conditions such as the size of the slide,
soil type, road use, and the cause of failure. Appropriate site investigations may be required
to define the slope problem accurately within the overall geotechnical environment. (Chapter
5).
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Table 10.4 Stabilisation options for above the road problems
Instability Stabilisation options Drainage options Protection options
In most cases, bio-engineering is adequate, usually

Usually none;
grass slip planting;
Occasionally a cut-off drain above the cut slope
Erosion of the cut Where gullies are long or slopes are very steep,
None can reduce water runoff; however, these are
slope surface small check dams may be required;
difficult to maintain and can contribute to
Sometimes a revetment wall at the toe helps to
instability if blocked or otherwise disturbed.
protect the side drain.
Reduce the slope grade and if this is

feasible, then add erosion protection; A subsoil drain may be required behind a wall if Bio-engineering can be important to prevent
A retaining wall to retain the sliding mass; there is evidence of water seepage; surface erosion and increase the resistance of the
Failures in cut slope
For small sites where the failure is not Herringbone surface drains may be required if surface soil. Will have no effect on deeper failure
expected to continue, a revetment might be the slope drainage is impeded. prevention or stabilisation
adequate.
Reduce the slope grade, and if this is Bio-engineering can be important to prevent surface
A subsoil drain may be required behind a wall if erosion and increase the resistance of the surface
feasible, then add protection;
Failures in cut slope there is evidence of water seepage; soil. Will have no effect on deeper failure prevention
A retaining wall to retain the sliding mass.
and hill slope Herringbone surface drains may be required if or stabilisation
This may need to be quite large, depending
the slope drainage is impeded.
on the depth of the slip plane.
Reduce the slope grade, and if this is Bio-engineering can be important to prevent surface
A subsoil drain may be required behind a wall if
feasible, then add protection. A retaining erosion and increase the resistance of the surface
Failures in hill slope there is evidence of water seepage;
wall to support the sliding mass, as long as soil. Will have no effect on deeper failure prevention
but not cut slope Herringbone surface drains may be required if
foundations can be found that do not or stabilisation
the slope drainage is impeded.
surcharge or threaten the cut slope.
Deep failure in the Consider re-alignment of road away from

original ground instability. If slow moving, short term option Ensure road-side drainage is controlled. Bio-engineering will not be effective.
underneath the road may be to repave or gravel the road.
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Table 10.5 Stabilisation options for below the road problems
Instability Stabilisation options Drainage options Protection options
Erosion of the fill slope Ensure road-side drainage is

None Bio-engineering a key option
surface controlled
Re-grade or remove, replace and compact fill;

Before replacing fill, cut steps in original ground to Bio-engineering can be important to prevent
act as key between fill and original ground; Ensure road-side drainage is surface erosion and increase the resistance of the
Failures in fill slope
controlled surface soil. Will have no effect on deeper failure
A new road retaining. wall may be prevention or stabilisation
the only option
Re-grade or remove, replace and compact fill; Bio-engineering can be important to prevent
Failure in fill slope and Before replacing fill, cut steps in original ground to Ensure road-side drainage is surface erosion and increase the resistance of the
original valley slope act as key between fill and original ground; controlled surface soil. Will have no effect on deeper failure
A new road retaining wall may be the only option. prevention or stabilisation
Re-grade if sufficient space between road and Bio-engineering can be important to prevent
valley side; Ensure road-side drainage is surface erosion and increase the resistance of the
Failure in original valley slope
controlled surface soil. Will have no effect on deeper failure
A new road retaining wall may be the only option. prevention or stabilisation
Slope protection (walls and rip-rap etc) may be

Removal of support from May need extensive river training works to prevent
None necessary – possible with additional
below by river erosion further erosion.
bioengineering options
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10.7.2 Slope drainage

Slope stability is greatly influenced by hydrology, either by the erosive impacts of surface
water or the changes in pore pressure resulting from rainfall infiltration and concentration
within the slope mass. Water may decrease pore suction in the underlying soil, increase pore
water pressure, thereby reducing the effective stress and hence the stability of the slope.
Hence, the construction of surface and sub-surface drainage structures is vital to ensure that
excess water can be intercepted and conveyed to a safe location where it will not create
further instability problems.
Principal earthwork drainage options are summarised below,
Cut-off drains are used to reduce surface runoff at the crest of a cut slope or slope failure. In
order to reduce the likelihood of continuing slope movements breaching the drain, they are
sometimes located many tens of metres above the failure crest. The potential problem with
cut-off drains is that unless they are regularly maintained, they can create their own instability
problem. It is not recommended that cut-off drains be constructed unless regular maintenance
can be assured.
Herringbone (or chevron) drains are constructed herringbone fashion on slope faces to
collect surface seepages and surface runoff. They are often quite shallow (about 1m deep),
but can be much deeper. Care needs to be taken to ensure that the construction of the drain
does not lead to further instability, and to ensure that the drain can still function in the event of
minor downslope movements.
Counterfort drains are used to depress a high water-table. These drains are constructed at
right angles to the toe of the slope and are often dug to a depth of 3 metres or more at
intervals of 3-10 metres depending on the permeability of the subsoil.
Horizontal drains are used to intercept groundwater and seepage at depth. They require the
use of plastic pipes and specialist drilling equipment that may not always be available, and
they are not easy to install.
Lined channels or cascades are likely to be necessary if a watercourse or gully is a direct
cause of the instability in the first place. A lined channel may be necessary to divert an
existing watercourse from the failed area, or to train the watercourse within defined limits. The
lining itself may be impermeable (mortared masonry and/or concrete) or permeable (gabion).
The structure may comprise cascades, chutes and check dams. As a general rule, gabion
structures are preferred since they are flexible and allow water ingress provided they are
located below the wet season groundwater table.
Check dams are necessary where undue scour would otherwise occur from the stream flow
of water.
10.7.3 Retaining walls

Retaining walls must be designed to withstand the pressure exerted by the retained material
attempting to move forward down the slope due to gravity. The lateral earth pressure behind
the wall depends on the angle of internal friction and the cohesive strength of the retained
material. Lateral earth pressures are smallest at the top of the wall and increase towards the
bottom. The total pressure may be assumed to be acting through the centroid of a triangular
load distribution pattern, one-third above the base of the wall. The wall must also withstand
pressure due to material placed on top of the fill behind the wall (“surcharge”).
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Groundwater behind the wall that is not dissipated also exerts a horizontal hydrostatic
pressure on the wall and must be taken into account in the design. Dissipation of ground
water is normally achieved by constructing horizontal drains behind the wall with weepholes.
Gravity walls depend on their weight to resist pressures from behind the wall that tend to
overturn the wall or cause it to slide. A factor of safety of 1.5 should be applied to the
calculations of overturning and sliding. Gravity walls are normally designed with a slight
“batter” to improve stability by leaning the wall back into the retained soil. The foundations
should be wide enough to ensure that excessive pressure is not applied to the ground.
This manual covers the design and construction of gravity retaining walls, including gabion
walls, dry stone walls and mortared stone walls.
Gabion walls are built from gabion baskets tied together. A gabion basket is made up of steel
wire mesh in a shape of rectangular box. It is strengthened at the corners by thicker wire and
by mesh diaphragm walls that divide it into compartments. The wire should be galvanized,
and sometimes PVC coated for greater durability. The baskets usually have a double twisted,
appropriate size, hexagonal mesh, which allows the gabion wall to deform without the box
breaking or losing its strength.
Gabion walls are cost effective because they employ mainly locally available rock and local
labour. Gabion structures are commonly used for walls of up to 6m high. Gabion walls are
usually preferred where the foundation conditions are variable, the retained soils are moist,
and continued slope movements are anticipated.
Because of their inherent flexibility, they are not preferred as retaining walls immediately
below and adjacent to sealed roads due to the likelihood of movement of the backfill behind
the wall and subsequent pavement cracking. Where gabion walls are used to support a
sealed road, care should be taken to locate the base of the wall on a good foundation, in
order to reduce the potential for movement.
Gabion walls have the following advantages:
1. Gabions can be easily stacked in different ways, with internal or external indentation
to improve the stability of the wall;
2. They can accommodate some movement without rupture;
3. They allow free drainage through the wall;
4. The cross section can be varied to suit site conditions;
5. They can take limited tensile stress to resist differential horizontal movement.
Their disadvantages include:
Gabion walls need large spaces to fit the wall base (this base width normally occupies about
40% to 60% of the height of the wall);
The high degree of permeability can result in a loss of fines through the wall.
For road support retaining walls this can result in potentially problematic settlement behind the
wall, although this can be prevented by the use of a geo-textile (filter fabric) between the wall
and the backfill.
Dry-stone walls are constructed from stones without any mortar to bind them together. The
stability of the wall is provided by the interlocking of the stones. The great virtue of dry stone
walls is that they are free-draining. The durability of dry-stone walls depends on the quality
and amount of the stone available and the quality of the work. In a slope management
situation, they are useful as revetments for erosion protection and as a means of supporting
soil against very shallow movement. Dry stone walls should not exceed 5m in height.
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As with gabion walls and dry stone walls, a mortared masonry wall design uses its own weight
and base friction to balance the effect of earth pressures. Masonry walls are brittle and cannot
tolerate large settlements. They are especially suited to uneven founding levels but perform
equally well on a flat foundation. Mortared masonry walls tend to be more expensive than
other gravity wall options. If the wall foundation is stepped along its length, movement joints
should be provided at each change in wall height so that any differential settlement does not
cause uncontrolled cracking in the wall.
Mortared masonry walls require the construction of weep-holes to prevent build-up of water
pressure behind the wall. Weep holes should be of 75mm diameter and placed at 1.5m
centres with a slope of 2% towards the front of the wall. A filter of lean concrete or geo-textile
should be placed at the back of the weep holes to permit free drainage of water.
Further detail on the design of retaining wall options is included in Volume 2 of the Manual
10.8 Bio-engineering
10.8.1 General
Bio-engineering can be broadly defined as the use of vegetation, either alone or in
conjunction with engineering structures, and non-living plant material, to reduce erosion and
shallow-seated instability on slopes. In bio-engineering applications there is an element of
slope stabilisation as well as slope protection in which the principal advantages are:
 Vegetation cover protects the soil against rain splash and erosion, and prevents the
movement of soil particles down slope under the action of gravity;
 Vegetation increases the soil infiltration capacity, helping to reduce the volume of
runoff;.
 Plant roots bind the soil and can increase resistance to failure, especially in the case
of loose, disturbed soils and fills;
 Plants transpire considerable quantities of water, reducing soil moisture and
increasing soil suction;
 The root cylinder of trees holds up the slope above through buttressing and arching;
 Tap roots or near vertical roots penetrate into the firmer stratum below and pin down
the overlying materials.;
 Surface run-off is slowed by stems and grass leaves.
In summary, vegetation is important in the control of erosion and shallow forms of instability
(1-3m depth at most). However, it is also important to appreciate that the beneficial effects
may be insignificant under extreme conditions of rainfall or drought.
10.8.2 Key factors

The main factors to be addressed when selecting the particular species for use in bio-
engineering works are as summarized as (Hunt et al, 2008):
1. The plant must be of the right type to undertake the bio-engineering technique that is
required. The possible categories include:
 A grass that forms large clumps;
 A shrub or small tree that can be grown from woody cuttings;
 A shrub or small tree that can grow from seed in rocky sites;
 A tree that can be grown from a potted seedling;
 A large bamboo that forms clumps.
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2. The plant must be capable of growing in the location of the site.

3. There is no single species or technique that can resolve all slope protection problems.
4. It is always advisable to use local species which don’t invade and harm the environment,
and were able to protect the slope from sliding in the past.
5. Large trees are suitable on slopes of less than 3H:2V or in the bottom 2m of slopes
steeper than 3H:2V -maintaining a line of large trees at the base of a slope can help to
buttress the slope and reduce undercutting by streams.
6. Grasses that form dense clumps generally provide robust slope protection in areas
where rainfall is intense. They are usually best for erosion control, although most grasses
cannot grow under the shade of a tree canopy.
7. Shrubs (ie woody plants with multiple stems) can often grow from cuttings taken from
their branches, plants propagated by this method tend to produce a mass of fine, strong
roots. These are often better for soil reinforcement than the natural rooting systems
developed from a seedling of the same plant.
8. In most cases the establishment of full vegetation cover on unconsolidated fill slopes
may take one to two rainy seasons. Likewise, the establishment of full vegetation on
undisturbed cut slopes in residual soils and colluvial deposits may need 3 to 5 rainy
periods. Less stony and more permeable soils have faster plant growth rates, and drier
locations have slower rates.
9. Plant roots cannot be expected to contribute to soil reinforcement below a depth of
500mm.
10. Plants cannot be expected to reduce soil moisture significantly at critical periods of
intense and prolonged rainfall.
11. Grazing by domestic animals can destroy plants if it occurs before they are properly
grown. Once established, plants are flexible and robust. They can recover from
significant levels of damage (eg flooding and debris deposition).
10.8.3 Preparation
Before bio-engineering treatments are applied, the site must be properly prepared. The
surface should be clean and firm, with no loose debris. It must be trimmed to a smooth profile,
with no vertical or overhanging areas. The object of trimming is to create a semi-stable slope
with an even surface, as a suitable foundation for subsequent works.
Trim soil and debris slopes to the final desired profile, with a slope angle of between 30° and
60°. (In certain cases the angle will be steeper, but review this carefully in each case). Trim
off excessively steep sections of slope, whether at the top or bottom. In particular, avoid
slopes with an over-steep lower section, since a small failure at the toe can destabilise the
whole slope above.
Remove all small protrusions and unstable large rocks. Eradicate indentations that make the
surrounding material unstable by trimming back the whole slope around them. If removing
indentations would cause an unacceptably large amount of work, excavate them carefully and
build a buttress wall. Remove all debris from the slope surface and toe to an approved tipping
site. If there is no toe wall, the entire finished slope must consist of undisturbed material.
When materials form the lower parts of slopes to be trimmed, the debris can be used for
backfilling. In this case, compact the material in layers, by ramming it thoroughly with tamping
irons. This must be done while the material is moist.
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10.8.4 Recommended techniques

Table 10.6 provides the different types of bio-engineering techniques recommended for
various kinds of slopes and soil materials for both cut and fill situations.
Particular plants species must be selected that are compatible with the specific South Sudan
environment
Tables 10.6 Recommended general bio-engineering procedures
Site characteristics Recommended techniques
Cut-Slopes
Cut slope in soil, very highly to completely

weathered rock or residual soil, at any grade up to
1H:2V.
Cut slope in colluvial debris, at any grade

up to 1H:1V (steeper than this would need a
retaining structure). Grass planting in lines, using slip cuttings.
Trimmed landslide head scarps in soil, at any grade

up to 1H:2V.
Roadside lower edge or shoulder in soil or

mixed debris.
Cut slope in mixed soil and rock or highly

weathered rock, at any grade up to about
1H:4V.
Direct seeding of shrubs and trees in crevices.
Trimmed landslide head scarps in mixed soil and
rock or highly weathered rock, at any grade up to
about 1H:4V.
Fill Slopes
Fill slopes and backfill above walls without a Brush layers (live cuttings of plants laid into
water seepage or drainage problem; these shallow trenches with the tops protruding)
should first be re-graded to be no steeper than using woody cuttings from shrubs or trees.
3H:2V.
Debris slopes underlain by rock structure, so that Palisades (the placing of woody cuttings in a
the slope grade remains between 1H:1V and line across a slope to form a barrier) from
4H:7V. shrubs or trees.
Other debris-covered slopes where cleaning is Brush layers using woody cuttings from shrubs
not practical, at grades between 3H:2V and or trees.
1H:1V.
Fill slopes and backfill above walls showing Fascines (bundles of branches laid along
evidence of regular water seepage or poor shallow trenches and buried completely) using
drainage; these should first be re-graded to be woody cuttings from shrubs or trees, configured
no steeper than about 3H:2V. to contribute to slope drainage.
Large and less stable fill slopes more than 10m Truncheon cuttings (big woody cuttings
from the road edge (grade not necessarily from trees).
important, but likely eventually to settle naturally
at about 3H:2V).
The base of fill and debris slopes. Large bamboo planting; or tree planting
using seedlings from a nursery.
209
References
Scott Wilson, 2008. Slope Maintenance Site Handbook. SEACAP 21 Report to Ministry of
Public Work and Transport, Lao PDR.
TRL, 1997. ORN 16.Principles of low cost road engineering in mountainous regions.
210
11 Maintenance
11.1 What is Maintenance?
Maintenance is the range of activities necessary to keep a road and associated structures
(culverts, drifts, bridges and retaining walls) in an acceptable condition for road users, to
achieve the economic and social benefits of access and travel, as intended when the road
works were designed and constructed.
It is important to appreciate that ALL roads and structures deteriorate over time due to the
effects of weather (particularly the resulting water flows) and traffic, and require maintenance
from time to time. The amounts and types of maintenance required depend on a number of
factors including: surface type, standard and quality of construction, road width, rainfall and
intensity, terrain, road gradient, and traffic.
“THERE IS NO SUCH THING AS A NO-MAINTENANCE ROAD”
LVRs are constructed with limited resources and budgets, so that more roads can be
constructed for the funds available. However it is vital to know the maintenance liabilities of the
road assets belonging to or under the care of an authority or organisation, so that Maintenance
can be properly planned, funded, resourced and implemented in a timely way. If this is not
done, there will be a high risk of rapid road deterioration and even failure, and the wasting of
the investments made at the time of construction. This of course is in addition to the higher
vehicle operation costs and implications of poor or severed access suffered by road users if
maintenance is deficient.
“ROADS ARE EXPENSIVE VITAL ASSETS AND THE MAINTENANCE AND
PRESERVATION ARE SIMPLY COMMON SENSE, AS WELL AS ECONOMICALLY
1
JUSTIFIABLE”
11.2 What is the Essence of Road Maintenance?

For Low Volume Roads, maintenance can be summarised in three basic aims:
 Keep the road surface in good condition (for example, repair ruts and potholes);
 Maintain the road surface camber to shed water to the side of the road;
 Maintain the drainage system (including structures) to safely lead water away from
the road.
All maintenance activities are organised to carry out or support these basic aims.
Despite relatively low initial low construction costs, it is important to appreciate that even
under a Basic Access and Spot Improvement strategy it is essential to arrange the necessary
Regular maintenance of the Engineered Natural Surface and any gravel surface and
drainage, and Occasional maintenance of the improved surface sections and structures, to
preserve the initial construction investment.
Gravel roads and bitumen paved roads will require even higher levels of resources for
maintenance over their service lives.
1
Economic returns on road maintenance are usually many times greater than the benefit-cost
relationship for road construction.
211
11.3 What Maintenance needs to be done?

From the moment that a road is constructed or upgraded, it will deteriorate due to the effects
of weather and traffic. Maintenance is required to be carried out from time to time to restore or
preserve its condition to be close to its as-constructed state. If maintenance is not carried out
the road will continue to deteriorate making passage increasingly difficult, uncomfortable and
expensive to road users. The road may even become impassable for part or all of the year.
There have been many manuals and reference books written on maintenance, however it
must be observed that:
1. It is not common to see good maintenance practice actually practiced.
2. Many manuals do not appreciate the particular challenges of maintaining
LVRs in a limited resource environment.
3. Maintenance Specifications and Standards BoQs have not yet been
developed for South Sudan application.
This Manual and the companion document Volume 3: ‘LOW VOLUME ROAD MAINTENANCE
BOOKLET’ (2013) set out the aims and approaches to maintenance of LVRs in a
straightforward and rational way. These documents will help any authority or other organisation
responsible for maintenance activities to understand the work required to be carried out.
It is convenient to view Maintenance as correcting Defects.
In practical terms it is useful to identify and quantify the Defects, and then arrange the
necessary Maintenance to be carried out. It is sensible to group Defects and Maintenance
activities into the following colour coded groups: Roadside Activities, Drainage and Structures
or Road Surface.
Regular Maintenance (Routine)
Roadside Activities
Drainage
Road Surface
• Earth Road
• Gravel Road
Structures
Occasional Maintenance (Periodic)
Road Surface
• Gravel Road
• Paved Road
Structures
212
This Manual and accompanying Booklet (Volume 3) covers the treatment of about 30 common
Defects. From time to time, other defects/activities may be required. Advice should be obtained
from the MRB or State road authorities for any problem or road aspect not covered in this
Manual or the accompanying Maintenance Booklet. The categorisation of defects and
maintenance activities used in these documents is provisional, pending development of MRB
Maintenance Specifications.
11.4 Regular Maintenance

These are the maintenance activities that are likely to be required somewhere on a road link
every year. Most of the tasks may be carried out manually. Mechanised or equipment based
alternatives are available for some tasks as indicated in the Booklet.
Regular Maintenance is conveniently divided into four main groups of activities that are often
carried out on a seasonal basis:
Roadside Activities
Drainage
Road Surface
• Earth Road
• Gravel Road
Structures
Roadside Activities
Defect Maintenance Activity

1. Trees and bushes growing on roadside 131 Brush clearing
2. Shoulder uneven or eroded, or does not drain 132 Shoulder Rehabilitation (manual)
properly
3. Shoulder erosion 133 Plant grass and water
1. Grass on shoulder or in drain requires cutting 134 Cut grass
2. Shoulder uneven or eroded, or does not drain 240 Shoulder Blading (mechanised)
properly (minor)
2. Shoulder uneven or eroded, or does not drain 241 Shoulder Rehabilitation (mechanised)
properly (major)
213
Drainage

4. Culvert silted/obstructed 121 Culvert Cleaning
5. Ditch silted 122 Ditch Clearing (Manual)
6. Ditch or slope eroded (minor) 123 Repair Erosion Damage (Selected Fill)
7. Ditch or slope eroded (major) 124 Repair Erosion Damage (rockfill)
7. Slope eroded (major) 129 Wattling
8. Mortared Masonry damaged 125 Mortared Masonry Repair
9. Dry Masonry damaged 126 Dry Masonry Repair
10. Gabion structure damaged 127 Gabion Structure Repair
11. Erosion in ditch 128 Build wooden/stone scour check
5. Ditch silted 230 Ditch clearing (mechanised)
Road Surface
Defects and maintenance requirements depend on the road surface type.
Earth Road

12. Road surface potholed, rutted or uneven, 112 Reshape & Compact Earth Road Camber
and does not drain to edge
Gravel Road

13. Road Surface potholed 110 Spot Repair Selected Material
13. Road Surface potholed 111 Spot Repair Crushed Aggregate
14. Road Surface rutted or uneven, and does not 220 Blade Gravel Road (light)
drain to edge (Minor: <3cm))
15. Road Surface rutted or uneven, and does not 221 Blade Gravel Road (heavy)
drain to edge (Major: >3cm)
214
Structures (Bridges/Drifts/Large Culverts)
Some of these activities will require skilled personnel

16. Debris or vegetation affecting or 400 Cleaning, Clearing, Sweeping, De-silting,
endangering structure Unblocking or Removal of vegetation or flood/wind
borne debris (Structure/ inlets/outlets)
17. Connectors/fixings are loose/ 401 Repair of loose/missing connectors/fixings
damaged/missing
18. Planks/kerbs are damaged/missing 402 Replace damaged or missing Planks or Kerbs
19. Paintwork defective or damaged 403 Paint main or minor parts of structure/furniture
20. Danger or evidence of insect or 404 Apply wood preservative or insect treatment to
moisture attack of timber components timber components
21. Masonry or concrete or joints 405 Pointing or repair of masonry/concrete
defective (minor)
22. Structure furniture defective 406 Repair parapets, marker posts, safety barriers,
signs or other furniture
11.5 Occasional Maintenance

These are the maintenance activities that may be required somewhere on a gravel or paved
road section or link, or on a structure, after a period of a number of years. The category of
repair depends on the type of road surface constructed. Some of the Occasional Maintenance
tasks may be carried out manually with the aid of simple tools or equipment. Others will
require skilled personnel or large equipment. Transport may be required for the haulage of
materials. Many of the activities will require careful planning and mobilisation of the necessary
resources.
Gravel or Paved Road

23. Gravel layer too thin 317 Gravel Resurfacing (Selected Material)
318 Gravel Resurfacing (Crushed Aggregate)
24. Paved road pothole or 113a Spot /pothole Repair (Macadam)
surface defect 113b Spot /pothole Repair (Stone setts)
113c Spot /pothole Repair (Mortared stone)
113d Spot /pothole Repair(Dressed stone)
113e Spot /pothole Repair(Emulsion chip seal)
113f Spot /pothole Repair(Emulsion sand seal)
113g Spot /pothole Repair(Emulsion gravel/slurry seal)
113h Spot /pothole Repair(Un-mortared brick)
113i Spot /pothole Repair(Mortar jointed brick)
113j Spot /pothole Repair(Non- reinforced concrete)
217 Pothole Reinstatement (cold mix)
219 Pothole (Base Failure Repair)
215

25. Random stone filling defective 410 Repair Random Stone filling
26. Retaining wall defective 411 Retaining wall repairs
27. River or stream bed scoured 412 Watercourse scour repairs
adjacent to structure
28. Gabion walls or mattress defective 413 Gabion basket repairs
29. Structural repairs for the following 414 Major structural repairs. These will require
serious defects: Structural timber decay, the expertise of an Engineer to assess and
splitting or insect attack, bulging design/specify the remedial works in
masonry, cracked concrete or masonry, response to the scale and nature of the
honeycombed concrete, spalling defects
concrete, serious rust or chemical
stains, exposed or corroding
reinforcement or pre-stressing steel,
damp patches on concrete, seriously
corroded structural steelwork,
damaged/distorted structural steelwork,
missing/loose rivets, bolts or other
fixings, cracks in structural steelwork,
settlement of deck, piers, abutments or
wingwalls, expansion joint or bearing
defects, erosion requiring piling works.
All of the maintenance defects and activities, and discussion of the management of
maintenance, are presented in more detail in the ‘LOW VOLUME ROAD MAINTENANCE
BOOKLET’ (Volume 3).
11.6 Maintenance Implementation Options

There are a number of ways that maintenance work can be organised depending on the
financial and human resources available, and ‘in-house’ capacity of the responsible authority
or organisation.
In practical terms, the maintenance of Low traffic Volume Roads (LVR) will be principally
carried out by labour methods with possible occasional support of intermediate or heavy
equipment. The last option is usually too expensive to mobilise and inefficient for remote rural
road works.
All maintenance implementation options will require appropriate levels of training and
mentoring, and management arrangements.
The main work organisation options are detailed in this section with their typical advantages
and disadvantages. The Works Options are:
 Option 1- Small Contractor (Private);

 Option 2 - Force Account;
 Option 3- Community Group;
 Option 4 - Length Person or Family Contract;
 Option 5 - Compulsory/Voluntary Labour;
216
 Option 6 - Hire-in equipment;

 Option 7- Large Contractor Based System.
Option 1- Small contractor (Private)

The small enterprises will be based in the state or local area of the road. They may be
general or building contractors with established contracting experience in earthworks,
masonry and concrete. They would be expected particularly to make use of local labour, and
may have access to light equipment such as a small compacter, concrete mixer or tractor.
This implementation option can be suitable for All Maintenance activities and for all types of
road surface.
Advantages:
 Overheads lower than big contractor;
 Low mobilisation and demobilisation costs;
 Construction experience of the enterprise;
 Available range of building and maintenance skills;
 Local enterprise committed to the community;
 Good prospects for local employment and money being injected into the community
Disadvantages:
 Time, resources and costs involved with preparing and managing the contract;
 Market for maintenance works currently not developed so prices may be distorted
(guideline unit costs should be available from MRB or local authorities);
 Small contractor may have to hire in some equipment;
 May initially require some training/ mentoring, or a higher level of supervision than
large contractors;
 May have difficulty in obtaining credit for purchases, or financing cash flow;
 Insufficient funds currently available to pay for this approach for all maintenance work
(but may be suitable for selected works – see also Option 6);
 Risks of disputes over interpretation of contract responsibilities.
Option 2 – Force account (sometimes called Direct Labour)

This option makes use of a permanently employed and equipped workforce to carry out the
maintenance work such as local road management units. This implementation option can be
suitable for All Maintenance activities and for all types of surfaces.
Advantages:
 Direct response to all maintenance needs;
 Rapid mobilisation when funds are available;
 Retain skills and experience within organisation, familiarity with the network,
standards, work methods;
 Minimum of works documentation requirements;
 Dealings/ disputes with outside parties minimised.
Disadvantages:
 In some cases no budget or funds are currently available for this option;
 Difficulties in equipment procurement & the lowest initial purchase cost policy can
hinder the standardisation and efficiency;
217
 Poor mobility of the workforce around the network unless transport is provided (at
considerable cost);
 Paid labour and equipment may be standing if no funds available for works;
 Possible low efficiency and poor management/use of available resources, poor cost-
awareness;
 Little pressure to try new solutions/ technologies;
 High mobilisation and demobilisation costs if sourced from state or national level
Option 3– Community group

The use of a group of persons based within the community and organised specifically to carry
out the maintenance works under an agreement or contract with the community or local
authority. This can be for a single route, or a number of routes serving the community. This
approach differs from the Length person or Family contract approach only in that the number
of persons expected to be involved would be greater, and that consequently work would
probably be concentrated at a particular time or times of the year. Possibility of organising
annual or regular community ‘day of road action’ when the whole community works on the
road for nominal payment or arrangement. This implementation option can be particularly
suitable for the Regular Maintenance activities.
Advantages:
 Low cost compared to most other forms of contract (due to low overheads, low
mobilisation and demobilisation costs, absence of profit component, and by local
participation);
 Can be cash or in-kind payment according to community circumstances;
 Simple contract/agreement required;
 Direct response to Regular maintenance needs – Rapid mobilisation, or planned
seasonal inputs;
 Retain skills and experience within the community, familiarity with the network and
any problem sections;
 Close control of the works personnel;
 Pride of ‘ownership’ for the network;
 No dealings/disputes with parties outside of the community;
 Employment and money/resources recycled within the community;
 Employment can be targeted at poor or disadvantaged persons in the community.
Disadvantages:
 Possibly insufficient cash funds available to pay for this approach in poor
communities;
 Possible difficulties in controlling output and quality;
 Not suitable in areas of dispersed or low population density;
 No equipment capability;
 May not have access to construction quality hand tools.
Option 4 – Length person or family contract

A contract or agreement is drawn up for an individual or family to carry out specified Regular
maintenance activities on a section of road, at certain times of the year, for a payment in cash
or in-kind for work on a full or part time basis.
Usually a labourer is appointed for a distinct section of road close to his/her home, typically 1
to 2 km in length. The person walks or cycles to the work site each work day. He or she is
218
provided with all the necessary hand tools to carry out all the regular maintenance activities
as instructed by the local authority. An advantage is that regular maintenance of the entire
road can be arranged at all times and one person can be made fully responsible of a road
section. A disadvantage is that supervision has to mobile and frequent to ensure that
performance does not deteriorate.
Advantages:
 Low cost compared to most other forms of contract (due to low overheads, low
mobilisation and demobilisation costs, absence of profit component, and by local
participation);
 Can be cash or in-kind payment according to community circumstances;
 Simple contract/agreement required;
 Flexible approach to seasonal needs;
 Rapid mobilisation by person living ‘on site’;
 No dealings/disputes with parties outside of the community;
 Employment and money/resources recycled within the community
 Employment can be targeted at poor or disadvantaged persons in the community.
Disadvantages:
 Possibly insufficient cash funds available to pay for this approach in poor
communities;
 Possible difficulties in controlling output and quality;
 May not have access to construction quality hand tools;
 System will degenerate if supervisor is not continuously mobile and effective in
management.
Option 5 – Compulsory/voluntary labour

The use of local (community) labour to carry out maintenance works on the roads is one of
the options for maintaining community roads. The approach can be suitable for Regular
Maintenance activities. If the whole community can be persuaded to attend a ‘maintenance
day’ once or twice a year with their hand tools, there will be sufficient labour resources to
carry out the necessary maintenance work under the guidance of a trained supervisor. This is
the cheapest way to maintain a LVR and involves no taxation or levy to the community.
Everybody contributes and benefits equitably. Wealthier inhabitants, traders or other well-
wishers could contribute hand tools, equipment hire or food to create a community occasion.
Advantages:
 No financing or cash accounting involved;
 In richer communities, individuals can elect to pay cash instead - this can provide
funding for materials, hand tools and equipment hire, or even paid labour;
 Minimum of works documentation requirements;
 Direct response to all maintenance needs;
 Rapid mobilization;
 Retain skills & experience within community;
 Direct supervision of works;
219
 No dealings/disputes with outside parties.
Disadvantages
 All persons contribute equally, whether rich or poor;
 Can be a severe burden on the community’s poorest persons;
 Difficulties in controlling output and quality;
 Not suitable for work during the agricultural ‘high’ season;
 Few prospects for PAID community employment or money being injected into the
community;
 May not have access to construction quality hand tools;
 May initially require some supervisor and ‘gang leader’ training/ mentoring.
Option 6 – Hire-in equipment

This is an option to supplement the other options to provide equipment for specific operations
such as towed grading or haulage. The funding could be provided by the local authority if
available, or a benevolent trader, farmer or other well-wisher.
Option 7 – Large Contractor Based System

The employment of a large equipment-based contractor may be considered. They are usually
based in state centres or Juba and their overheads, mobilisation and demobilisation costs and
profit components would be very high. Therefore, the costs would be extremely high and
unlikely to be affordable by the community or local authority. In cases where a contractor is
funded externally to construct a road, this contractor may be engaged as part of the contract
to maintain the road for some years after the final construction acceptance is finalised.
11.7 In Summary
For further guidance on LVR road and structures maintenance, including recommended
references and further knowledge sources, refer to the MRB (Volume 3)
‘LOW VOLUME ROAD MAINTENANCE BOOKLET’.
220
SOUTH SUDAN
LOW VOLUME ROADS
DESIGN MANUAL
SUDAN
ETHIOPIA
CENTRAL AFRICAN SOUTH SUDAN

REPUBLIC
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
OF CONGO KENYA
UGANDA
Volume 2
CROSS DRAINAGE AND SMALL STRUCTURES
June 2013
Ministry of Roads and Bridges
SOUTH SUDAN
LOW VOLUME ROADS DESIGN MANUAL
Volume 2
CROSS DRAINAGE AND SMALL STRUCTURES
May 2013
ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS
> : Greater than

< : Less than
% : Percentage
A
AADT: Annual Average Daily Traffic
AASHTO: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
AFCAP: Africa Community Access Programme
AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome,
ALD Average Least Dimension
ARRB: ARRB Group, formerly the Australian Road Research Board
ARVs: Anti retrovirals
ASTM: American Standard Test Methods
B
BDS: Bid Data Sheet
C
CB : Clay Brick (fired)
CBO: Community Based Organisation
CBR: California Bearing Ratio
CI: Complementary Interventions
CMG : Crown Agents Core Management Group
COLTO: Commission of Land Transport Officials (South Africa)
CPT : Cone Penetrometer Test
CS : Cobblestone
CSIR: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (South Africa)
D
DBM:: Drybound macadam
DC : Design Class
DCP: Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
DF: Drainage Factor
DFID: UK Government’s Department of International Development
DMT: Dilatometer Test
DS : Dressed Stone
DV : Design Vehicles
E
EDCs: Economically emerging and Developing Countries
EF : Equivalency Factor
e.g. : For example (abbreviation for the Latin phrase exempli gratia)
EIA : Environmental Impact Assessment
EMP: Environmental Management Plan
i
ENS: Engineered Natural Surfaces
EOD: Environmentally Optimised Design
ERA: Ethiopian Roads Authority
esa : Equivalent standard axles
EVT : Equiviscous Temperature
F
FACT: Fine Aggregate Crushing Test
FED : Final Engineering Design
G
g/m² : Grams per Square Metre
GDP: Gross Domestic Product
GM : Grading Modulus
GoSS: Government of South Sudan
gTKP: Global Transport Knowledge Partnership
GVW: Gross Vehicle Weight
H
ha : Hectare
HDM 4: Highway Development and Management model
HIV : Human immunodeficiency virus
HPS: Hand Packed Stone
HQ : Headquarters
HVR: High Volume Road
I
ICB : International Competitive Bidding
ICT : Information Communication Technology
IDA : International Development Agency
i.e. : That is (abbreviation for the Latin phrase id est)
ILO : International Labour Organisation
IMT : Intermediate Means of Transport
IRR : Internal Rate of Return
ITB : Instructions to Bidders
K
km : Kilometre
km² : Square Kilometre
km/h: Kilometres per hour
L
LB : Labour Based
LIC : Labour Intensive Construction
LVR : Low Volume Road
M
m : Metre
m² : Square Metre
ii
m³ : Metres Cubed
MAF: Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
MCB: Mortared Clay Brick (fired)
MCS: Mortared Cobblestones
MDS: Mortared Dress Stone
Mesa: Million equivalent standard axles
mg/m³: Milligram per metre cubed
mm : Millimetre
mm² : Square Millimetre
mm³ : Millimetres Cubed
m/s : Metres per second
MC : Medium Curing
MPa Megapascal (a unit of pressure equal to 1000 kilopascals (kPa)
MS: Mortared Stone
MPI: Ministry of Physical Infrastructure
MRB: Ministry of Roads and Bridges
MSSP: Mortared Stone Setts or Pavé
N
NBP: Non-Bituminous Pavement
NCB: National Competitive Bidding
NCT: National Competitive Tendering
NGO: Non-Government Organisation
nm : Nanometre
NMT: Non-Motorised Transport
NRC: Non-reinforced concrete
NRCP: Non-reinforced concrete pavement
O
OMC : Optimal Moisture Content
ORN: Overseas Road Note
P
PCU: Passenger Car Unit
PDM: Pavement Design Manual
Pen.: Penetration
PI : Plasticity Index
PIARC: World Road Association
PM : Pressure Meter
PPA : Public Procurement Agency
PPP : Public Private Partnership
PSD: Particle Size Distribution
Q
QA : Quality Assurance
R
R : Radius
RC : Reinforced concrete
iii
Ref : Reference
RFP : Request for Proposals
RS : Road Safety
RTS : Road Transport Services
S
SADC: Southern Africa Development Community
SBL : Sand Bedding Layer
SDMS: Surfacing Decision Management System
SE : Super Elevation
SMEs: Small and Medium Enterprises
SS : South Sudan
SSP : Stone Setts or Pavé
T
TBA : To Be Advised
Tc : Time of Concentration
ToR : Terms of Reference
TRL : Transport Research Laboratory
U
UK : United Kingdom
UKAID: Development assistance provided by the DFID
UNOPS United Nations Office for Project Services
USAID: States Agency for International Development
USCS: Unified Soil Classification Systtem
USD: United States Dollar
UTRCP: Ultra Thin Reinforced Concrete Pavement
V
VI: Impinging Velocity
VAVE: Average Velocity
VP: Parallel Velocity
vpd: vehicles per day
VOCs: Vehicle Operating Costs
VST: Vane Shear Test
W
WBM: Waterbound Macadam
WC : Wearing Course
WLC: Whole Life cycle Costs
iv
South Sudan Low Volume Road Design Manual Volume 2 Structures
GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS
Aggregate (for construction)

A broad category of coarse particulate material including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag and
recycled material that forms a component of composite materials such as concrete and pre-mix
asphalt.
Apron
The flat invert of the culvert inlet or outlet.
Asphalt
A mixture of inert mineral matter, such as aggregate, mineral filler (if required) and bituminous
binder in predetermined proportions (Sometimes referred to as Asphaltic Concrete or Asphalt
Concrete). Usually pre-mixed in a plant before transport to site to be laid and compacted.
Expensive and usually only used on main roads. Also used as an alternative term for Bitumen in
some regions, and may be a petroleum processing product or naturally occurring in deposits.
Atterberg Limits
Basic measures of the nature of fine-grained soils which identify the boundaries between the solid,
semi- solid, plastic and liquid states.
Basin
A structure at a culvert inlet or outlet to contain turbulence and prevent erosion.
Berm
A low ridge or bund of soil to collect or redirect surface water.
Binder, Bituminous
Any bitumen based material used in road construction to bind together or to seal aggregate or
soil particles.
Binder, Modified
Bitumen based material modified by the addition of compounds to enhance performance.
Examples of modifiers are polymers, such as PVC, and natural or synthetic rubbers.
Bitumen
A non-crystalline solid or viscous mixture of complex hydrocarbons that possesses characteristic
agglomerating properties, softens gradually when heated, is substantially soluble in trichlorethylene
and is usually obtained from crude petroleum by refining processes. Referred to as Asphalt in some
regions.
Bitumen, Cutback
A liquid bitumen product obtained by blending penetration grade bitumen with a volatile
solvent to produce rapid curing (RC) or medium curing (MC) cutbacks, depending on the volatility
of the solvent used. After evaporation of the solvent, the properties of the original penetration
grade bitumen become operative.
Bitumen, Penetration Grade

That fraction of the crude petroleum remaining after the refining processes which is solid or near
solid at normal air temperature and which has been blended or further processed to products of
varying hardness or viscosity.
Bitumen emulsion
An emulsion of bitumen and water with the addition of an emulsifier or emulsifying agent to ensure
stability. Conventional bitumen emulsion most commonly used in road works has the bitumen
dispersed in the water. An invert bitumen emulsion has the water dispersed in the bitumen. In the
former, the bitumen is the dispersed phase and the water is the continuous phase. In the latter, the
water is the dispersed phase and the bitumen is the continuous phase. The bitumen is sometimes
fluxed to lower its viscosity by the addition of a suitable solvent.
Bitumen Emulsion, Anionic

An emulsion where the emulsifier is an alkaline organic salt. The bitumen globules carry a negative
electrostatic charge.
Bitumen Emulsion, Cationic

An emulsion where the emulsifier is an acidic organic salt. The bitumen globules carry a positive
electrostatic charge.
Bitumen Emulsion Grades

Premix grade: An emulsion formulated to be more stable than spray grade emulsion and suitable
for mixing with medium or coarse graded aggregate with the amount smaller than 0.075mm not
exceeding 2%.
Quick setting grade: An emulsion specially formulated for use with fine slurry seal type aggregates,
where quick setting of the mixture is desired.
Spray grade: An emulsion formulated for application by mechanical spray equipment in chip seal
construction where no mixing with aggregate is required.
Stable mix grade: An emulsion formulated for mixing with very fine aggregates, sand and
crusher dust. Mainly used for slow-setting slurry seals and tack coats.
Black Cotton Soil

An expansive clay found widely in the North East of the country that expands and looses most of its
strength when wetted.
Blinding
a) A layer of lean concrete, usually 5 to 10 cm thick, placed on soil to seal it and provide a clean and
level working surface to build the foundations of a wall, or any other structure.
b) An application of fine material e.g. sand, to fill voids in the surface of a pavement or earthworks
layer.
Brick (fired clay)

A hard durable block of material formed from burning (firing) clay at high temperature.
Bridge
A structure usually with a span of 5 metres or more, providing a means of crossing above water, a
railway or another obstruction, whether natural or artificial. A bridge consists of abutments, deck and
sometimes wingwalls and piers, or may be an arch.
Camber
The road surface is normally shaped to fall away from the centre line to either side. The camber is
necessary to shed rain water and reduce the risk of passing vehicles colliding. The slope of the
camber is called the Crossfall. On sharp bends the road surface should fall directly from the outside
of the bend to the inside (superelevation).
Cape Seal
A multiple bituminous surface treatment that consists of a single application of binder and stone
followed by one or two applications of slurry.
Carriageway
The road pavement or bridge deck surface on which vehicles travel.
Cascade
A drainage channel with a series of steps, sometimes with intermediate silt traps or ponds, to take
water down a steep slope.
Catchpit
A manhole or open structure with a sump to collect silt.
Catchwater Drain
See Cutoff.
Causeway or Vented Drift

Low level structure constructed across streams or rivers with openings to permit water to pass below
road level. The causeway may become submerged in flood conditions.
Cement (for construction)

A dry powder which on the addition of water (and sometimes other additives), hardens and sets
independently to bind aggregates together to produce concrete. Cement can also be used to
stabilise certain types of soil. Cement is also sometimes used as a fine filler in bituminous mixes.
Chippings
Clean, strong, durable pieces of stone made by crushing or napping rock. The chippings are usually
screened to obtain material in a small size range.
Chip Seal, Single

An application of bituminous binder followed by a layer of stone or clean sand. The stone is
sometimes covered with a fog spray.
Chip Seal, Double

An application of bituminous binder and stone followed by a second application of binder and stone
or sand. The second seal usually uses a smaller aggregate size to help key the layers together. A
fog spray is sometimes applied on the second layer of aggregate.
Chute
An inclined pipe, drain or channel constructed in or on a slope.
Cobble Stone (Dressed stone)

Cubic pieces of stone larger than setts, usually shaped by hand and built into a road surface layer or
surface protection.
Coffer Dam
A temporary dam built above the ground to give access to an area which is normally, or has a risk of
being, submerged or waterlogged. Cofferdams may be constructed of soil, sandbags or sheetpiles.
Collapsible soil
Soil that undergoes a significant, sudden and irreversible decrease in volume upon wetting.
Compaction
Reduction in bulk of fill or other material by rolling or tamping.
Complimentary Interventions
Actions or initiatives that are implemented through a roads project which are targeted toward the
communities that lie within the influence corridor of the road and are intended to optimise the
benefits brought by the road and to extend the positive, and mitigate the negative, impacts of the
project.
Concrete
A construction material composed of cement (most commonly Portland cement, but occasionally
using other available cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement), aggregate (generally
a coarse aggregate such as gravel or crushed stone plus a fine aggregate such as sand), water,
(and sometimes chemical admixtures to improve performance or for special applications).
Concrete Block Paving

A course of interlocking or rectangular concrete blocks placed on a suitable base course and bedded
and normally jointed with sand.
Counterfort Drain
A drain running down a slope and excavated into it. The excavation is partly or completely filled with
free draining material to allow ground water to escape.
Cribwork
Timber or reinforced concrete beams laid in an interlocking grid, and filled with soil to form a
retaining wall.
Crossfall
See Camber
Crushed Stone
A form of construction aggregate, typically produced by mining a suitable rock deposit and breaking
the removed rock down to the desired size using mechanical crushers, or manually using hammers.
Curing
The process of keeping freshly laid/placed concrete moist to prevent excessive evaporation with
attendant risk of loss of strength or cracking. Similarly with cement or lime stabilised layers, the
measures to minimise moisture loss during the initial period of strength development.
Cut-off/Catchwater Drain
A ditch constructed uphill from a cutting face to intercept surface water flowing towards the road.
Debris Rack or Grill

Grill, grid or post structure located near a culvert entrance to hold back floating debris too large to
pass through the culvert.
Deck
The part of a bridge that spans between abutments or pier supports, and carries the road traffic.
Design speed
The maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section of road when conditions
are so favourable that the design features of the road govern the speed.
Dispersive soil
Soil in which the clay particles detach from each other and from the soil structure in the presence of
water and go into suspension.
Distributor
A vehicle or towed apparatus comprising an insulated tank, usually with heating and circulating
facilities, and a spray bar capable of applying a thin, uniform and predetermined layer of binder. The
equipment may also be fitted with a hand lance for manual spraying.
Ditch (Drain)
A long narrow excavation designed or intended to collect and drain off surface water.
Drainage
Interception and removal of ground water and surface water by artificial or natural means.
Drainage Pipe
An underground pipe to carry water.
Dressed Stone
See Cobble Stone
Drift or Ford
A stream or river crossing at bed level over which the stream or river water can flow.
Dry-bound Macadam
A pavement layer constructed where the voids in a large single-sized stone skeleton are filled with a
fine sand, vibrated in with suitable compaction equipment.
Earth Road
See ENS.
Embankment
Constructed earthworks below the pavement raising the road above the surrounding natural ground
level.
ENS (Engineered Natural Surface)

An earth road built from the soil in place at the road location, and provided with a camber and
drainage system
Expansive soil
Typically clayey soil that undergoes large volume changes in direct response to moisture changes.
Filler
Mineral matter composed of particles smaller than 0.075mm.
Flow Spreader
A structure designed to disperse the flow at the outfall of a ditch or drain to minimise the risk of
erosion down stream.
Fog Spray/Seal
A light application of diluted bitumen emulsion to the final layer of stone of a reseal or chip seal, or to
an existing bituminous surfacing as a rejuvenating maintenance treatment.
Ford
See Drift
Formation
The shaped surface of the earthworks, or subgrade, before constructing the pavement layers.
Gabion
Stone-filled wire or steel mesh cage. Gabions are often used as retaining walls or river bank/bed
scour protection structures.
Geocells
Used in construction for erosion control, soil stabilisation on flat ground and steep slopes, channel
protection, and structural reinforcement for load support and earth retention. Typical cellular
confinement systems are made with ultrasonically-welded high-density polyethylene (HDPE) or
Novel Polymeric Alloy strips that are expanded on-site to form a honeycomb-like structure which
may be filled with sand, soil, rock or concrete.
Gravel
A naturally-occurring, weathered or naturally transported rock within a specific particle size range. In
geology, gravel is any loose rock that is larger than 2mm in its largest dimension and not more than
63mm. Gravel is typically used as a pavement layer in its natural or modified condition, or as a road
surface wearing course. Suitable gravel may also be used in a graded gravel seal in appropriate
circumstances.
Hand Packed Stone

A layer of large, angular broken stones laid by hand with smaller stones or gravel rammed into the
spaces between stones to form a road surface layer.
Heavy Equipment
Sophisticated civil engineering equipment is typically designed for, and manufactured in, high-wage,
low-investment-charge economies. It is expected to operate with close support and high annual
utilisation; usually designed for a single function with high efficiency operation. Currently imported
‘Heavy Equipment’ dominates the South Sudan road sector. It is expensive to own and operate in
the local environment.
Incremental paving
Road surface comprising small blocks such as shaped stone (setts) or bricks, jointed with sand or
mortar.
Intermediate Equipment
Simple or intermediate equipment is designed for low initial and operating costs, durability and ease
of maintenance and repair in the conditions typical of a limited-resource environment, rather than for
high theoretical efficiency. It is preferable if the equipment can also be manufactured or fabricated
locally/regionally. Modern Agricultural Tractors are a low cost mobile power source and with various
attachments can be used to substitute for heavy equipment for a proven range of tasks in the road
sector.
Invert
The lowest point of the internal cross-section of a ditch, pipe or culvert.
Labour Based Construction

Economically efficient employment of as great a proportion of labour as is technically feasible
throughout the construction process to produce the standard of construction as demanded by the
specification and allowed by the available funding. Substitution of equipment with labour as the
principal means of production. The principally labour operations may be supported by simple or
heavy equipment for some operations, such as compaction or long haulage. Labourers usually walk
or cycle to work each day from their homes for greatest efficiency and social benefits.
Labour Intensive Construction

Works using large numbers of labourers with the prime objective of creating temporary or permanent
employment, often with achieving sustainable and durable infrastructure as a secondary concern.
Layby
An area adjacent to the road for the temporary parking of vehicles.
Lime
Lime in a material derived from the burning of limestone or chalk. It is normally obtainable in its
‘hydrated’ form (slaked): Calcium Hydroxide. It can be used for the drying, improvement and
stabilisation of suitable soils, as an anti-stripping agent in the production of bituminous mixes and as
a binder in masonry or brick work mortars.
Local Resources
These can be human resources, local government, private, NGO, and community institutions, local
entrepreneurs such as contractors, consultants, industrialists and artisans, local skills, locally made
or fabricated intermediate equipment, local materials such as local produced aggregates, bricks,
timber and marginal materials, locally raised finance or provision of materials or services in kind.
Local Resource Based Road Works aim to deliver the maximum benefits to local communities and
development.
Low Volume Road

Roads carrying up to about 300 motor vehicles per day and intended to carry less than about 1
million equivalent standard axles over their design life.
Macadam
A mixture of broken or crushed stone of various sizes (usually less than 3cm) laid to form a road
surface layer. Bitumen macadam uses a bituminous binder to hold the material together.
Tarmacadam uses tar for the same purposes. Bound macadams are usually expensive for use on
LVR.
Manhole
Accessible pit with a cover forming part of the drainage system and permitting inspection and
maintenance of underground drainage pipes.
Margins
The right of way or land area maintained or owned by the road authority or owner.
Mitre Drain (Turn Out Drain)

Leads water away from the Side Drains to the adjoining land.
Otta Seal
A carpet of graded aggregate spread over a freshly sprayed hot bituminous ‘soft’ binder and rolled in
with heavy roller.
Outfall
Discharge end of a ditch or culvert.
Parapet
The protective edge, barrier, wall or railing at the edge of a bridge deck.
Pavé
See Sett
Paved Road
A paved road is a road with a Stone, Bituminous, Brick or Concrete surfacing.
Pavement
The constructed layers of the road on which the vehicles travel.
Penetration Macadam
A pavement layer made from one or more applications of coarse, open-graded aggregate (crushed
stone, slag, or gravel) followed by the spray application of bituminous binder. Usually comprising two
or three applications of stone each of reducing particle size, each grouted into the previous
application before compaction of the completed layer.
Permeable Soils
Soils through which water will drain easily e.g. sandy soils. Clays are generally impermeable except
when cracked or fissured (e.g. ‘Black Cotton’ soil in dry weather).
Prime Coat
A coat of suitable bituminous binder applied to a non-bituminous granular pavement layer as a
preliminary treatment before the application of a bituminous base or surfacing. While adhesion
between this layer and the bituminous base or surfacing may be promoted, the primary function of
the prime coat is to assist in sealing the surface voids and bind the aggregate near the surface of the
layer.
Reinforced Concrete
A mixture of coarse and fine stone aggregate bound with cement and water and reinforced with steel
rods or mesh for added strength.
Reseal
A surface treatment applied to an existing bituminous surface.
Rejuvenator
A material (which may range from a soft bitumen to petroleum) which, when applied to reclaimed
asphalt or to existing bituminous surfacing, has the ability to soften aged, hard, brittle binders.
Riprap
Stones, usually between 5 to 50 kg, used to protect the banks or bed of a river or watercourse from
scour.
Road Base and Subbase

Pavement courses between surfacing and subgrade.
Road Maintenance
Suitable regular and occasional activities to keep pavement, shoulders, slopes, drainage facilities
and all other structures and property within the road margins as near as possible to their as
constructed or renewed condition. Maintenance includes minor repairs and improvements to
eliminate the cause of defects and avoid excessive repetition of maintenance efforts.
Roadway
The portion within the road margins, including shoulders, for vehicular use.
Scarifying
The systematic disruption and loosening of the top of a road or layer surface by mechanical or other
means.
Scour - Defect:
Erosion of a channel bed area by water in motion, producing a deepening or widening of the
channel.
Scour Checks
Small checks in a ditch or drain to reduce water velocity and reduce the possibility of erosion.
Scuppers
Drainage pipes or outlets in a bridge deck.
Seal
A term frequently used instead of “reseal” or “surface treatment”. Also used in the context of
“double seal”, and “sand seal” where sand is used instead of stone.
Selected layers
Pavement layers of imported selected gravel or soil materials used to bring the subgrade support
properties up to the required structural standard for placing the subbase or road base layer.
Sett (Pavé)
A small piece of hard stone trimmed by hand to a size of about 10cm cube used as a paving unit.
Shoulder
Paved or unpaved part of the roadway next to the outer edge of the pavement. The shoulder
provides side support for the pavement and allows vehicles to stop or pass in an emergency.
Site Investigation
Collection of essential information on the soil and rock characteristics, topography, land use, natural
environment, and socio-political environment necessary for the location, design and construction of a
road.
Slope
A natural or artificially constructed soil surface at an angle to the horizontal.
Slurry
A mix of suitably graded fine aggregate, cement or hydrated lime, bitumen emulsion and water, used
for filling the voids in the final layer of stone of a new surface treatment or as a maintenance
treatment (also referred to as a slurry seal).
Slurrybound Macadam
A surfacing or pavement layer constructed where the voids in single-sized stone skeleton are filled
using bituminous slurry.
Sods
Turf but with more soil attached (usually more than 10 cms).
Soffit
The highest point in the internal cross-section of a culvert, or the underside of a bridge deck.
Spray Lance
Apparatus permitting hand-application of bituminous binder at a desired rate of spread through a
nozzle.
Squeegee
A small wooden or metal board with a handle for spreading bituminous mixtures by hand.
Stringer
Longitudinal beam in a bridge deck or structure.
Subbase
See Road Base.
Subgrade
The native material or earthworks formation underneath a constructed road pavement.
Sub-Soil Drainage
See Underdrainage.
Surface Dressing
A sprayed or hand applied film of bitumen followed by the application of a layer of stone chippings,
which is then lightly rolled.
Surface Treatment
A general term incorporating chip seals, slurry seals, micro surfacing, or fog sprays.
Surfacing
The road layer with which traffic tyres make direct contact. Consists of wearing course, and
Tack Coat
A coat of bituminous binder applied to a primed layer or to an existing bituminous surface as a
preliminary treatment to promote adhesion between the existing surface and a subsequently applied
bituminous layer.
Tar Binder
A binder made from processing coal.
Template
A thin board or timber pattern used to check the shape of an excavation.
Traffic Lane
The portion of the carriageway usually defined by road markings for the movement of a single line of
vehicles.
Transverse Joint
Joint normal to, or at an angle to, the road centre line.
Turf
A grass turf is formed by excavating an area of live grass and lifting the grass complete with about 5
cms of topsoil and roots still attached.
Turn Out Drain

See Mitre Drain.
Underdrainage (Sub-Soil Drainage)

System of pervious pipes or free draining material, designed to collect and carry water in the ground.
Unpaved Road
A road with a soil or gravel surface.
Vented Drift
See Causeway.
Waterbound Macadam
A pavement layer constructed where the voids in a large single-sized stone skeleton are filled with a
fine sand, washed in by the application of water.
Wearing Course
The upper layer of a road pavement on which the traffic runs and is expected to wear under the
action of traffic. This applies to gravel and bituminous surfaces.
Weephole
Opening provided in retaining walls or bridge abutments to permit drainage of water in the filter layer
or soil layer behind the structure. They prevent water pressure building up behind the structure.
Windrow
A ridge of material formed by the spillage from the end of the machine blade or continuous heap of
material formed by labour.
Wingwall
Retaining wall at a bridge abutment to retain and protect the embankment fill behind the abutment.
VOLUME 2,
1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Definition of a Small Road Structure .............................................................................................. 2
1.2 Scope of the Guidance .................................................................................................................. 2
1.2.1 Rural / urban Roads ......................................................................................................... 2
1.2.2 Paved / unpaved roads .................................................................................................... 2
1.2.3 Structural assessment ..................................................................................................... 2
1.2.4 Reconstruction / construction / maintenance ................................................................... 2
1.2.5 Better use of local resources ........................................................................................... 3
1.3 Types of structures ........................................................................................................................ 3
1.4 How to use Volume 2 ..................................................................................................................... 4
2 PROJECT PLANNING ................................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Setting Priorities ............................................................................................................................. 7
2.2 Assessment of the Problem or Need ............................................................................................. 9
3 DESIGN CRITERIA ..................................................................................................................... 11
3.1 Selecting Design Parameters ...................................................................................................... 11
3.2 Design Life ................................................................................................................................... 11
3.3 Design Flood ................................................................................................................................ 12
3.4 Traffic Categories and Widths...................................................................................................... 13
3.5 Design Code ................................................................................................................................ 15
3.6 Serviceability ................................................................................................................................ 15
3.7 Drainage of the Structure ............................................................................................................. 15
3.8 Maintenance Capability ................................................................................................................ 15
3.9 Safety ........................................................................................................................................... 16
3.10 Future Changes in Road Use ...................................................................................................... 16
4 STRUCTURAL OPTIONS ............................................................................................................ 18
4.1 Drifts ............................................................................................................................................. 18
4.1.1 Key features ................................................................................................................... 19
4.2 Culverts ........................................................................................................................................ 19
4.2.1 Key features ................................................................................................................... 20
4.3 Vented Fords and Causeways ..................................................................................................... 21
4.3.1 Key features ................................................................................................................... 22
4.4 Large Bore Arch Culverts ............................................................................................................. 23
4.4.1 Key features ................................................................................................................... 23
4.5 Bridges (arch or simply supported deck) ..................................................................................... 24
4.5.1 Key features ................................................................................................................... 25
4.6 Structure Selection ....................................................................................................................... 26
4.6.1 Costs .............................................................................................................................. 26
4.6.2 Amount of traffic per day / acceptable duration of traffic interruptions .......................... 26
4.6.3 Frequency of flooding .................................................................................................... 27
4.6.4 Emergency / principal route ........................................................................................... 27
4.6.5 Availability of alternative route ....................................................................................... 27
4.6.6 Damage to land or property ........................................................................................... 27
4.6.7 Uncertainties in flood prediction .................................................................................... 27
4.6.8 Bank elevation and bed material of the watercourse .................................................... 27
4.6.9 Complexity of the structure ............................................................................................ 28
5 SITE SELECTION AND APPRAISAL .......................................................................................... 31
5.1 General Requirements ................................................................................................................. 31
5.1.1 Road alignment .............................................................................................................. 32
5.1.2 Location ......................................................................................................................... 32
5.1.3 Existing structure assessment ....................................................................................... 32
5.2 Specific Requirements ................................................................................................................. 33
5.2.1 Drifts............................................................................................................................... 33
5.2.2 Culverts .......................................................................................................................... 33
5.2.3 Vented fords .................................................................................................................. 36
5.2.4 Large bore culverts ........................................................................................................ 37
5.2.5 Bridges ........................................................................................................................... 37
6 PEAK FLOW ESTIMATION ......................................................................................................... 39
6.1 Rainfall Intensity ........................................................................................................................... 39
6.2 Permeability of Soil ...................................................................................................................... 39
6.3 Catchment Area and Shape ......................................................................................................... 39
6.4 Cross-sections at Crossing Point ................................................................................................. 40
6.5 Hydraulic Gradient Upstream and Downstream .......................................................................... 41
6.6 Type of River (Incised or Alluvial) ................................................................................................ 41
6.6.1 Incised............................................................................................................................ 41
6.6.2 Alluvial............................................................................................................................ 41
6.7 Watercourse Bank and Bed Characteristics ................................................................................ 41
6.8 Flood Return Period ..................................................................................................................... 43
6.9 Maximum Peak Flow .................................................................................................................... 43
6.9.1 Method 1 - observation .................................................................................................. 43
6.9.2 Method 2 - interviews ..................................................................................................... 44
6.9.3 Method 3 - rational method ............................................................................................ 44
6.9.4 Method 4 - estimation .................................................................................................... 45
6.9.5 Method 5 – slope-area method ...................................................................................... 45
6.9.6 Other methods and the South Sudan environment ....................................................... 47
6.10 Duration of Peak Flow .................................................................................................................. 47
6.11 Flow Velocity ................................................................................................................................ 47
6.11.1 Direct observation in flood conditions ............................................................................ 47

6.11.2 Mannings formula .......................................................................................................... 47
6.11.3 Flat terrain ...................................................................................................................... 48
6.12 Normal Flow Rate ........................................................................................................................ 48
6.13 Perennial / Seasonal Flow ........................................................................................................... 48
6.14 Amount of Debris in Water ........................................................................................................... 48
7 MATERIALS ................................................................................................................................. 49
7.1 Stone and Stone Masonry ........................................................................................................... 49
7.1.1 Stone sources and extraction ........................................................................................ 49
7.1.2 Properties of stone ......................................................................................................... 51
7.1.3 Field testing.................................................................................................................... 52
7.1.4 Mortars ........................................................................................................................... 53
7.1.5 Stone walls..................................................................................................................... 54
7.1.6 Dry stone walling ........................................................................................................... 55
7.1.7 Hybrid walls.................................................................................................................... 56
7.1.8 Masonry culverts ............................................................................................................ 56
7.1.9 Gabion works ................................................................................................................. 56
7.2 Brick and Block Masonry ............................................................................................................. 58
7.2.1 Properties of bricks and blocks ...................................................................................... 60
7.2.2 Field testing.................................................................................................................... 62
7.2.3 Mortars for brick and block masonry ............................................................................. 63
7.3 Timber and Organic Materials ...................................................................................................... 63
7.3.1 Characteristics and utilisation of timber ......................................................................... 64
7.3.2 Field testing.................................................................................................................... 70
7.4 Plain and Reinforced Concrete .................................................................................................... 72
7.4.1 Materials for concrete .................................................................................................... 72
7.4.2 Production and placement ............................................................................................. 75
7.4.3 Properties of concrete .................................................................................................... 78
8 STRUCTURE DESIGN ................................................................................................................ 80
8.1 Scour ............................................................................................................................................ 80
8.1.1 Rule 1 - Provide sufficient foundation or cut-off wall depths ......................................... 81
8.1.2 Rule 2 - Create a minimal constriction to the water flow ............................................... 82
8.1.3 Rule 3 - avoid the use of piers ....................................................................................... 84
8.2 Foundations ................................................................................................................................. 85
8.3 Structural Slabs ............................................................................................................................ 86
8.3.1 Drifts............................................................................................................................... 86
8.3.2 Concrete slab ................................................................................................................. 87
8.3.3 Cement mortar bonded stone paving ............................................................................ 88
8.3.4 Hand packed stone ........................................................................................................ 88
8.3.5 Gabions and gravel ........................................................................................................ 88

8.3.6 Slab construction (vented fords and large bore culverts) .............................................. 88
8.4 Cut-off Walls................................................................................................................................. 89
8.5 Pipes ............................................................................................................................................ 90
8.5.1 Vertical positioning of pipes ........................................................................................... 90
8.5.2 Pipe sizing...................................................................................................................... 90
8.5.3 Pipe options ................................................................................................................... 98
8.5.4 Pipe inlets .................................................................................................................... 102
8.5.5 Pipe bedding and cover arrangements ........................................................................ 104
8.5.6 Multiple culverts and vented fords ............................................................................... 105
8.6 Headwalls and Wingwalls .......................................................................................................... 106
8.6.1 Culverts ........................................................................................................................ 106
8.6.2 Wingwalls - Larger structures ...................................................................................... 108
8.6.3 Stone, brick and blockwork walls ................................................................................. 108
8.6.4 Gabion baskets ............................................................................................................ 110
8.6.5 Timber walls ................................................................................................................. 111
8.7 Aprons ........................................................................................................................................ 111
8.7.1 Drift aprons .................................................................................................................. 111
8.7.2 Culvert aprons ............................................................................................................. 111
8.7.3 Vented ford aprons ...................................................................................................... 112
8.8 Approach Ramps ....................................................................................................................... 112
8.9 Downstream Protection .............................................................................................................. 115
8.9.1 Rip-rap ......................................................................................................................... 116
8.9.2 Masonry slabs .............................................................................................................. 116
8.9.3 Gabions........................................................................................................................ 117
8.9.4 Vegetation .................................................................................................................... 118
8.9.5 Steep channels ............................................................................................................ 119
8.10 Drain Protection ......................................................................................................................... 120
8.11 Arches ........................................................................................................................................ 120
8.11.1 Arch shape ................................................................................................................... 121
8.11.2 Bridge/culvert layout .................................................................................................... 121
8.11.3 Construction sequence ................................................................................................ 121
8.11.4 Arch materials .............................................................................................................. 122
8.11.5 Fill options .................................................................................................................... 124
8.12 Bridge Design............................................................................................................................. 124
8.12.1 Choice of bridge site .................................................................................................... 124
8.12.2 Loading ........................................................................................................................ 124
8.12.3 Scour............................................................................................................................ 125
8.12.4 Drainage ...................................................................................................................... 125

8.12.5 Maintenance ................................................................................................................ 125
8.12.6 Choice of structure ....................................................................................................... 126
8.12.7 Choice of materials and form of construction .............................................................. 126
8.12.8 Foundations ................................................................................................................. 127
8.12.9 Arch bridges ................................................................................................................. 127
8.12.10 Deck ............................................................................................................................. 129
8.12.11 Abutments .................................................................................................................... 132
8.12.12 Piers ............................................................................................................................. 134
8.12.13 Bearings and joints ...................................................................................................... 135
8.12.14 Parapets....................................................................................................................... 136
8.13 Other Design Issues .................................................................................................................. 136
8.13.1 Debris control ............................................................................................................... 136
8.13.2 Road signage ............................................................................................................... 137
8.13.3 Carbon footprint ........................................................................................................... 137
1 INTRODUCTION
Volume 2 of the South Sudan LVR Manual deals with small drainage and watercourse
crossing structures, typically up to 10 metres span, and associated retaining structures. It
provides detailed guidance on the processes involved with the planning and design of small
drainage and other structures for low volume roads.
It is clear that road structures are an important aspect of road design. Unfortunately it is an
aspect that is often given little or insufficient attention, which is shown by the fact that when
roads become impassable it is usually where they cross a watercourse. Although the length of
road structures forms only a very small fraction of the total road length the time spent on their
design must be a much greater portion of the total planning and design process.
1
There are manuals for the design of structures on South Sudan’s main roads . For these
structures the predominant construction materials used are concrete and steel. However, little
guidance has hitherto been available concerning small structures, particularly with respect to
the optimum use of resources such as labour, local skills (which may include masonry and
carpentry), local materials and small local enterprises, while still achieving durable and
adequate structures. Intelligent use of these resources will often produce the lowest cost
structures. This is particularly important in the limited resource environment expected to
prevail in the LVR sector in South Sudan for some time. It is certainly not advisable to blindly
apply standards, practices and ‘rules of thumb’ derived from rich economies for use in South
Sudan where the balance of influential factors such as labour wage rates, availability and cost
of standard materials and equipment, skills, access to finance and the support environment
can be very different.
This manual aims to assist engineers and technicians in the planning and provision of road
structures by:
 Providing concise and complete information in one document;
 Explaining the steps required in the design process;
 Providing different levels of information depending on the complexity of the structure;
 Providing guidance on costing of structures;
 Assisting in the approval and adoption of low cost structural designs.
The lack of access for designers and planners to design information and other resources
requires this Manual to provide all the basic information needed in the design of small
structures up to about 10 metres in span.
Volume 2 of this Manual has been written as a design guide, to complement existing national
design codes and standards from the Ministry of Roads and Bridges. It is also intended that
this part of the Manual will assist in the process of establishing more comprehensive and
appropriate planning, design and maintenance procedures and practices for small structures.
Investigations and fieldwork have shown that steps in the design process are often missed or
neglected. Therefore the steps that should be carried out and the reasons for undertaking
them are explained along with the type and detail of data that are required and how they
should be used in order to undertake a design.
1
USAID / Ministry of Roads and Bridges, Road and Bridge Design Manual 2006
1
1.1 Definition of a Small Road Structure

For the context of this Manual a road structure is a construction which provides support
and/or drainage to the road carriageway or associated road works. Roads form a barrier to
the natural drainage of surface water from the surrounding land into streams, lakes and rivers.
In the absence of any control arrangements the water would find its own way across the road,
resulting in gullies and washouts along the road. An effective drainage system is therefore the
most important part of a low volume road and should protect the road from damage due to
water. The most basic drainage provision is the camber of the road carriageway, which
directs water off the road to each side. Water is then removed from the road by the side and
mitre (turn-out) drains. In some cases it may be necessary for water to be moved across the
road at a low point in the alignment or at a stream, for example. As quantities of runoff water
build up in the side drains at low points in the alignment or at watercourses, it will be
necessary to allow water to cross from the high side of the road to the lower. This Part of the
Manual deals with the road structures required to manage the drainage of water across a
road. The other features of the drainage system are dealt with in Chapter 9, Volume 1 of the
Manual with the design standards shown in Part B.
1.2 Scope of the Guidance

The scope of Small Structures guidance in the Manual includes:
1.2.1 Rural / urban Roads

Although the Manual primarily discusses issues associated with the design and construction
of structures on low (traffic) volume rural roads, many of the ideas and design factors
discussed are applicable to urban and peri-urban roads. In these cases it will be necessary to
consider pedestrian issues in more detail. Existing built infrastructure and planned
development can also influence options with regard to the siting, type, size and ancillary
works associated with structures design.
1.2.2 Paved / unpaved roads

The majority of low volume roads will be unpaved. However, many of the structures discussed
in this Manual will also be suitable for low volume paved roads. Roads may initially be built to
earth or gravel surface standard and then upgraded by spot improvements or comprehensive
paving to partial or fully sealed/paved roads at a later date. Road structures designed and
constructed with reference to this.
The Manual will be suitable for paved roads provided that possible increased loadings and
higher design standards such as roadway widths are satisfied.
1.2.3 Structural assessment

Although this Manual is primarily a design guide, principally dealing with the design and
construction of road structures, it may also serve as a useful reference for the assessment
and maintenance of existing structures. As assessment is a check of an existing design, the
Manual highlights structural aspects which should be checked during an inspection and
assessment under an appropriate asset management and maintenance regime.
1.2.4 Reconstruction / construction / maintenance

The Manual primarily deals with new structures; however, the design principles are the same
for reconstruction, rehabilitation, extension and upgrading of existing structures. In these
cases it may be possible to make use of elements of existing structures, for example, using
an old drift slab as downstream protection for a new piped drift built adjacent to the existing
structure.
2
1.2.5 Better use of local resources

Adoption of the recommendations in this Manual will increase the use of local material and
labour resources. This will help to relieve the constraints that road authorities face due to a
shortage of funding and may allow a foreign exchange saving, as fewer materials may have
to be imported. The increased use of local labour will assist in stimulating the local economy
and greatly reduce the mobilisation costs of road construction.
Unskilled and semi-skilled labour could be utilised for a range of tasks in the construction of
road structures, such as timber growing preparation and formwork, quarrying dressing and
crushing stone, fired clay brick production, local transport, masonry and brickwork in
structures, retaining walls, ditch linings and culverts, collection and preparation of river gravel
for structural fill, and construction of components such as gabion baskets. The creations of
jobs in the area will not only provide socio-economic development but will also allow the
development of skills, which will have three benefits. Firstly, there will be the capacity in the
local community and enterprises to undertake maintenance on the structures as the skills
required will be established during the construction phase within the local community;
secondly, there will be an increase in employment opportunities in other construction sectors
for the labourers employed on the road works; and thirdly, studies have also shown the
employment generation multiplier effect of jobs created on rural infrastructure works.
1.3 Types of structures

The Manual covers a wide range of drainage structures from drifts to small bridges (Chapter 4
describes the characteristics of these structures). These structures vary in complexity and are
ranked in order of increasing complexity as follows:
 Drifts;
 Simple culverts;
 Vented fords;
 Large bore culverts;
 Small bridges.
It is difficult to define the boundaries between the categories above: for example, when does
a large bore culvert become an arched bridge? The background information, site data and
technical knowledge and support required to undertake the design also vary significantly. This
Manual therefore addresses the information required for the more complex structures but also
indicates the reduced level of survey and technical knowledge required to design more simple
structures. Other road structures, which are not covered in the Manual, include large bridges
and viaducts. Further information on these structures can be found in the current version of
the MRB Bridge Design Manual.
The Manual does not cover steel girder or lattice frame structures, as these structures require
specialist design and erection expertise. Neither does the Manual cover modular panel steel
bridges. These bridges are intended as a temporary steel structure that can be erected at
short notice from panels that would normally be held in a store.
Modular panel bridges are suitable for short term measures where an unforeseen flood
disrupts access at a critical location. The steel panel bridges can also be readily dismantled
and the units returned to store once a permanent solution has been constructed on the
access alignment. For such structures the specialist manufacturers’ manuals should be used.
3
This Manual also excludes suspension and suspended steel cable bridges for pedestrian,
animal and light motor traffic.
Chapters 1 to 7 cover planning and initial design assessment of structures. Chapter 8 focuses
on detailed design. Standardising designs will result in:
 Reduced design costs and economies of scale, leading to an improvement in cost
and quality;
 Increased speed of construction, as labourers, supervisors and engineers will become
more familiar with the standardised design;
 Simplified approval procedures
For complex structures, for bridges with main spans of more than 10 metres or bridges
expected to be trafficked with trucks of gross weight more than 6 tonnes, the current MRB
Bridge Design Manual should be used.
1.4 How to use Volume 2

There is a logical sequence of work that must be undertaken in the selection and design of
any road structure. This Part of the Manual is laid out in sequence with each chapter covering
one aspect of the process shown in the diagram, Figure 1.1. The two initial tasks which
should be carried out are to identify the problem or task (Chapter 2) and determine the design
criteria (Chapter 3) for the structure. The initial design data may then be collected (Chapter 2)
to enable the preliminary design to be carried out. Preliminary design, shaded yellow in the
flow diagram, involves four different stages which may be performed a number of times
before a design solution is proposed. It is suggested that a review of structural options
(Chapter 4) is initially undertaken followed by an appraisal of a potential construction site
(Chapter 5). The water flow characteristics of the watercourse (Chapter 6) should then be
considered before a selection of the most appropriate structure is made (Chapter 4). It is likely
that the preliminary design loop will need to be followed a number of times to review different
potential structures and construction sites.
Following completion of the preliminary design the proposed design solution should be
checked to ensure that it complies with the design criteria. Detailed design of the structure
can then be undertaken (Chapter 8) which will require further reference to be made to
chapters covering site selection and appraisal (Chapter 5) and watercourse characteristics
(Chapter 6). It will also be necessary to review the options for construction materials (Chapter
7) that may be available.
During supervision of the construction work it will be necessary to ensure materials used in
the structure meet and are used according to the specifications. This may require additional
reference to Appendix B “Laboratory Testing of Soils and Rocks” and Appendix C “Marginal
materials” of Volume 1. Chapter 11 of Volume 1 and Volume 3 cover the maintenance
requirements of structures after they have been built and highlights the problems that may be
encountered if maintenance is not carried out.
4
A
structure
is
required
Identify problem Determine design criteria
Chapter 2 Chapter 3
Collect initial design data

Chapter 2
Determine design criteria

Chapter 3
Determine type of Select preferred site for

structure - Chapter 4 structure - Chapter 5
Watercourse
consideration - Chapter 6
Does the proposed

solution meet the design
criteria?
Carry out detailed design

Collect detailed design
Chapter 8
data - Chapter 5, Chapter 6
Materials Prepare design drawings,

Chapter 7 BoQ and specs - Chapter
8
Supervise construction Maintain finished

work structure – Volume 3
Appendix F
Figure 1.1 Flow diagram of the planning, design and construction process
5
Depending on the complexity of the structure, the level of work and detail required at each
stage will vary. Although each stage of the design process shown in the Figure must be
covered, it may be possible to skip more detailed issues in each chapter for simple structures
such as drifts or culverts. Throughout the subsequent chapters there is guidance to indicate
which sections may be ignored depending on the type of structure to be built.
For complex structures, for those with main spans of more than 10 metres, and structures
crossing other roadways or railways, the current MRB Bridge Design Manual should be used.
A qualified civil, highway or structural engineer should certify all bridge and completed
structures as fit for purpose.
6
2 PROJECT PLANNING
2.1 Setting Priorities
The approach adopted assumes that a road network and the associated structures are the
responsibility of a road authority. From time to time there will be a requirement for new,
rehabilitated or upgraded structures. The approach is also applicable for a ‘one-off’ initiative to
provide, replace or rehabilitate a structure by an authority or community group. It may take
many years to construct all the roads and associated structures to all-weather standard
required by a community due to the limited financial resources and the capacity of the
available equipment and labour. Priorities must therefore be set on the order that work should
be undertaken. It may be possible to build a high priority road in the short term, but construct
some of the structures at a later date. However, these roads may be seasonally impassable
until the structures have been completed. A more pragmatic strategy with limited resources
may be to initially provide all of the structures and durable surfacing on problem sections of
the route (Basic Access strategy), and provide an engineered earth surface to the remainder
of the route until additional resources are available to attain a more durable road surface
throughout. This can be termed a stage construction, spot improvement or differential
upgrading strategy. In setting priorities the following factors should be taken into account. The
Spot Improvement approach is dealt with specifically under Chapter 11 of Volume 1 of this
Manual. When selecting which required structures to address and the type of structure to be
constructed the spot improvement and staged construction approach should be considered at
the planning stage for the South Sudan environment. Improvement of stream and river
crossings is critical to both approaches. The following are further considerations.
General
 The first question to be answered is “will a low cost drift suffice until resources for a
more expensive structure can be mobilised?”
 Reconstruction of a damaged structure may have a higher priority over provision of a
new structure in a different location.
Road network / location
 The level of priority given to the road/structure within the road inventory;
 The location of the road in relation to other structures/roads. For example, is there an
alternative route with an acceptable detour?
 The requirements of access for construction. Is it necessary to construct a new road
or upgrade an existing alignment before work can commence on the structure?
 Proximity to other work in order to avoid transportation of labour equipment and
materials over long distances.
If there are 3 potential structures that are required and two are close together while the other
is a long distance away it will be more efficient to construct the two structures that are close
together at the same time as labour and equipment can easily be transferred between the two
sites. If the programme requires the construction of two structures that are a long distance
apart it would be less efficient to move labour and equipment between the two sites as the
construction demand varied.
Road category
 The class of road and hence its strategic importance within the road network;
 The design level of structure required on the road network, which will determine the
resources and time, required for construction.
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Work status
Any work that has already commenced should be given the highest priority for funding in
order to be completed so that the benefits of the investment already made will be realised.
Justification
A simple cost benefit analysis and assessment of social benefits can be useful, both to raise
the finances and compare the various options to utilise the available resources.
Need: An assessment of the number of people who will benefit from the construction of the
road or structure coupled with the availability of other access in their area. Improved access
to important services such as health centres should also be considered.
Costs: The cost of providing one road or structure should be compared against providing
another. For example, if a budget of 200,000 South Sudan Pounds is available would the best
option be to construct one structure which costs 200,000 SSP or provide 5 smaller structures
around the road network, which only cost 40,000 SSP each?
Resource availability
It will be necessary to make an assessment of the resources (equipment, labour, artisans,
supervisors, materials, enterprises), which may be available in the locality. Assessments must
also be made for the timeframe required to obtain equipment and materials from other areas.
Labour may not be so freely available in agricultural areas at certain times of the year.
Specific skills may need to be trained or imported into the locality. It would also be easier to
manage if the labour resource requirements were steady rather than increasing and
decreasing throughout the year.
Availability of water for construction works may also be very limited in many areas, with a
requirement to dig wells in many areas.
Equipment resources may also be quite limited, and type of equipment used should be
carefully considered in light of this. Long distances over rough terrain to site will result in high
mobilisation costs. In some instances an intermediate technology approach may be
preferable, which will allow adaptable power sources (tractors) to be used, possibly resulting
in more cost effective works for a lower mobilisation cost.
In South Sudan construction material availability is very limited in many areas, resultant haul
distances are large, and construction costs are therefore high. This should be considered
when considering the type of structure to propose. While a spot improvement or staged
construction approach may be adopted the replacement cost of structures and importance of
each structure when adopting said approaches should be taken into account.
For many authorities the expected timing of funding availability from internal/external sources
(and possible conditionality) is an important consideration.
Climatic factors
In regions, which have a pronounced wet and dry season, or occasional flooding, it may only
be possible (or much more straightforward) to undertake construction in the dry season. Drifts
constructed in seasonal streams will not require the additional cost and time for diverting the
water or providing cofferdams if they are built during the dry season.
8
2.2 Assessment of the Problem or Need

Information on Site investigations procedures appropriate for LVR small structure is included
in Chapter 5 and Appendices B and E.
An example of a Structural Survey form is shown in Table 2.1. This Table can be used to
assess the physical resources and financial costs required to provide the structures. It can
also be utilised in assessing priorities and determining work plans for construction units.
The actual costs of structures will vary according to local resource costs and factors. The
benefits of keeping a database of actual and estimated construction costs cannot be
overemphasised. Because of the many factors that influence local costs and construction
practices it is highly risky to transfer unit cost knowledge from one location to another, and
most certainly between regions and countries. There is no substitute for careful consideration
of all local cost components and variables.
9
Table 2.1: Example of a structural survey format
10
3 DESIGN CRITERIA
3.1 Selecting Design Parameters
Internationally recognised design standards are being used for the primary road network in
South Sudan. However, these standards may not be appropriate for the size and level of
traffic on low volume roads. For example, vehicle loading is based on the largest long
distance haulage trucks, which rarely use some minor roads in their fully loaded condition.
Designs based on these standards would therefore usually incur excessive construction
costs. Unfortunately, heavy and overloaded trucks are commonplace on some routes in South
Sudan due to driver/operator discipline, economic pressures, or other local factors. This can
lead to vehicle and axle loading being experienced well in excess of those in accordance with
the national loading regulations. Such occurrences are usually related to haulage of particular
products such as bulk fuel, minerals, construction materials and timber. Therefore, when
designers are selecting design parameters for a particular structure they must ensure that
they are appropriate for the conditions that will be experienced on that particular road.
Examples of the factors, which designers should consider, are:
 What is the nature and loading of traffic currently using the route? (Carry out loading
surveys if necessary).
 Are conditions likely to change substantially in the foreseeable future? (e.g. could new
quarrying operations start up?)
 Are local design standards established for the relevant road category? Are these
appropriate or achievable?
 If overloading is prevalent, are there realistic possibilities to physically restrict access?
 What are the cost implications relating to the loading criteria or restrictions?
It is impossible to state definitive design criteria in this Manual, as overall site conditions will
vary between locations. The information given below should be considered as a guide to
designers, and adapted according to specific conditions in the area or the structure being
designed.
3.2 Design Life

The design life of a structure is the length of time that the structure can be expected to carry
traffic without reconstruction or replacement of structural elements. It assumes that
throughout the life of the structure regular standard maintenance is carried out.
When determining the structure’s design life, the factors which must be taken into account
are:
 Expected life spans for different structure types and materials;
 Expected initial and recurrent costs for the design life options;
 Finance currently available and future maintenance / rehabilitation finance probability;
 Future changes in the use of the road (e.g. increased traffic volumes or loadings);
 Flood return periods (see below);
 Consequences of structural failure;
 Likely influence of climate change on future life of the structure, risk and consequences
of failure.
The design life of the road itself (i.e. the length of time before the road will become obsolete
or require substantial improvement) should also be taken into account. After consideration of
all of the relevant local factors, it is probable that a design life of between 10 and 40+ years
will be appropriate for an individual structure. The selected design life should be clearly stated
in the design dossier.
11
3.3 Design Flood

One of the major design factors in the selection and size of road structures is the amount of
storm water that will flow past the structure. Each year there will usually be a few heavy
storms, which will result in peaks in the water-flow over or through the structure, but the
largest of these peaks will vary in size each year. If the flows are recorded over a number of
years, a longer period of recording will result in a larger maximum peak flow. The highest
known flood that has ever occurred may be referred to as the high flood. For minor structures
on low volume roads the designer cannot be expected to propose a design that is so large or
wide that it could cope with a storm water flow of the high flood. Structures should therefore
be designed to have the capacity to cope with a smaller flood; for example, the largest flood
that occurs every 10 years. This flood is called the design flood and the time period between
successive design floods is called the return period. The design flood is the largest flood that
is practical and/or economic for design. Structures should withstand the design flood without
any significant damage to the structure or adjacent road and/or embankments. Structures will
have a design life greater than the return period between design floods. The designer should
therefore consider the effects on a structure of a flood that is larger than the design flood to
ensure that significant or unacceptable damage will not occur. Further information about
return periods is given in Chapter 6 of this Volume the Manual.
In addition to the practical and economic considerations, the choice of return period for a
design should be based on the risk of failure of the structure if a larger flow is encountered. It
can be very difficult for the designer to undertake this risk analysis with the limited data that
may be available. Table 3.1 therefore shows suggested return periods for design flood flows
for different types of structures.
Table 3.1: Design storm return period (years)
Geometric design
standard (2)
Structure type DC4 DC5
Gutters and inlets (1) 2 2
Side ditches (1) 5 5
Ford (1) 5 5
Drift (1) 5 5
Culvert diameter <2m (1) 10 10
Large culvert diameter 2 - 6m 15 10
Short span bridge 6 - 10m 25 15
Notes:
1. These periods should be doubled if the alternative route in the event of a drainage failure is more than
an additional 75km, or no alternative exists.
2. For further guidance see Table 9.1 and 9.2 in Chapter 9 of Volume 1.
12
Clearly drifts and vented drifts may be overtopped during or after any storm. In these cases
the design period would indicate a peak flow where it would be impossible for a vehicle to
cross the structure safely for an extended period. This period would be determined according
to the road’s importance in the network. The strategic importance of a structure should also
be considered. For example, will it be possible to use an alternative route if the structure is
temporarily unusable or damaged? The selected storm return period should be clearly stated
in the design dossier.
3.4 Traffic Categories and Widths

Careful consideration must be given to the types of vehicles, which may use the road, both at
the present time and in the future after road improvements have been made. For example, if
the road is close to quarries or a logging area, extremely heavy vehicles may travel down the
road. While it may be possible to establish a weight restriction on vehicles using the road due
to the loads that particular structures can carry, drivers and operators often ignore them. It
may only take one overweight vehicle to destroy a structure and make the road impassable.
Engineers should therefore design structures to withstand the load of any vehicle that could
travel down the road. Typical loaded weights and vehicle dimensions are shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Typical loaded weights and dimensions of vehicles that may use low volume
roads
Typical max.
Vehicle Length (m) Width (m)
weight (kg)
Bicycles 250 - -
Motorcycles 400 2 1
Carts 1500 - -
Car / pick up 2500 5 1.75
4WD pick up 3000 5 1.75
Minibuses 5000 7 2
Tractor & trailers 12 000 10 2
2 axle small/medium trucks 17 000 8 2.5
Large buses 25 000 15 2.5
2/3 axle heavy trucks 30 000 10 2.5
(1)
5/6 axle heavy truck & trailer combinations 60 000 18 2.5
Note:
1. Usually used for paved main road and urban routes only
Experience has shown that some locations are particularly prone to grossly overloaded
vehicles. If vehicle overloading is common practice the suggested vehicle weights may be up
to twice some of the values shown in Table 3.2. Likely vehicle loading should be carefully
considered when choosing the type of structure. For example durability of corrugated steel
pipe culverts on unpaved roads will be greatly affected when overloaded. Overloading may
occur where there has been loss of fill over the culvert pipe due to traffic and climate. This will
lead to eventual direct loading of the culvert pipes or increased loading of the culvert pipe due
to lack of sufficient load spreading fill material. The culvert pipe was not designed for either of
these load scenarios and cannot withstand this load. In such a situation the level of access
provided will be greatly compromised through failure of the culvert.
13
If a type of vehicle can physically travel down a road then one of these vehicles will
almost certainly pass down that road at some time in the life of the structure –
therefore structures should be designed to withstand the weight of the heaviest
vehicle, which can pass down the road.
Signage should be provided to clearly state the loading capacity of any structure if it is limited
in any way. Local road network managers and administrators should also be made aware of
any load limitations and the likely consequences of these being exceeded.
With the resources available, if it is not possible to construct a crossing which will withstand
the largest vehicle that could travel down the road shown in Table 3.2, it will be necessary to
install a robust non-removable barrier each side of the structure to prevent overloaded
vehicles crossing.
When the structure is designed, the size of vehicle should also be taken into consideration to
ensure that it can safely cross the structure without damage to the vehicle or structure.
The scope of this Manual covers low volume roads generally carrying up to 300 motor
vehicles per day equivalent. However it is recognized that with double digit annual percentage
increases in traffic typical of some rural routes, the current flow volumes could at least triple
even in a 10 year design period. This is especially true for the South Sudan road environment
where the road network is at such a very early stage of development. The width of a structure
will substantially influence the initial construction cost; for bridges the cost is roughly
proportional to deck area and for culverts, roughly proportional to barrel length. In a severely
constrained resource environment a vital decision is therefore required with respect to
whether one or two-way traffic flow will be accommodated over the structure. It is probable
that two-way traffic for bridges will only be justifiable for some category DC4 roads and above;
although local conditions may override this. The secondary decision is with respect to the safe
width for the predominant traffic type and driver behaviour. These decisions become more
important with the increasing size of the proposed structure.
For culverts, a typical provision rate for rolling terrain will be about two or three per Km. In
severe terrain or in flat, floodable areas the frequency will be expected to be higher. However,
it should be noted that a culvert or other drainage structure is required in all low points in a
road. The cost of their provision is usually significant in the overall cost of the low volume road
provision, particularly for unpaved roads. The frequent occurrence of culvert headwalls and
width narrowing, and the difficulty for drivers to see them in advance, particularly for travel at
night without public lighting and hazard signing, raises important safety issues. The provision
of minimum two-lane width culverts can therefore often be justified in all except the most
constrained finance resource situations. Furthermore, culvert headwalls should not restrict the
general roadway width. They should be set back behind the carriageway and shoulder, and
clearly marked or have guide stones at each end of the culvert to prevent vehicles driving into
the inlets, outfalls or ditches when passing on-coming traffic. These requirements may be
relaxed to provide only clear carriageway width in slow speed mountainous alignments.
The argument for restricting larger structures to one lane is more easily supported. At the very
basic level, bridges for loaded motorcycle and bicycle traffic on village access tracks can be
provided with a carriageway width from about 1.5 metres.
For single lane motor vehicle traffic the clear carriageway width (between kerbs or guide
stones) is recommended to be a minimum of 3.65 metres.
If the traffic is mostly light in nature (motorcycles, cars, carts or light goods vehicles) then a
4.6 metres ‘one and a half’ lane option may be appropriate to allow for the occasional safe
passage of a heavy goods vehicle.
14
Where justifiable, full two-lane motor traffic provision should allow a minimum of 6.5 metres
between kerbs provided that vehicles are restricted to slow speed passage.
Where physical restrictions are necessary to prevent passage of heavy good vehicles these
will need to limit free passage to about 2.3 metres.
It is recommended that the carriageway width (between kerbs or guide stones) should be
between 3.75 and 4.5 metres for larger structures such as drifts, vented drifts and bridges.
This width should allow easy single way traffic but restrict two vehicles from passing on the
structure.
It is likely that these width restrictions will result in a reduction in the general road width which
will require a clear indication that the roadway narrows (advance warning signs) as
recommended by the national standards for the category of road shown in Chapter 6 of
Volume 1. (Plate 1)
Although the widths given above should generally be followed, cross drainage structures are
difficult to widen at a later stage. Consideration must therefore be given at the planning stage
regarding the future use of the road and whether the traffic volumes are expected to increase
significantly. It may prove more cost effective to construct a structure wider than current
requirements in order to avoid reconstruction at a later date.
It is evident that close liaison is required with the road alignment designer in the selection of
and decision on structures width.
3.5 Design Code
Bridge decks and structural components should be designed according to the Design code
set out in the current version of the MRB Bridge Design Manual.
3.6 Serviceability
Vehicle Impact: One of the most common causes of damage to structures is vehicle impact.
It is therefore important that reinforcement is placed in culvert headwalls and guide stones to
prevent them being demolished by traffic. Safety barriers should be installed in the situations
of particular hazards.
Fatigue Deflections: The majority of codes in use limit deflections to prevent fatigue damage
to structural members by specifying permissible deflections as a function of length. Typically
the permissible deflection is 1/800 of the span length. It will be suitable to relax this
requirement to a deflection of 1/100 of the span for LVR small structures (i.e. a 6mm
deflection on a 6m span bridge) if only one vehicle will be on the bridge at one time and this
level of deflection will not be noticed by drivers when compared to the quality of ride on the
approach roads.
3.7 Drainage of the Structure
There should be a camber or cross fall on any highway structure to ensure that water does
not collect and lay on the structure, increasing the rate of deterioration or acting as a safety
hazard. A minimum camber of 2.5% will normally be acceptable. Bridges should be
constructed with adequate drainage arrangements, such as pipes, which drain water off or
through the deck away from abutments or piers. Careful consideration should be given to
water flow in the side drains along the road adjacent to the structure to ensure that it does not
erode a deep channel along the side of the structure.
3.8 Maintenance Capability
When materials are chosen, consideration should be given to the predicted life of the material
in relation to the design life of the whole structure. The resources required and frequency of
maintenance should also be carefully reviewed. High mobilisation costs and long travel and
15
haul distances to site will reduce the likelihood of maintenance being carried out and the
development of local or community maintenance capacity is likely to be difficult in many areas
due to low population densities.
3.9 Safety
Where there are a large number of pedestrians using the road, provision should be made for
a 1.5m wide segregated footway across or on the side of the structure. If the structure is over
20m long but the number of pedestrians cannot economically justify a pedestrian footway it
may be advisable to construct a limited wider section in the middle of the structure (or regular
refuges) where pedestrians can wait safely while vehicles pass. In some cases it may be
justifiable to construct a separate low cost, lightweight structure for pedestrian passage.
Guardrails and kerbs can be provided to prevent vehicles or pedestrians from falling off the
structures. For structures, which have pedestrians regularly crossing, it is highly advisable to
construct some form of guardrail to prevent pedestrian and child accidents. This guardrail will
not normally be required to restrain vehicles from falling off the structure. The provision of
guardrails or kerbs to prevent vehicle accidents will depend on the level of vehicle traffic. It is
unlikely that vehicle guardrails can be economically justified where the vehicle flows are less
than 50 vpd. If vehicle guardrails are not provided it is imperative that clearly marked kerbs or
kerbstones are provided to indicate the extent of the roadway lanes.
Where the structure is designed to be overtopped it is necessary to indicate the depth of
water over the roadway and whether it is safe to cross. As it will normally be safe to cross fast
flowing water up to a depth of 200mm, guide stones on overtopped structures should be
made at least 200mm high. The stones will then remain visible and mark the edge of the
roadway when the structure is safe to cross and be submerged under the water when it is
unsafe to cross. Guardrails should not be used on structures that are designed to be
overtopped, as they will trap debris.
3.10 Future Changes in Road Use

During the initial design of the structure, careful consideration must be given to probable
future changes in road use. For example, the type of traffic and number of vehicles of each
type, which may affect the requirements of the structure, must be taken into account. The
future changes should be reviewed for the predicted life of the structure but consideration
should be given to the financial costs of building a larger structure if a smaller, simpler
structure will be acceptable for the majority of the design life. A staged construction approach
may be preferable to account for present need and funding as well as future tasks of the road
network. A drift or vented ford may accommodate immediate to mid-term needs with
replacement of the less expensive cross drainage structure with a bridge at a later date when
funds allow and traffic volumes and type demand a higher level of service.
In selecting design parameters and ultimately the choice of structure, the economic benefits
of different types of structures should be taken into account. These economic considerations
not only include the physical costs of the structure and measurable benefits of increased
access, lower transport costs, time savings and increased economic activity but also the
social benefits of increased access. For example, it may be considered beneficial to provide a
small bridge across a river, which will provide constant access to a health centre for a village
on the opposite bank. A vented ford may be more suitable for the level of traffic using the
road, but high flood flows may prevent a patient receiving treatment in an emergency.
In many cases, engineers will not have all the financial resources that they need to satisfy all
the structures needs. If a structure is to be provided which does not fully meet the design
requirements, the design should enable the structure to be upgraded at a later date with
minimal reconstruction if further resources become available.
16
Within the South Sudan context a specific consideration for structures should be the cost of
replacement of a structure. Staged construction requires an iterative approach to rural road
design and construction in order to achieve the most cost effective solution – i.e. using the
materials available locally, a wooden culvert may be constructed. At a later date when funds
allow, the culvert could be replaced with a more durable option. However, at the design stage
the likelihood of maintenance being carried out on the structure, the likelihood of the structure
failing, and the cost of mobilising tools, equipment, materials and personnel to replace the
structure, especially when there are large distances to the site, should be considered. The
effects of failure of the structure should also be considered in terms of level of access
provided – will the road link be impassable for a long period and is this acceptable? On some
sections of road it may be more cost effective in the medium term to build fewer but more
durable structures or more durable structures and less pavement / wearing course in a staged
construction approach.
17
4 STRUCTURAL OPTIONS
The greatest potential cost savings for water crossing options is in the choice of structure
type. This chapter considers different water crossing options, from drifts to small bridges with
spans of <10m, explaining the characteristics of each and the conditions suitable for their use.
The advantages and disadvantages associated with each structure are also discussed.
While structure types are presented individually it should be remembered that, for alluvial
plains, a combination of a number of structures, perhaps constructed under adaption of a
staged construction approach might be the most cost effective means of spanning the
watercourse.
4.1 Drifts
Drifts are the most basic structure and can be the lowest cost form of watercourse crossing.
There are two types of drift:
Relief drifts: relieve side drains of water where the road is on sloping ground and water
cannot be removed from the uphill side drain by mitre drains, or as an alternative to a relief
culvert.
Small watercourse (or stream) drifts: where stream flows are very small drifts may be used
to allow the stream to cross the road (see Figure 4.1, Plate 2).
Figure 4.1: Key features of a stream drift
Drifts can also be referred to as Irish bridges, fords or splashes. The terms describe
essentially the same structure, however, it is generally accepted that a ford or splash is
constructed from the existing riverbed e.g. a sandy riverbed or level rock. A drift is a ford or
splash with an improved running surface constructed from imported (or gathered) materials. A
low water crossing is the collective term used to describe all drifts, fords, splashes and vented
fords.
18
4.1.1 Key features

The key features of drifts are:
1. Stream drifts are structures which provide a firm place to cross a river or stream. Relief
drifts transfer water across a road without erosion of the road surface. Water flows
permanently or intermittently over a drift, therefore vehicles are required to drive
through the water in times of flow.
2. Drifts are particularly useful in areas that are normally dry with occasional heavy rain
causing short periods of floodwater flow.
3. Drifts provide a cost effective method for crossing wide rivers which are dry for the
majority of the year or have very slow or low permanent flows.
4. Alternative solutions may be preferable for small permanent watercourses to prevent
vehicles having to drive through the water.
5. Drifts are particularly suited to areas where material is difficult to excavate, thus making
culverts difficult to construct.
6. Drifts are also particularly suited in flat areas where culverts cannot be buried because
of lack of gradient.
7. If necessary, guide stones should be provided on the downstream side of the drift and
be visible above the water when it is safe for vehicles to cross the drift.
8. Buried cut off walls are required upstream and downstream of the drift to prevent under
cutting by water flow or seepage.
9. The approach road level will normally mean that approach ramps are required.
Approach ramps should be provided to the drift in the bottom of the watercourse with a
maximum gradient of 10%.
10. Drifts should not be located near or at a bend in the river.
11. Some form of protection is usually required downstream of a drift to prevent erosion.
The advantages and disadvantages of using drifts for water crossings are shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Drifts: advantages and disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
 Low cost: at the most basic level, can be  Drifts require vehicles to slow down when
constructed and maintained entirely with local crossing;
labour and materials;  The crossing can be impassable to traffic
 Ease of maintenance and repair; during flood periods;
 Volume of excavated material in most cases  Foot passage can be inconvenient or
is minimal; hazardous when water is flowing.
 Do not block with silt or other debris carried by
floodwater;
 Can accommodate much larger flows than
culverts;
 Easier to repair than culverts;
 Water flows over a wide area, resulting in less

water concentration and erosion downstream
than piped culverts.
4.2 Culverts
Culverts are the next step upwards from drifts in terms of cost and complexity of structure.
There are two types of culvert:
Stream culverts: which allow a watercourse to pass under the roadway.
19
Relief culverts: at low points in the road alignment or where there is no definable
stream, but the topography of the ground requires a significant amount of cross
drainage which cannot be accommodated by side drains (See Figure 4.2).
Figure 4.2: Key features of a relief culvert
4.2.1 Key features

The key features of culverts are:
1. Culverts are the most commonly used structures on low volume roads. They can vary
in number from about one each km in dry and gently rolling terrain up to six or more for
severe terrain with high rainfall. In flat areas with high rainfall, the frequency may also
increase to allow water to cross the road alignment in manageable quantities.
2. Culverts channel water under the road, avoiding the need for vehicles to drive through
the watercourse.
3. In addition to well-defined water crossing points, culverts should normally be located at
low points or dips in the road alignment.
4. Relief culverts may be required at intermediate points where a side drain carries water
for more than about 200 metres without a mitre drain or other outlet.
5. Culverts can be pipe, box, slab or arch type.
6. Headwalls are required at the inlet and outlet to direct the water in and out of the
culvert and prevent the road embankment sliding into the watercourse. Wingwalls at
the ends of the headwall may also be used to direct the water flow and retain material.
7. Aprons with buried cut off walls are also required at the inlet and outlet to prevent water
seepage, scouring and undercutting.
8. Culvert alignment should follow the watercourse both horizontally and vertically where
possible.
9. Gradient of the culvert invert should be between 2-5%. Shallower gradients could
results in silting whereas steeper gradients result in scour.
10. Culvert invert levels should be approximately in line with the water flow in the
streambed, otherwise drop inlet and/or long outfall excavations may be required.
11. Common culvert diameters are 600mm and 900mm.
12. Cross culverts smaller than 600mm in diameter should not be installed, as they are
very difficult to clean.
20
13. Where foundation material is poor, culverts should be placed on a good foundation
material to prevent settlement and damage. On very soft ground, it may be necessary
to consider concrete, steel or timber piles to provide adequate foundations. This will
require specialist design expertise not covered by this manual.
14. It is necessary to protect the watercourse from erosion downstream from the structure.
15. Culverts can exist in pairs or in groups to enable larger stream flows to be
accommodated using standard unit designs. An example of a three-barrel corrugated
steel culvert.
16. When silt supply is high, pipe culverts shall not be used.
The advantages and disadvantages of using culverts are shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Culverts: advantages and disadvantages
 Culverts provide a relatively cheap and  Regular maintenance is often required to

efficient way of transferring water across a prevent the culvert silting up, or to remove
road; debris blockage;
 Can be constructed and maintained primarily  Culverts act as a channel, forcing water flow
with local labour and local materials; to be concentrated, so there is a greater
 Culverts allow vehicle and foot passage at all potential for downstream erosion compared
times; with drifts;
 Culverts do not require traffic to slow down  Culverts are not suited to occasional high
when they are crossed; volume flows.
 Culverts allow water to cross the road at
various angles to the road direction for a
relatively small increase in costs.
4.3 Vented Fords and Causeways

These generally have higher capacity and construction costs than drifts or culverts. A typical
vented ford/causeway is illustrated in Figure 4.3 and Plate 3.
Figure 4.3: A typical vented ford / causeway
21
4.3.1 Key features

The key features of vented fords and causeways are:
1. These structures are designed to pass the normal dry weather flow of the river through
pipes below the road. Occasional larger floods pass through the pipes and over the
road, which may make the road impassable for short periods of time.
2. Vented causeways are the same concept as vented drifts but are longer with more
pipes to cross wider watercourse beds.
3. The level of the road on the vented drift should be high enough to prevent overtopping
except at times of peak flows.
4. There should be sufficient pipes to accommodate standard flows. The location of pipes
in the drift will depend on the flow characteristics of the river.
5. Vented fords should be built across the whole width of the watercourse.
6. A vented ford requires approach ramps which must be surfaced with a non-erodible
material and extend above the maximum flood level.
7. Watercourse bank protection will be required to prevent erosion and eventually
damaging the entire structure.
8. The approach ramps should not have a steeper grade than 10% (7% where there is
significant heavy vehicle traffic).
9. The upstream and downstream faces of a vented drift require buried cut off walls
(preferably down to rock) to prevent water undercutting or seeping under the structure.
10. An apron downstream of the pipes and area of overtopping is required to prevent scour
by the water flowing out of the culvert pipes or over the structure.
11. There is also a requirement to protect the watercourse from erosion downstream from
the structure. There will be considerable turbulence immediately downstream of the
structure in flood conditions.
12. The road surface longitudinal alignment of the vented ford should be a slight sag curve
to ensure that, at the start and end of overtopping, water flows across the centre of the
vented drift and not along it.
13. There should be guide stones on each side of the structure to mark the edge of the
carriageway and indicate when the water is too deep for vehicles to cross safely.
14. Vented fords can also be known as piped drifts
The advantages and disadvantages of using vented fords and causeways are shown in Table
4.3.
Table 4.3: Vented fords/causeways: advantages and disadvantages
 Vented fords can allow a large amount of  Vented fords can be closed for short periods
water to pass without overtopping; during periods of flooding and high flow;
 They are cheaper to construct and maintain  Floating debris can lodge against the
than bridges; upstream side of the structure and block
 Construction of vented fords is fairly pipes;
straightforward compared with bridges;  Foot passage can be inconvenient or
 Vented fords are well suited to cope with hazardous when water is flowing.
short high volume flows;
 Can be constructed and maintained primarily
with local labour and local materials.
22
4.4 Large Bore Arch Culverts

Large bore arch culverts are illustrated in Figure 4.4 and Plate 4.
Figure 4.4: Key features of large bore culvert
4.4.1 Key features

The key features of large bore arch culverts are:
1. Large diameter culverts typically have openings greater than 1 metre and are capable
of passing high flows, either through one large opening or a number of medium sized
openings.
2. Very large bore arch culverts may also be called arch bridges.
3. Formwork is required to construct the openings. This formwork can be made from
wood, stones or metal sheeting and either incorporated into the structure or removed
once construction is complete.
4. Although these structures are not generally designed to be overtopped, they can be
designed and constructed to cope with an occasional overtopping flood flow.
5. The road alignment needs to be a minimum of 2 metres above the bottom of the
watercourse.
6. Approach embankments are required at each end of the structure.
7. Large bore culverts require solid foundations with a buried cut off wall on both
upstream and downstream sides to prevent water seepage erosion and scouring.
8. These structures require large amounts of internal fill material during construction.
9. Guide stones or kerbs should be placed at the edge of the carriageway to increase
vehicle safety.
10. If the crossing is to be used by pedestrians, consideration should be given to installing
guardrails and central refuges for long crossings where pedestrians can move off the
roadway to allow traffic to pass.
11. Water from the roadside drains should be carefully channelled into the watercourse
away from the structure to prevent erosion of the bank or scour of the culvert structure.
The advantages and disadvantages of large bore arch culverts are shown in Table 4.4.
23
Table 4.4: Large bore culverts: advantages and disadvantages
 Large bore culverts are usually easier and  The water opening in large bore culverts is
cheaper to construct than bridges; smaller than for a bridge of the same size,
 They can accommodate flows significantly which reduces the potential flow rate past the
higher than smaller culverts and vented structure at peak flows;
fords;  Large bore culverts can require a significant
 Can be constructed and maintained amount of internal fill material.
primarily with local labour and materials,
without the need for craneage;
 They may easily be designed and
constructed for occasional overtopping
 Central ‘piers’ are not so susceptible to
damage by scour and erosion compared
with bridge piers;
 They generally require less maintenance
than conventional bridges.
An alternative to a large or multi-bore culvert is a reinforced concrete box culvert. The Manual
does not cover this type of structure. For guidance on such structures refer to the MRB Bridge
Design Manual and publications such as TRL Overseas Road Note 9.
4.5 Bridges (arch or simply supported deck)

Bridges are generally the highest cost structures to construct. This Manual does not cover
multiple span bridges, which may be simply supported or continuous over piers. For such
structures and bridges with spans more than 10 metres, refer to the current MRB Bridge
Design Manual. Simply supported bridge decks are illustrated in Figure 4.5, Plate 5.
Figure 4.5: Key features of a simply supported deck bridge
24
4.5.1 Key features

Key features of the bridges covered in this Manual are:
1. The arch is the simplest form of bridge.
2. There are a number of different elements to a simply supported deck bridge. These are
a superstructure (comprising deck, parapets, guide stones and other road furniture)
and substructure (comprising abutments, wing walls, foundations, piers and cut off
walls).
3. Bridges are generally the most expensive type of road structure, requiring specialist
engineering advice and technically approved designs.
4. Bridges can be single span or multi span, with a number of openings for water flow and
intermediate piers to support the superstructure.
5. The main structure is always above flood level, so the road will always be passable.
6. Abutments support the superstructure and retain the soil of the approach
embankments.
7. Wing walls are needed to provide support and protect the road embankment from
erosion.
8. Embankments must be carefully compacted behind the abutment to prevent soil
settlement which would result in a step on the road surface at the end of the bridge.
9. Weep holes are needed in the abutment to allow water to drain out from the
embankment, and avoid a build up of ground water pressure behind the abutment.
10. Bridges should not significantly affect the flow of water (i.e. the openings must be large
enough to prevent water backing up and flooding or over topping the bridge).
11. The shape of the abutments and piers will affect the volume of flow through the
structure and also the amount of scouring.
12. Bridges require carefully designed foundations to ensure that the supports do not settle
or become eroded by the water flow. On softer ground this may require piled
foundations which are not covered in this Manual.
13. Water from the roadside drains should be channelled into the watercourse to prevent
erosion of the bank or scour of the abutment structure.
14. Guide stones or kerbs should be placed at the edge of the carriageway to increase
vehicle safety.
15. If the crossing is to be used by pedestrians, consideration should be given to installing
guardrails and a central refuge for long crossings where pedestrians can move off the
roadway for passing traffic.
Advantages and disadvantages of bridges with spans <10 m are shown in Table 4.5.
25
4.5: Bridges: advantages and disadvantages
 The road is always passable because the  Bridges are normally significantly more
structure should not be overtopped; expensive than other road structures;
 Simple arch bridges can be constructed  They are more complex than other structures
primarily with local skills and local materials and will require specialist engineering support
without the need for craneage, however, for design and construction;
simply supported spans are more complex.  Additional height and earthworks in approach
embankments;
 Bridges may require heavy duty lifting cranes
for the deck components;
 Although all structures should be inspected
for defects, bridges require regular detailed
checks;
 Bridges are likely to fail if flood flow
predictions are incorrect and they are over
topped;
 A small amount of scour and erosion can
often result in major damage to the structure.
4.6 Structure Selection

The objective in selecting a structure for a water crossing is to choose the most appropriate
design for each location. This selection should be based on the factors outlined in the
following sections.
4.6.1 Costs
Assessments will have to be made of the initial cost of construction. This should include
materials, transportation, equipment, labour, and supervision as well as overheads (and for a
contractor, the profit margin). An assessment will also have to be made of the on-going
maintenance costs that will be required for each structure.
The example in Table 4.6 compares the costs of a timber bridge with a masonry vented ford.
Initially it may appear that the timber bridge is the cheaper option but, even without inflation
over the first 15 years, the masonry culvert can be shown to be the cheaper when whole life
costs are considered. Furthermore, there may be risks that funding will not be available for
maintenance, or that defects will not be identified and repaired in a timely manner on a high
maintenance structure.
4.6.2 Amount of traffic per day / acceptable duration of traffic interruptions

The amount and type of traffic using the road each day will help determine carriageway width,
and the acceptable length of time that the road may be closed due to overtopping during
periods of peak flood. A two-lane traffic carriageway may be required for a route with higher
traffic volumes whereas a single lane carriageway may be sufficient for routes with lower
traffic volumes. If goods vehicles are using the route the length of time acceptable for the road
to be closed may be reduced. Whereas if the road is used for local travel only and an
alternate but longer route exists a longer period of impassability may be acceptable. The
seasonality of traffic flows and relationships to likely flood periods should also be considered
in terms of the risk to local perishable goods for example.
26
4.6.3 Frequency of flooding

The frequency and size of peak flows will determine the level of the structure’s roadway to
ensure that the road remains open for all but the largest peak flows.
4.6.4 Emergency / principal route

Principal routes such as access roads to local markets or emergency routes to a nearby
hospital will require higher levels of access and shorter periods of closure due to high water
levels.
4.6.5 Availability of alternative route

The proximity and distance of an alternative route will also affect the choice of structure
because an alternative secure route with a short acceptable detour will allow the road to be
closed for longer periods.
4.6.6 Damage to land or property

Whenever watercourses are channelled through pipes, such as in culverts and vented fords
or through narrow openings in bridges, severe erosion can be caused to land and property
downstream of the structure. If agricultural land or buildings are close to the proposed
structure careful consideration must be given to erosion protection. Undersized structures can
also cause water to back up causing flooding upstream and possible property damage.
4.6.7 Uncertainties in flood prediction

The choice and design of the structure will depend on the maximum water flow during flood
conditions. If the maximum water flow is not known sufficiently accurately it may be necessary
to provide a structure that can be over-topped during periods of unpredicted water flow.
4.6.8 Bank elevation and bed material of the watercourse

The resistance of the watercourse banks and bed to erosion will dictate the type of foundation
bank protection and hence structure that can be built. For material which is easily erodible it
will be necessary to have deep foundations and possibly extensive bed and bank protection
or structures which are not susceptible to damage. The steepness of the banks and difficulty
in excavating soil material will also determine the most convenient approach roads.
A major factor affecting the cost of building a structure is the amount of material which needs
to be imported to or exported from the site. Where the road alignment is at a similar level to
the riverbed it may be difficult to construct a structure that will not be overtopped without large
approach ramps/ embankments as illustrated in Figure 4.6.
27
Figure 4.6: Large embankments required to prevent road flooding
4.6.9 Complexity of the structure

There is a general progression in complexity, and hence cost, of structures with the cheapest
structure being a drift and the most expensive being a bridge (see Figure 4.7).
Figure 4.7: Complexity and cost
It may also be difficult to define the boundaries of different structures (for example, “when
does a vented ford become a multi-bore culvert?”). In reality there are overlaps of suitability of
each structure type so that in a particular situation more than one structure type may be
suitable.
For small watercourses and relief structures the choice of structure will, in general, be
between a culvert and drift and, for large watercourses, between a vented ford and a large
bore culvert, or possibly a bridge. The choice of structure will be determined by all the factors
discussed above, but particularly by the predicted maximum water flow, its seasonal
variations and the length of road closures that can be tolerated.
The flow diagram in Figure 4.8 shows in more detail the questions and decisions that should
be made when choosing a structure. Factors affecting the choice of structure are different for
each location; therefore a number of questions need to be addressed. It should also be noted
that Figure 4.8 only highlights the key issues and should only be used as a guide when
determining the most appropriate structure.
28
Figure 4.8 also asks questions regarding the permissible closure time for a road during floods.
Each individual case will have to be assessed separately depending on it’s particularly
circumstances. In the absence of any local guidelines Table 4.7 gives suggested upper and
lower bounds for closure times.
Table 4.7: Closure times
Criteria Drift most favourable Drift least favourable
Average daily traffic (ADT) Less than 5 vehicles per day More than 200 vehicles per day
Average annual flooding Less than twice per year More than 10 times per year
Average duration of traffic

Less than 24 hours More than 3 days
interruption per occurrence
Extra travel time for detour Less than 1 hour More than 2 hours/no detour
Due to the road environment in South Sudan (see Chapter 4, Volume 1) a combination of
structures may often be the most cost effective solution. Wide perennial flood plains may be
best crossed by vented fords with long approach embankments with relief culverts along their
length. Similarly bridge lengths could be shortened in combination with relief culverts if
erosion potential at the crossing point is found to be minimal due to flat terrain and stable
material. This manual details the design of each individual structure type but consideration
should always be given at initial design and cost estimation stage as to whether a
combination of structures will be more cost effective for watercourse crossings.
When the problem is ‘beyond the scope of this Manual’, specialist bridge engineering skills
should be mobilised.
29
* Small bore culvert is one which is less than 900mm diameter
Figure 4.8: “Route Map” for selection of a suitable structure
30
5 SITE SELECTION AND APPRAISAL

5.1 General Requirements
For minor structures such as drifts or culverts on existing routes there may be little choice
available in site selection. Changing the existing road alignment could incur substantial
additional road works costs.
For relief drifts or culverts that are necessary to allow the buildup of water in side drains to
cross the road alignment, there is usually some flexibility in location. Normally side drains will
be relieved by a turn out or cross structure after a maximum length of about 200 metres to
avoid exceeding capacity or causing erosion in the drain or in the outfall watercourse. Ideal
outfall sites are at field boundaries or where there is vegetation or stable ground to minimise
the risk of damage or erosion downstream.
For larger structures and watercourses the selection of site location requires more attention
(See Figure 5.1).
Careful site selection is essential to ensure ease of construction and to minimise the whole
life cost of the structure. Poor site selection can result in a longer, wider or higher structure
than is actually necessary. Poor siting can also lead to excessively high maintenance costs
and, in extreme cases, a high risk of destruction of the structure. Regardless of the type of
structure the following criteria should ideally be met when determining a site for a water
crossing (other than at side drain relief, drift and culvert crossings):
1. The crossing should be located away from horizontal curves in the watercourse
because these areas are unstable, with the line of the watercourse tending to move
towards the outside of the bend with time. If no option is available a new channel
should be made (See Figure 5.1).
2. The crossing should be at an area of uniform watercourse gradient. If the gradient is
steepening there is a greater possibility of scour and erosion, and if the gradient is
decreasing there is the potential for silt and other debris to be deposited near or inside
the structure.
3. The crossing should, ideally, be at an area of the channel with a non-erodible bed.
These areas are less prone to scour and therefore less scour protection is required;
4. The road should cross the watercourse at a point with well-defined banks where the
stream will generally be narrower.
5. The watercourse should not be prone to flooding at the crossing point.
o
6. The skew angle shall be <15 .
Figure 5.1 Suitable crossing points for larger structures
31
5.1.1 Road alignment

In addition to the watercourse requirements noted in Section 5.1, the road should:
1. Cross the watercourse at 90 degrees because this minimises the span length of the
bridge or pipe. A comparison of length of culvert L1 with a culvert on a skew crossing L2
is shown in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2: Right angle crossings reduce the length and cost of structure required.
2. Cross on a straight length of road rather than a curve to reduce the width of a bridge or
length of a culvert. For bridges the minimum straight approach should where possible
conform to the minimum Stopping Sight Distances in Table 3.3.
3. Be fixed vertically at the minimum elevation necessary to pass above the design flood
flow (this is obviously not required for drifts and vented fords). If the road alignment is
fixed too high, unnecessary costs will be incurred in abutment/wingwall/headwall
construction and approach embankments.
4. Be centred above the centre line of the substructure.
5.1.2 Location
The site of the river crossing should be away from waterfalls and confluence zones. A site
with a natural narrow channel width rather than a wide one should be used.
In locating a structure it is very rare that all the criteria above can be satisfied for each
crossing, therefore a balanced consideration of the various factors is required. It is necessary
to establish the most cost effective solution for each structure depending on individual
circumstances.
5.1.3 Existing structure assessment

Where existing roads are being improved, existing drainage sites should already have been
provided with an appropriate structure. However, it is possible that the structure is inadequate
or the need for a structure had been overlooked. A common fault is that culverts have been
installed at the wrong level; too high often results in erosion downstream; too low leads to
repeated silting and a maintenance problem. When the road is inspected the following
conditions indicate that further drainage work needs to be undertaken:
1. Small gullies exist on the road due to water flowing across the running surface.
32
2. Existing culverts are damaged due to standing water softening the soil around the
culvert or insufficient capacity.
3. Sand and silt has been deposited on the road in patches due to standing water.
4. Culverts, inlets or outlets are silted due to incorrect design or installation.
5. Evidence of erosion around the structure or culvert.
6. Debris trapped at inlet due to incorrect type, sizing or lack of protection.
Figure 2.1 is an example of a completed structural assessment form used for assessing
existing structures.
5.2 Specific Requirements

In addition to the general site selection criteria given above, the following factors should be
taken into account for the different types of structures.
5.2.1 Drifts
The following site selection criteria should be considered when locating drifts:
1. Avoid areas with steep banks (greater than 1.5m) because these require a large
amount of excavation to achieve acceptable approach gradient and erosion/siltation
problems can occur.
2. The level of the drift should be as close as possible to the existing riverbed level. This
is most important, as it will affect the amount of water turbulence and erosion that may
occur around it.
3. The normal depth of water should be a maximum of 150mm and the maximum 5-year
3
flow should be 6m /second on the drift to allow traffic to pass.
4. The watercourse should be clearly defined and stable at the crossing point to ensure
that the water will not alter its flow away from the drift slab.
5. In flat arid areas it may not be possible to determine the exact location of the low point
in the alignment or occasional watercourse without a detailed level survey.
5.2.2 Culverts
The key features of culverts are presented in Section 4.2.1. As previously discussed a site
investigation is required to determine the number and location of culverts. Table 5.5 suggests
intervals between relief culverts on long grades as a general guidance. Culverts will also be
required at points where a stream or waterfall crosses the road. These culverts may also be
used as relief culverts to transfer the water across the road.
Table: 5.5: Minimum recommended relief culvert spacing
Road gradient (%) Culvert interval (m)

12 40
10 80
8 120
6 160
4 200
2 >200
The location of a culvert will be determined from the foregoing considerations. On rural roads
there is often insufficient attention paid to the alignment and forces related to the water flow,
33
especially when this is infrequent. This often causes problems for the performance and
maintenance of the culvert.
Careful selection of the culvert alignment and size is important to:
 Achieve good hydraulic performance;
 Ensure stability of the stream bed;
 Reduce risks for vehicles;
 Minimise construction and maintenance costs.
It is important to design the culvert to be free from sediment deposits, which tend to occur on
the inside of stream bends, or where there is an abrupt change from the stream slope to a
flatter grade in the culvert. For reasons of economy, culverts should always be laid on a
straight alignment that may be perpendicular or skewed to the road centre line.
In rolling and mountainous terrain culverts usually operate as hydraulically short drainage
structures under conditions of inlet control. The slope of the culvert invert should be 2-5%.
Typically, they are sized to flow 75-90% full, with measures to reduce velocities at the outlet.
In flat terrain the culvert slope should be the same as that of the stream or watercourse but
should never be less than 1% to prevent siltation.
For relief cross culverts where sediment loads are low to moderate the combination of a
nominally 1m deep catch-pit inlet, a moderately sloping culvert long-section, and sufficient
energy dissipation and erosion protection works at the outlet, is recommended. A culvert
catch-pit inlet area should be designed to be easily manually cleared of debris during
maintenance operations. The catch-pit should have raised side walls or wing walls to contain
water splash. Where sediment loads are high, a chute inlet, a wide culvert and greater erosion
protection works at the outlet are usually required.
Typical examples of problems that could occur if attention is not given to appropriate
horizontal and vertical road alignments are:
1. In flat ground the level of the surrounding ground should determine the invert of the
culvert outfall. Box culverts and arch culverts are preferable in these circumstances
because the flat invert slabs cause less disturbance to the flow of water. Barrel culvert
inverts should be similarly determined, however, an outfall apron should be provided to
ensure that the flow is stabilised and distributed horizontally before it reaches the
natural ground downstream. If the invert is placed too low then the culvert outfall and
opening will silt up. If the invert is fixed too high there will be ponding or silting
upstream of the structure and the risk of erosion as the water drops to its natural
vertical alignment downstream of the structure. This also results in the shifting of the
streamline and changes in the stream morphology. It follows that the alignment of the
road should be raised if necessary to provide the correct invert, adequate height for the
structure and any necessary protective cover.
2. Where the road is on ground sloping along and across the alignment, a frequently
observed mistake is to leave the road vertical alignment unchanged and ‘bury’ the
culvert in order to achieve the required fill over the culvert. This results in a need for the
outlet to discharge in a long trench with a flat grade to rejoin the natural streambed. Not
only does this ditch often encroach substantially on the surrounding land, but it is also
prone to silting and consequently to causing blockage of the culvert. Furthermore,
vegetation growth and bank erosion are common related problems. In essence a
maintenance problem is created. Localised raising of the road alignment can alleviate
this potential problem (Figure 5.3). Long culvert outfall ditches should be avoided and
their grade should not be less than 2% under normal conditions.
34
Figure 5.3: Road alignment raised over culvert (schematic)

3. On steep sidelong ground a key consideration is to minimise the erosion risk. In these
circumstances there is usually more opportunity to ‘bury’ the culvert under the road and
provide a short outlet ditch. A ‘drop inlet” or ‘catchpit’ arrangement (Figure 5.4) is
normally required at the inlet to provide a controlled drop in the water flow. Particular
attention may still need to be paid to downstream erosion protection. Special
arrangements such as energy dissipating cascades or gabions may be required in
extreme cases. The drop inlet arrangements also need consideration to be made
regarding risk of blockage and maintenance arrangements.
In all situations the road alignment standards and structure protection cover requirements
should be complied with.
Although it is desirable for culverts to cross roads at 90 degrees to minimise the length and
hence the cost of the culvert, it is not essential and various alignment options are shown in
Figure 5.5. However, it is important to avoid abrupt changes in stream flow direction at the
inlet or outlet of the culvert as this will result in severe erosion risk for the channel (without
suitable control arrangements such as a drop inlet or erosion protection).
It is not possible to achieve this requirement for relief culverts which transfer water across the
road from the high side channel to the low side channel. These culverts will have an abrupt
bend at the inlet and require careful protection to ensure that erosion does not occur. The
design of these inlets is discussed in more detail in Chapter 8.
35
Figure 5.5: Culvert alignment options
5.2.3 Vented fords

As vented fords are designed to be overtopped during flood periods it is necessary for the
watercourse to be well defined both for normal flows and flood flows. During flood flows the
watercourse will generally be wider but should still have clearly defined banks to enable the
position and size of the structure to be identified (see Figure 5.6).
A vented ford provides a constriction to the water flow due to the solid fill between the pipes.
The proposed location should allow sufficient pipes to be constructed to prevent normal flows
overtopping the structure. In areas where the flow level regularly varies, it is desirable that
there are sufficient pipes to only cause overtopping for larger flood flows. The proposed site
should require neither long approach embankments, as these will increase the cost of the
structure, nor steep approaches, which will make the structure difficult for larger vehicles to
cross.
Vented fords can be built on relatively weak ground as their dead weight is spread over the
whole area of the structure. However, the ground should not be susceptible to long-term
settlement under the dead weight of the fill material, as this could result in damage to the
structure. To minimise the cost of the vented ford a suitable source for fill material should be
available close to the proposed site.
If the volume of traffic using these structures cannot justify two-way traffic, the proposed site
should allow drivers to see the opposite end of the crossing and have waiting areas at each
end to allow vehicles to pass each other safely. On road networks where there is a long
detour to avoid the vented ford when it is impassable, the proposed site should have a waiting
36
area on both sides of the structure sufficiently large for the expected number of waiting
vehicles. This waiting area may consist of widening the carriageway or an area where
vehicles can pull off the road.
Figure 5.6: Key design criteria for a vented ford
5.2.4 Large bore culverts

Large bore culverts require the bed of the watercourse to be at least 2 meters below the
proposed road level, to allow sufficient cover over the culvert barrel. Proposed sites for these
culverts should have watercourse banks higher than 2 meters to prevent the need for long
approach embankments which increase the cost of the structure.
If the crossing site requires more than one arch there should be suitable ground conditions to
construct firm foundations for the piers as well as the abutments. Large arches can exert
substantial forces on the ground at each end, and therefore usually require firm ground on
each side of the watercourse. If the foundation strength is insufficient to support arch
springing thrust blocks or pier foundations, it may be necessary to consider provision of a
foundation slab across the entire structure.
Large bore culverts are usually not expected to be overtopped. Consideration of the
consequences of a high flood and its potential to overtop the structure should be made for the
proposed site.
As a substantial amount of fill material can be required for a large bore culvert, the total
construction costs can be reduced if suitable fill material is available near the crossing site.
5.2.5 Bridges
The site selection of bridges often involves detailed site investigations which are beyond the
scope of this Manual. For further guidance refer to the current MRB Bridge Design Manual or
publications such as TRL Overseas Road Note 9. For bridges up to 10-metre spans the
guidelines given below should be followed.
37
The most common cause of failure of bridges is scour of the abutments or piers. In addition to
the factors discussed for all structures above, a site which can avoid the use of piers and has
firm ground for abutment foundations is the overriding criteria in selecting a suitable site for a
bridge crossing.
Additional factors, which should be taken into account:
 Artificial constriction of the watercourse due to the proposed position of the abutments
should be minimised to reduce the depth of scour.
 The stream velocity should be modest (i.e. the watercourse should be on a shallow
gradient to reduce the possibility of scour).
 The proposed site should require a minimal amount of work to be carried out
underwater. Where work in the water is unavoidable, a site, which reduces the
amount of underwater work, either by a simple cofferdam or construction during a dry
period, is preferable.
 The bridge superstructure should be above the design flood level. Consideration
should also be given to the possible consequences of a high flood on the bridge
superstructure.
38
6 PEAK FLOW ESTIMATION

Road structures are constructed not only to remove water from the road and side drains but
also to transfer water from one side of the road to the other where the road crosses a natural
watercourse. These natural watercourses transfer rainfall from higher ground to lowlands and
eventually, usually, into the sea. The water flowing in a stream or river is called the runoff and
will usually be expressed as mm per unit area or a total volume in cubic meters for a stated
period of time. There are many factors which will affect the runoff, or amount of water in a
watercourse, and hence the type of structure which will be required:
 Rainfall;
 Duration;
 Intensity;
 Distribution.
 Geological features;
 Type and permeability of the soil;
 Natural water storage characteristics of the catchment area;
 Size of the catchment;
 Shape of catchment.
 Topography;
 The relief of the ground;
 Character of the area: smooth or rugged.
 Land use;
 Natural drainage of the area;
 Vegetation cover.
A wide range of hydraulic information may be required for the design and construction of
water crossing structures. The amount of information required and its accuracy will depend on
the type and complexity of the proposed structure. Table 6.1 indicates hydraulic data and
other information about the watercourse which is required for different structures along with
the potential inaccuracies that may be encountered.
6.1 Rainfall Intensity

The rainfall intensity in the whole catchment area will affect the peak water flow after heavy
rain.
6.2 Permeability of Soil

The permeability of the soil in the whole catchment area will affect the peak water flow after
heavy rain. See the section on peak flow rate above. The permeability of the soil in the river
banks at the proposed structure site will also affect the bearing capacity of the soil and hence
the design of the structural foundations.
6.3 Catchment Area and Shape
The size of the catchment will determine the maximum peak runoff that may be experienced
after heavy rain. It may be determined from topographical maps, if they are available, or from
a simple field survey of the area. The shape of the catchment area may also be of interest to
the designer as it will affect the size and duration of peak flows (see Figure 6.1).
39
A long thin catchment area results in a A round or square catchment area will tend
lower but sustained peak flow as the to have shorter but higher peak flows when
rainfall has a range of distances to flow compared with a long thin catchment area
to the proposed structure location. of the same area. The rainfall in this
catchment area has a similar distance to
flow to the proposed crossing site.
Figure 6.1: Catchment characteristics
6.4 Cross-sections at Crossing Point

The cross-section of the watercourse at the crossing point will affect the design of the
structure (Figure 6.2). The watercourse should be surveyed and a section drawn with an
exaggerated (5 or 10 times) vertical scale for the design process. It is also useful to know the
cross-section of the watercourse above and below the crossing point, particularly in the case
of incised rivers, because this information will give an indication of the ‘movement’ of the
watercourse and possible additional erosion and training measures that may be required
upstream of the structure.
Figure 6.2: Stream crossing point cross-sections
40
6.5 Hydraulic Gradient Upstream and Downstream

The hydraulic gradient is the slope of the riverbed and is normally expressed as a fraction.
The hydraulic gradient will determine how fast the water will flow and hence how much
damage it can cause to the structure and riverbed. It will also help to determine how much
downstream protection is required for the watercourse. Some simple surveying is required to
determine the slope of the watercourse around the proposed crossing point. The extent of the
survey will depend on the type of structure proposed.
6.6 Type of River (Incised or Alluvial)
A stretch of river may be described as incised or alluvial. The upper sections of a river are
classified as incised, where the river is eroding the sides and bed of the watercourse. Incised
water flows are, in general, irregular with faster and slower flowing sections. The lower
sections of a river are typically alluvial, with the watercourse meandering across flat plains.
Each of the river characteristics provides challenges for the designer:
6.6.1 Incised
This section of the river is particularly prone to scour, especially around piers and abutments,
which requires careful consideration of protection measures.
6.6.2 Alluvial
The lower reaches of a river normally flow at a steadier rate. There is an equal amount of
erosion and deposition of material in the channel as the stream is already carrying a large
amount of sediment. Although scour will still occur around abutments and piers, an additional
problem for a designer is that the watercourse is often unstable; changing its route. It may
therefore be necessary to train the river to ensure that it continues to flow through the
structure rather than breaking through the road alignment at an alternative point.
6.7 Watercourse Bank and Bed Characteristics
Visual inspections of the watercourse bank and bed should be carried out to determine the
type of soil and, where feasible, the depth to a firm stratum or rock. The ground conditions will
determine the size, depth and shape of the structures foundations. Watercourse
characteristics will also determine the amount of protection required to the riverbank
downstream of the structure. It is not necessary to dig trial pits in the actual riverbed unless
piers are required in the watercourse. In this case a temporary cofferdam may be required to
enable investigations if the bed does not dry out in the dry season. Pits in the sides of the
watercourse around the site of the proposed structure foundations provide useful information.
41
Table 6.1: Hydraulic and watercourse data required to undertake design
42
6.8 Flood Return Period

Each flood will have a different size and intensity. Over a period of years the maximum flood
experienced each year will vary. Chapter 3 indicated that the maximum design flood that a
structure should be able to accommodate will depend on the type of structure and be related
to a number of years. A 100 year flood (the largest flood expected in 100 years) will be much
greater than a 5 year flood (the largest flood expected in 5 years). Data may be available for
the size of flood, or rainfall intensity, which will be predicated over a particular period (12.5
years and 100 years are popular record assessment periods).
However, designs for drifts and small culverts will suggest a shorter return period due to the
less serious (physical and financial) consequences of storm damage and hence a smaller
storm basis may be justified for their design. Table 6.4 provides factors to adjust the size of a
given storm period to another period based on a 12.5 year flood.
Table 6.4: Flood period factors
Flood period 2 3 5 7 10 12.5 15 20 25 50 100
Adjustment
0.15 0.3 0.5 0.65 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.5 2.0 2.5
factor
Example 1
The 12.5-year flood has a rainfall intensity of 35 mm/hour. What will be the rainfall intensity of
a 5-year flood?
From Table 6.4, the 5 year flood factor is 0.5. Therefore rainfall intensity = 35 x 0.5 = 18
mm/hour. The Table can also be used to adjust flood flows for other return periods.
Example 2
3
The 25-year flood results in a flood flow of 12 m /s. What will the 10-year flood flow be?
From the Table the 25-year factor is 1.5 and the 10 year factor is 0.9. Therefore the 10 year
3
flood flow = 12 x 0.9 / 1.5 = 7 m /s.
6.9 Maximum Peak Flow
The most important hydraulic factor for structures is the maximum peak flow (or runoff).
Culverts and bridges must be capable of accommodating the peak runoff, after heavy rain,
without overtopping and vented fords or drifts must be able to pass the peak runoff without
erosion or other damage to the watercourse or roadway. In the case of drifts and vented fords
the normal runoff or average flow will also be important to ensure that the drift will be
passable or the pipes on the vented ford can accommodate normal flows.
There are a number of methods, which can be used to assess the maximum peak flow. These
methods vary in complexity of calculation and accuracy. The option chosen will depend on the
availability of topographical data and the accuracy required for the structure.
6.9.1 Method 1 - observation

It may be possible to observe previous high water marks from existing structures, trees or
other vegetation near the watercourse. Small debris floating down the river will be caught on
branches and twigs during floods and indicate the water level during a flood.
The highest flood is the most likely to be visible as it will often ‘rub off’ smaller flood tide
marks. The problem with this method is that there is often no indication of how old the flood
level indicators are and hence what the return periods will be. There may in the past have
43
been higher floods but these marks may have been removed by natural weathering. This
method will therefore give an indication of a recent high flood level but is not guaranteed to be
the highest expected flood level. The information gathered by observation may be
supplemented by interviews with local residents.
6.9.2 Method 2 - interviews

If there are people living near the proposed crossing point it will be possible to ask them how
high the water level has risen in previous floods because these occurrences tend to intimately
affect their activities. If this method is adopted, a number of people should be questioned
because memories ‘fade’ over time and floods may ‘get bigger’ each time the story is told. It
may be possible to ask people individually how high the biggest flood had been over the
previous years and then take an average of the results obtained. Validation may be improved
if enquiries are made for each bank independently and for different locations along the banks
that provide information that can be correlated. Alternatively a group may be asked to
collectively agree the maximum height of the floodwater. It will also be necessary to ask how
often floods of the maximum size occur in order to determine the return period.
Methods 1 and 2 can often form a good crosscheck between the data obtained for each
method.
The interviews shall also acquire information about changes to the upstream line such as
diversion, overtopping, floods from adjacent streams, land use change and irrigation projects.
In South Sudan care should be exercised if relying on a combination of method 1 and 2 for
design purposes. With a large land area and low population, interviews may not give a good
indication or any of previous flood levels in areas where there are no permanent populations
or have not been for many years. In such instances a conservative estimate of high flood level
should be used in sizing structures.
6.9.3 Method 3 - rational method

2
This method is accurate for smaller catchments up to 15 km . The rational method may be
used for larger catchments but the results obtained will tend to be larger than the actual floods
encountered.
Table 6.2 Runoff coefficient: humid catchment
Where
3
q = flood flow in m /s
q = 0.278 c iA c = runoff coefficient (Table 6.2 and 6.3)
i = rainfall in mm/hr
2
A = drainage area contributing to runoff in Km
Table 6.3 Runoff coefficient: semi-arid catchment
Soil Permeability
Average Ground
Slope Very low (rock & Low (clay Medium (sandy High (sand and
hard clay) loam) loam) gravel)
Flat 0 - 1 % 0.55 0.40 0.20 0.05
Gentle1 - 4 % 0.75 0.55 0.35 0.20
Rolling4 - 10 % 0.85 0.65 0.45 0.30
Steep> 10 % 0.95 0.75 0.55 0.40
44
Table 6.4 Runoff coefficient: arid catchment
Soil Permeability
Average Ground
Slope Very low (rock & Low (clay Medium (sandy High (sand and
hard clay) loam) loam) gravel)
Flat 0 - 1 % 0.75 0.40 0.05 0.05
Gentle1 - 4 % 0.85 0.55 0.20 0.05
Rolling4 - 10 % 0.95 0.70 0.30 0.05
Steep> 10 % 1.0 0.80 0.50 0.10
Note:
The soil permeability will also be affected by the type of cultivation; these values may be increased by 0.1
for cultivated land and decreased by 0.1 for forested land.
The availability of topographical maps and rainfall data is critical for application of the Rational
Method. Where rainfall data is not available the rainfall map of Figure 4.3 of Volume 1 may be
referred to for guidance.
6.9.4 Method 4 - estimation

The main problem with the rational method is the requirement to have data available for the
predicted rainfall intensity. In many regions these data may not exist or may be incomplete.
2
For catchments up to 15 Km an approximate maximum flood flow can be calculated by
3
assuming a discharge of 1 - 2 m /s per 25 hectares of catchment area. It should be noted that
such approximations of flow rates using this method are not related to any flood return period
and as such are not peak flow discharges. Therefore this method is least preferable when
determining peak flow discharge for design purposes.
6.9.5 Method 5 – slope-area method

For streams and watercourses with stable banks and bed, the cross section does not change
significantly during the passage of a flood. In such a situation it is possible to estimate the flow
using Mannings Equation:
2/3 1/2
V = (1/n) R S
Where:
V = velocity in m/s
R = hydraulic depth (the area of the stream flow divided by the wetted perimeter as
shown in Figure 6.3 below)
S = hydraulic gradient (the slope of the streambed over a reasonable distance
either side of the crossing point)
n= roughness coefficient (see Table 6.5 below)
The peak discharge is then calculated from:
Q = VA
45
Where A is the cross-sectional area of flow (this may be estimated using method 1 and 2 for a
known large flood event).
Thus the peak discharge is given by the following equation:
5/3 -2/3 1/2
Q = (1/n) A P S
Where:
P = the perimeter of the watercourse (i.e. the cross sectional length of the banks
and bed)
Figure 6.3: Definition of hydraulic depth

A combination of Method 1, 2 and 3 may, in some instances, be the only option where rainfall
data does not exist and a higher degree of certainty is required for discharge estimation – i.e.
for more expensive structures such as small or arch bridges or vented fords.
The following Table 6.5 gives values for roughness coefficient, n. It is difficult to define an
exact value of n in tables. It is necessary for the engineer to relate the characteristics
described above in relation to the watercourse being considered to interpret the value of ‘n’ to
be used.
Table 6.5: Roughness coefficients
Ranges of
Stream characteristics
values of n
 Streams in upland areas
 Gravels, cobbles and boulders with no vegetation 0.030 - 0.050
 Cobbles and large boulders 0.040 - 0.070
 Streams on plains
 Clean straight bank with no rifts or pools 0.025 - 0.033
 Same as 1 but with some weeds and stones 0.030 - 0.040
 Winding watercourse, some pools and shoals but clean 0.035 - 0.050
banks
 As 3 but straighter river with less clearly defined banks 0.040 - 0.055
 As 3 but with some weeds and stones 0.035 - 0.045
 As 4 but with stony sections 0.045 - 0.060
 River reaches with weeds and deep pools 0.050 - 0.080
 Very weedy river reaches 0.080 - 0.150
 Stream out of channel flowing across grass 0.030 - 0.050
 Stream out of channel flowing through light bush 0.040 - 0.080
46
6.9.6 Other methods and the South Sudan environment

Another method which may be used for estimation of peak discharge is the Soil Conservation
Method (SCM). This is detailed in the MRB Road and Bridge Design Drainage Design Manual
2006. It is not presented here primarily because the method relies on rainfall data and a
reasonable estimation of rainfall intensity. Given the low density of rainfall stations within
South Sudan at present and the isolated nature of most low volume roads, the required data
is not likely to be available for use in South Sudan in the medium term.
Caution should be exercised when applying the Rational Method in large parts of South
Sudan. Large areas of the country are predominantly flat which will result in very large
catchment areas which in turn do not favour application of the Rational Method. More
accurate estimates of peak discharge may be determined from a combination of Methods 1
(Observation) and Method 2 (Interviews) in these areas. The designer shall have to determine
what the acceptable level of risk to the structure is before choosing which method to apply.
In the case of bridge or other more expensive structures, observation of proposed crossing
sites for the duration of one rainy season would be beneficial if possible where doubts as to
the characteristics of the water course and its peak flow exist.
6.10 Duration of Peak Flow

The duration of peak flow will not usually affect the design of the structure but will determine
how long the crossing may be impassable. It is therefore necessary to collect these data if a
drift or vented ford is proposed. The duration of the peak flow depends on the factors which
affect the rainfall runoff described above, and may therefore be difficult to calculate. As these
data are only required for simple structures it will be acceptable to rely on information
gathered from the local population and/or the following rule of thumb.
2
‘For catchment areas less than 10km the designer can assume that the duration of peak flow
will last no longer than twice the length of rainfall periods’.
6.11 Flow Velocity

It is important to determine the velocity of the water flow during peak floods because it affects
the amount of scour that can be expected around the structure and, hence, the protective
measures that may be required. The velocity can be measured in two ways.
6.11.1 Direct observation in flood conditions

An object which floats, such as a stick or piece of fruit, may be thrown into the river upstream
of the potential crossing point. The time it takes to float downstream a known distance (about
100m is a suitable distance) should be measured. The velocity can then be calculated by
dividing the distance the floating object has travelled by the time taken. This exercise should
be repeated at least 3 times, but preferably 5 times, to obtain an accurate result. Tests where
the floating object is caught on weed or other debris in the water should be discarded. The
opportunities for making such observations during flood conditions are obviously very limited.
6.11.2 Mannings formula

Flow velocity may be calculated using Mannings formula (see Section 6.4.1) also. As stated
above the opportunity to make observations for calculating flow velocity during flood
conditions will be limited and as such the aforementioned data resulting from cross sectional
survey (Section 6.4 and Table 6.1) and upstream surveys (Section 6.5 and Table 6.1) may be
used to calculate the flow velocity for a given return period (Section 6.8) using Mannings
Formula. The resultant velocity may be used for scour calculations in the proceeding Section
8.1.2.
47
6.11.3 Flat terrain

In flat terrain where obtaining such a slope may not be possible and where water flow at a
culvert outlet may be constrained by downstream flow restrictions, considerably more care is
needed to ensure sufficient flow to minimise siltation. Usually it is sufficient to make sure that
the slope of the culvert is not less than1% or, if it is greater, equal to the slope of the water
course itself. However some engineering work may also be required to ensure the
downstream flow is not restricted.
In completely flat terrain that is liable to seasonal flooding, the road will usually be on an
embankment and culverts are required to allow cross flow when the floodwater ebbs or flows.
Under these circumstances the flow can be relatively slow provided that enough culverts are
available, but insufficient culverts can lead to rapid flow along the side of the embankment
and consequent scouring. The best method of estimating this is by asking the local people
how long the water usually takes to dissipate from peak flood condition after the rain.
Calculating the likely volume and required number and size of culverts necessary to prevent
the flow velocity exceeding the velocities shown in the proceeding Table 8.20 is then
straightforward.
6.12 Normal Flow Rate
The normal flow rate, like the peak flow rate, is linked to the total runoff and dependent on the
rainfall in the catchment area. The design of structures is primarily based on the peak flow
rate but it is necessary to know the normal flow rate for two reasons:
1. For the design of drifts and vented fords it is necessary to ensure that vehicles can
cross the drift during the normal flow or that in the case of a vented ford the water
passes through the pipes and the vented ford is not overtopped.
2. To check that there will be no long-term damage to the structure due to erosion. The
short period of peak flows may not damage erodible parts of the structure. However it
is necessary to ensure that parts of the structure permanently in contact with the water
flow are not damaged.
6.13 Perennial / Seasonal Flow

An investigation into the variation in seasonal water flows is required if the proposed structure
will be overtopped. It is necessary to determine the proportion of the year that higher flows will
be experienced to estimate the number of days the structure may not be passable. It may be
necessary to raise the running surface of the structure to ensure that the structure is only
overtopped during particularly rainy months. Unless detailed rainfall data is available for the
area it is likely that the only suitable methods for collecting seasonal water levels and flows
will be from the knowledge of the local population.
6.14 Amount of Debris in Water

Any debris, such as tree branches, carried in the water could cause blockages in the
structural openings. A few small branches can quickly block the 600mm opening of a culvert
pipe resulting in water backing up in the watercourse and potential damage to the culvert or
road. Investigations must therefore be carried out to determine the amount of debris that is
typically carried downstream during a flood to determine if protective measures are required
and/or determine the frequency of maintenance required to the completed structure to remove
trapped vegetation. The funding, resources and likely responsiveness of the maintenance
authority responsible for the route should be investigated to assess the risk of debris blockage
and subsequent damage.
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7 MATERIALS
This chapter aims to provide sufficient information to enable road designers and builders. The
aim is to identify potentially suitable materials through examining material properties,
determined through testing, and thereafter determine the range of uses appropriate for each
material.
The chapter will also discuss potential causes of deterioration and damage and how these
might be avoided by good design.
The remainder of this chapter on materials is organised into four sections:
 Stone masonry;
 Brick and block masonry;
 Timber and organic materials;
 Concrete and reinforced concrete.
For all materials meeting the specification requirements, a costing of the various options and
consideration of training, maintenance and other factors will enable a rational decision to be
made regarding the final choice of materials. National bridges and structures standards,
which have often been ‘imported’ from developed country conditions or are aimed at
structures on main roads, often ignore the possibility of using some of the materials covered
by this Manual. This may deny the benefits of lower costs, use of local resources, labour,
skills and enterprises, and reduce the likelihood of maintenance being carried out in a timely
manner.
7.1 Stone and Stone Masonry

The density and durability of natural stone, where it is available, make it an ideal material for
road structures. Fortunately, in hilly territory where road-building entails frequent retaining
walls and river crossings, stone of building quality can often be found relatively close by, or
may even be generated in forming the roadway. Even in lowland terrain, “field” stone of
suitable quality may often be found; and because of the inherent durability of most types of
stone, relatively simple field tests are appropriate to assess its suitability for building. Suitable
stone may be excavated, prepared and incorporated in the works using hand tools and
manual methods, or by mechanised means.
For these reasons, where good quality stone is available, it should be the first choice for
retaining walls, piers and wingwalls for river crossings, the formation of masonry culverts, and
for low-level drifts. Stone can also be used for masonry arches and other simple bridges.
7.1.1 Stone sources and extraction

The well-known classification of types of stone by their geological origin is valuable because
each class has recognisable characteristics. Table 7.1 show typical classes and types of
stone that could be used for these structures.
Although the classification of a stone is not essential for its successful use, knowing the origin
and type of stone does help to know what properties to expect. Stone from an existing quarry
will probably already be classified. Unless it is obvious, help in classifying stone from an
unknown source should be sought from professional geologists - samples sent to laboratories
can usually be very quickly identified.
49
Methods of quarrying stone vary greatly from one quarry to another, and are developed to suit
the character of the particular stone being worked and resources available. There are
basically two different approaches. Where the stone is evenly bedded and valuable, a stone-
by-stone approach may be used. The stone is cut straight from the bed to the size required,
largely with hand tools and hand drills, ‘plugs and feathers’, chisels, crowbars or explosives
may be used to assist the cutting. The operation is labour-intensive, but little waste is
produced; in some quarries, the stone is even mined from underground.
Alternatively, large-scale blasting may be used, bringing down many tonnes at a time,
including large blocks of various shapes and sizes, which can be further, split down or
removed by cranes for cutting. There will be a large amount of waste, which can be crushed
for use as concrete aggregate; this may even be the main product of the quarry. This method
uses less labour and more mechanical equipment, and in certain circumstances may be more
economical.
In some locations suitable stone may be lying on the ground surface and may be collected by
local labour. This can even benefit the local land users by clearing fields to improve crop
yields.
Cutting and finishing methods also range from very labour-intensive techniques using only
hand tools to highly mechanised operations.
Table 7.1: Classes of rocks used for building
Igneous rocks Granites and basalts are hard, dense, strong and impermeable, and can form
excellent building stone, but they require a lot of work to quarry and form to
precise dimensions. Pumice and tuff are relatively soft and porous materials
formed by depositions of ash materials on the surface or under water. Strength is
very variable, but they can often be easily cut and worked, and may be suitable
for building road structures where they are protected from water.
Sedimentary Sandstones, Limestones show natural stratification and separate layers may
rocks have different properties, and natural bedding planes. The stratification makes
quarrying and working to precise dimensions easier. Limestones and sandstones
often have colour and texture varieties, which make them attractive as well as
durable building stones.
Metamorphic Slates, Quartzite, Marble. These are rocks which are often hard and durable,
rocks and can have a foliated structure with layers of stratification. Slates are
metamorphically altered clay and shale, which quarry easily and are frequently
suitable for walling and roofing stones. Marbles are metamorphically altered
limestones which are hard and durable, and suitable for sawing and carving and
can often take a high polish.
Laterite This is the end product of the intense tropical weathering of primary rocks, and it
consists largely of the oxides of iron and aluminium, but it has the useful property
of hardening on exposure to air. When soft it can easily be cut with a hoe, but
some varieties can harden and become weather resistant, and may achieve
durability comparable with some building stones. It is widely used as a building
material in humid tropical areas. However the quality can be very variable and
care needs to be taken in selecting suitable material.
Field stone Stone that is found away from quarries or other formal deposits, usually
transported by water or landslides, and may be of any of the geological types
described. Fieldstone can be a useful source of stone for small road projects,
but should be subjected to tests as described below to determine its suitability.
50
7.1.2 Properties of stone

Size
The most important prerequisite of a good building stone is that the stone is available in
pieces of a size and shape suitable for the type of wall or structure to be built. Stones should
also be small enough to be lifted and placed by hand. For use in rubble walling, a range of
sizes is needed. The individual stone height may be up to 300 mm, the length should not
exceed three times the height and the breadth on base should not be less than 150 mm, or
more than three-quarters of the wall thickness. A range of sizes should be used, with larger
stones being used for corners (quoins) and for through (bonding) stones.
Durability
Durability is the resistance of the stone to weathering or deterioration from other causes
Stone used for building should be uniform in colour and texture, without soft seams or veins
or other visible blemishes. The surface of a freshly broken stone should be bright, clean and
sharp without loose grains and be free from an earthy appearance. Visual examination may
be sufficient to initially assess its durability characteristics but additional field or laboratory
tests are recommended (see 7.1.3, below, and Chapter 5 and Appendix B in Volume 1).
Other durability issues are shown in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2: Durability Issues
Soluble salts Soluble salts can disfigure and ultimately cause deterioration of some
sedimentary stones. Soluble salts may occur in the sands used for mortar, in
the water behind retaining walls, or in road salts. The remedy is not to use a
stone which is liable to react poorly to soluble salts in circumstances where it
will be exposed to them.
Thermal and Some small variations in the dimensions of stones always occur as a result
moisture movement of changes in temperature and moisture. These are rarely sufficient to cause
any cracking problems, but it is a good precaution to insert movement joints
in mortared masonry walls at intervals of approximately 15 metres.
Compressive strength
There are significant problems of strength testing of stone in rural areas. The compressive
strength of dense stone is generally greatly in excess of that required in any small road
structures. A few porous stones, like pumice or tuff, or weak stones like laterite, may require
some testing to establish that they have a suitable compressive strength. In other cases, the
compressive strength can be assumed to be adequate for the small road structures described
in this Manual based on evidence of established local use. However, for stones subject to
abrasive conditions or just use in arches, it is advisable to confirm the compression strength is
a minimum of 15MPa unless otherwise specified.
Seasoning
Some laterites may increase significantly in strength and durability after quarrying. The
appropriate time for seasoning depends on the quarry, and local knowledge is needed to
decide on the correct seasoning time.
Porosity
Porosity is not in itself a disadvantage in most cases, but some stones are capable of
absorbing substantial amounts of water and this can reduce the strength. A good building
stone should not absorb more than 5% of its weight in water.
51
7.1.3 Field testing

In many cases the best test of the suitability of a stone from a local quarry or other source is
its previously successful use in structures in the area, which have been subjected to the local
climate for a long period of time. Enquiries to local builders and contractors may result in
knowledge gained regarding the best sources of building stone and any local characteristics.
This information can be supplemented by additional tests as required.
Durability test
The durability of a stone from sedimentary rock sources can be tested by immersing small
pieces in clear water in a glass jar for about an hour and then shaking them vigorously. If the
water discolours, the stone is not well cemented and should not be used.
Water absorption
The water absorption of a stone is a measure of its porosity and of its liability to frost damage.
The water absorption of a stone can be assessed by:
 Weighing it when dry (stored in a dry environment for at least 5 days);
 Immersing it in water for 24 hours at ambient temperature;
 Weighing it again after removing excess surface moisture.
The difference in weight should not exceed 5% of the initial weight.
Soundness test
The soundness (freedom from cracks or weaknesses) of a stone can be tested by means of
the hammer test (see Figure 7.1).
Figure 7.1: Hammer test for stone
Acid test for weathering potential

A small sample is immersed into a 1% solution of hydrochloric acid for seven days, during
which time it is frequently agitated. If the sample has retained the sharpness of its edges and
corners, it will weather well.
52
Compressive strength
The simplest field test for compressive strength is the hammer test, above. Other low cost
options that may be available are the Point Load Test and the Schmidt Hammer. (see Table
B-2, Appendix B, volume 1). This is not normally an important consideration except with
blocks made from rather weak stones such as tuff. Where needed, testing should be
entrusted to a competent engineer or laboratory.
Hardness
The surface hardness can be tested by scratching with a penknife. All types of stone will be
marked by a knife blade under firm pressure; but stone in which a penknife blade can make a
groove exceeding 2mm is likely to be moderately weak in compression, and compression
testing may be needed.
7.1.4 Mortars
Unless dry stone walling skills are available or can be introduced, stone masonry usually
involves mortar jointing. The principal function of mortar in masonry is to provide an even bed
to distribute the load over the whole bearing area of the units, and to bond the masonry units
together.
Good mortars should:
 Be cohesive, spread easily and retain water so that they remain plastic while the
masonry units are positioned and adjusted;
 Set and develop strength rapidly after the units are in place;
 Have a final strength adequate to carry the load without cracking the masonry;
 Be impermeable to moisture movement, and resistant to weathering.
Mortars are composed of clean sand and a binding agent (usually Portland cement) and often
some additive (either lime or plasticiser) to improve plasticity and workability. Sand should be
soft building sand free of organic particles and clay. Lime should be bagged, dry, hydrated
lime or lime putty. A plasticiser is an admixture to the mortar used in small quantities to
improve the workability of the mix or to achieve the same workability with less water, thus
improving both strength and durability. Plasticisers are proprietary materials and should be
used according to manufacturers’ instructions.
It is important that the strength should not be greater than that of the units being joined so that
movement cracking will be dispersed through the mortar joints and not lead to a few wide
cracks which could affect strength and weather resistance.
Table 7.3 below shows typical mortar mixes using cement-sand or cement-lime-sand.
Table 7.3: Mortar proportions by volume
Type of mortar
Cement: lime: sand Cement:sand
Higher strength for structural use or

1 : 0.5 : 4 1:4
contact with water
Lower strength for general use 1:1:6 1:6
53
Commonly used mixes are 1:4 cement:sand for structural use or where there is contact with
water, and1:6 in other cases. For a good quality mortar, water content should be low (typically
0.4 water/cement ratio). The quantity mixed in any one batch should not be more than can be
used in about one hour; during that time unused mix should be covered to protect it from
excessive evaporation.
7.1.5 Stone walls

Random stone masonry is constructed from stones as they came from the quarry or source
with minimal dressing. The laying skill is in selecting individual stones so that they create a
reasonable joint with the adjacent stone without the excessive use of jointing mortar. Stone
should be bonded both longitudinally (along the wall) and transversely (across the thickness
of the wall). Longitudinal bond is achieved by placing each joint more than one-quarter of a
stone’s length away from the joint below. Transverse bond is obtained by the use of bonders
2
(at least one per m of wall), extending about two thirds to three quarters across the width of
the wall or right through the wall if water penetration is not a problem.
Random stonewalls may be constructed without any courses, or brought to level courses for
example every 600 or 900mm.
Figure 7.2: Rubble masonry wall
Dressed stone masonry is built with stones which are dressed to approximately rectangular
shape, usually before leaving the quarry. It is built in courses, which may vary in height from
100mm to 300mm, often with thicker courses lower in the wall. All stones in any course are
squared to roughly the same height. Bond stones are laid in each course at about 1.5m
spacing. Examples of rubble masonry walls are shown in Figures 7.2 and 7.3 and Plate 6.
54
Figure 7.3: Squared masonry walling
Some general requirements for stonewalls are:

 The minimum thickness of a stone masonry wall should be 400mm;
 The height of a free-standing wall should not be more than six times its width at the
base, and maybe tapered over its height;
 Mortar joints should be between 10 and 40mm thick, and have a minimum overlap of
one quarter of the length of the smaller stone;
 Mortar joints should be pointed on the face of the masonry;
 No stone should touch another, but should be laid into mortar;
 Mortar should be made of cement and sand using volumetric proportions shown in
Table 7.3 above. A common mortar is 1:4 cement:sand.
Some additional requirements for retaining walls are:

 The thickness of a gravity retaining wall at any point should be at least one third of
the retained height above that point;
 Retaining walls should be provided with regular weep holes just above ground level
on the outer face;
 Weep holes should be of 75mm diameter and spaced at 1.5m centres;
 A filter of loose stone or lean concrete should be placed at the back of the weep holes
to permit free drainage of water, but not allow material to be washed through.
7.1.6 Dry stone walling

Dry stone walling is a form of stone walling built without mortar (Plate 7). A dry stonewall
costs substantially less than a mortared wall, but requires considerable skill in choosing and
laying stones if instability and rapid deterioration are to be avoided. The face stones are
usually roughly dressed and laid on a firm natural soil bed; the core is formed from earth or
smaller stones.
Some guidelines for the construction of dry masonry walls are as follows:
 All front-side inclinations should be in the range of 3:1 to 4:1 (vertical:horizontal);
 All back-side inclinations should be 1:10;
55
 The top width of the wall should be 1m;

 The tilt of the bottom of the foundation should be at right angle to the front inclination
of the wall and hence fixed in the range of 1:3 to 1:4;
 The stones used should be generally of a large size and care must be taken in
dressing and placing them;
 The joints between the stones must be arranged in a staggered fashion as in brick
masonry (see Figure 7.4);
 All other construction details can be considered analogous to the rules applicable to
gabion wall construction.
7.1.7 Hybrid walls

Hybrid walls are walls made of bands of mortared stone masonry reinforcing areas of dry
stone masonry. The construction of a hybrid wall is recommended when the height of a dry
stonewall is greater than 5m. The construction technique is the same as that of a dry wall,
except for providing 0.6m bands of mortared cement masonry at intervals of 2m–3m both
horizontally and vertically. This type of wall is recommended for heights between 5m and 12m
both in valleys and on hillsides.
7.1.8 Masonry culverts

Masonry arch culverts may be more economical than pipe culverts where stone is locally
available. Some general requirements are:
 Culverts are usually up to 2 metres in span;
 Strip foundations of concrete or stone masonry should be laid on firm ground: the
foundation walls are brought up to the level of the arch springing;
 Arch formwork may be made from corrugated steel roof sheets, timber or reusable
steel formwork. Simple compacted earth fill can also be used and excavated after the
masonry has been constructed;
 The arch should have a minimum thickness of 400-500mm with all stones having the
same dimensions as the arch thickness;
 The ground seepage cut-off, invert (base) slab, headwalls, wingwalls, drop inlets and
aprons may also be constructed of masonry as required.
The masonry is normally mortar jointed using skills available with local building contractors.
Dressed stone skills are required for dry stone masonry culverts.
7.1.9 Gabion works

Gabions are wire mesh boxes filled with stones and tied together to form basic structures.
Their principal uses are for retaining walls, drifts and erosion protection (Plate 8). Gabion
boxes may be made from purpose made gabion cages, welded steel mesh sheets or
galvanised chain link fencing.
Gabions are used as an alternative to concrete or masonry, and gabion structures should be
built with the same principles of good foundation, stability and quality control. The advantages
of gabions are their simplicity of construction (requiring low levels of skill), use of local
materials (stones), ability to let moisture pass through, avoiding the build-up of water
pressure, and flexibility (should minor settlement occur). Flat gabions are also referred to as
gabion mattresses.
56
The process of gabion construction is as follows:

1. Foundations should be excavated and cleaned as for a conventional structure with
any unsuitable material removed and replaced with good soil, stone or gravel, and
compacted.
2. The baskets should be erected in their final position.
3. Cages should be woven together using 3mm binding wire securing all edges every
150mm with a double loop. The binding wire should be drawn tight with a pair of
heavy duty pliers and secured with multiple twists.
4. The connected baskets should be stretched and staked with wires and pegs to
achieve the required shape.
5. Filling should only be carried out by hand using hard durable stones not larger than
250mm and not smaller than the size of the mesh. The best size range is 125 -
200mm. The stones should be tightly packed from the edges inwards with a minimum
of voids.
6. Boxes of 1 metre height should be filled to one-third height. Horizontal bracing wires
should then be fitted and tensioned with a windlass to keep the vertical faces even
and free of bulges.
7. Further bracing should be fixed after filling to two-thirds height. 500mm height boxes
should be braced at mid-height only. 250-300mm gabions do not require internal
bracing.
8. Where water falls directly onto the top of the gabion, vertical bracing wire should also
be fitted to secure the gabion lid when closed;
9. The stones should be carefully packed to about 3-5cms above the top of the box walls
to allow for settlement. Smaller material can be used to fill the voids on the top face,
but excessive use of small stones should be avoided. Fibre matting can be placed over
the stones on the top of the gabion to promote vegetation growth.
10. The lids are then closed and stretched tightly over the stones, (carefully) using
crowbars if necessary. The corners should be temporarily secured to ensure that the
mesh covers the whole area of the box; the lid should then be securely woven to the
tops of the walls, removing stones if necessary to prevent the lid from being
overstretched.
57
Figure 7.6: Gabion details
7.2 Brick and Block Masonry

Brick and block masonry materials are commonly where suitable materials are readily
available and are frequently the standard materials used for walling in building construction.
Fired clay bricks have been used for centuries for bridges and are one of the most adaptable
general building materials. Their small and regular size makes them suitable for incorporation
in any shape of structure. They are ideal for utilising local building labour and contractor skills.
Good quality fired brick is suitable for most types of road structure. The following
requirements should be met for its application:
 Material selection and firing methods should ensure a consistent quality of brick;
 Bricks should be laid with a suitable durable mortar (as stone masonry) that is not as
strong as the bricks themselves;
 Bricks should be laid bonded, to similar principles as stone masonry;
 Abrasion situations such as drift surfaces should be avoided.
Fired clay bricks are suitable for use in foundations, bridge piers, abutments, wing walls,
arches, culverts and retaining walls (Plate 9). Bricks can be a particularly important
construction material in regions and locations with shortages of hard stone resources.
Local brick making skills can be developed as a small-scale rural industry where there could
be complementary demand in the road, building and infrastructure sectors. In some locations
only low grade bricks are produced to meet a relatively undemanding requirement for general
building bricks. In these cases some improvements in production such as kiln/clamp design,
58
firing temperature and period may be required to achieve bricks of suitable quality for the
more demanding structures applications. Bricks produced in ‘one burn clamps’ can have
variable quality; the bricks near the outside usually being less well burnt. Permanent kilns and
industrial production usually ensure more consistent quality products.
Fired clay bricks may be produced using agricultural wastes (such as rice husk) as the kiln
2
fuel as described in the gTKP report on practices established in Vietnam
Concrete blocks are increasingly widely available and can often be cheaper for the same
applications as burnt clay bricks. Other masonry materials such as stabilised soil blocks and
trass (a naturally occurring binder) lime blocks may be suitable for less demanding
applications such as culvert headwalls and low retaining walls. The requirements, properties
and testing recommendations described for bricks and blocks need to be adapted for other
masonry materials.
A wide range of soils is suitable for brick and block making. To make bricks, a suitable soil
(clay or brick-earth) is mixed with water, formed into the desired shape in a mould, dried, and
then set in a kiln and fired at a sufficient temperature (usually 850-1000°C) to create
permanent ceramic bonds between the soil particles.
Bricks are classified in various ways according to their intended use. A common classification
recognises three classes according to their durability: internal quality bricks or blocks (suitable
only for protected situations inside buildings); ordinary quality (suitable for external use in
normal conditions of exposure (walls protected by damp-proof courses and a coping); and
special quality (suitable for unprotected external uses such as parapets and earth retaining
structures). Bricks and blocks may also be classified according to strength characteristics or
shape (see Figure 7.7).
Concrete blocks are made from aggregates and cement, and mainly manufactured in large
fixed or mobile plants using heavy compaction or vibration, and sometimes steam curing.
They can also be made on site using individual moulds; a labour intensive process which can
result in quality variability without adequate control processes. Solid blocks have no holes,
cellular blocks have cavities, which do not pass right through the block, and hollow blocks
have cavities passing right through. Manufactured blocks are made to satisfy standards
requiring a minimum crushing strength.
2
Bach The Dzung & Petts R.C. 2009. Report on Rice Husk Fired Clay Brick Road Paving, Vietnam. gTKP.
59
Figure 7.7: Brick types
7.2.1 Properties of bricks and blocks

For all brick and block materials the principal requirements are:
 Acceptable and handle-able size and small variation in dimensions;

 Dimensional stability over time;
 Strength;
 Durability.
Chemical composition and limited water absorption are also important for clay bricks.
Size
The standard size of clay bricks differs to some extent from location to location. In South
Sudan the standard brick format is 250 x 120 x 60mm, although the average size of the actual
brick is typically 10mm less than this to allow for the mortar joint. For individual bricks some
variation is acceptable and must be allowed because of the differences of firing and moulding
of individual bricks, but the average over a large number of bricks should stay within about 3
to 4% of the standard size. For walls whose appearance is important, the distortion of
individual bricks should be limited, but normal distortions, even of hand- made bricks, can
usually be absorbed in the mortar joints.
The standard size for concrete blocks in South Sudan is 400 x 200 x (100, 150 or 200)mm.
60
Dimensional stability
Burnt clay bricks change in dimension to a small extent over time as a result of moisture
movements, and temperature. There is an initial expansion of about 1mm per metre length,
most of which occurs within the first week after the bricks leave the kiln. Subsequent moisture
movements are small, and thermal expansion (about 0.15 to 0.25mm per metre for a 30°C
temperature rise) is small compared with other building materials. Expansion joints are
normally allowed every 12m in facing brickwork in order to accommodate these movements
without causing cracking. More detail of expansion joint design and construction are given
below under “Thermal and moisture movement”.
Blocks shrink after manufacture by about 0.5 to 1mm per m length of wall, which can be
sufficient to cause cracking if expansion joints are not used; expansion joints are normally
required to be spaced at 8m centres in blockwork to allow for the initial drying shrinkage, and
subsequent moisture and thermal movements.
Strength
The compressive strength requirement depends on the loading on the wall. A minimum unit
compressive strength of 3.5 MPa may be adequate for walls, which are not carrying large
loads, and this is easily achievable in masonry materials made by simple processes; but
masonry units of strengths up to 50 MPa or even more can be manufactured for use in special
conditions. The stronger masonry units also tend to be less permeable, more resistant to frost
and water erosion and thus more durable.
Water absorption
Water absorption is a concern for burnt clay bricks. It is a measure of the porosity of a brick,
and should be limited, especially if the bricks are to be used in exposed positions, eg
parapets, piers and abutment walls. A water absorption not greater than 8% by weight of the
dry brick weight for a 24 hour immersion test is required for acceptable performance.
Chemical composition
For clay bricks, limitations on the content of certain salts are sometimes specified to reduce
the problems of efflorescence and sulphate attack. Limiting sulphate content to 0.5% can
eliminate the problem of sulphate attack (see below); alternatively sulphate-resisting cement
may be needed. Efflorescence is unsightly but does not seriously affect the strength or
durability of the masonry. Elimination of nodules of lime (kankar) in the brick earth is essential;
their expansion after the bricks have fired can damage the brickwork.
Durability
The durability of a brick or block masonry wall depends as much on the climatic conditions,
the extent to which protection of the faces and edges is ensured by copings and damp-proof
courses, and the quality of the mortar as it does on the masonry units themselves. No specific
requirements for durability can be stated, but units satisfying the requirements for strength
and water absorption can usually be expected to perform satisfactorily if properly protected,
by design, from extreme exposure.
Resistance to chemical action
Soluble salts in bricks, which may derive from the original clay used or from the kiln reactions,
can cause staining and efflorescence or deterioration of the mortar. Efflorescence is the
crystallisation of soluble salts at the surface of the brickwork when bricks dry after a prolonged
period of wetting. It is usually not damaging and can be tolerated. If the bricks contain soluble
sulphates, these may cause an expansive reaction with Portland cement in the brickwork
61
mortars which will damage the integrity of the wall. Sulphate attack may also occur as a result
of sulphates in groundwater in contact with earth retaining walls.
Abrasion and impact
Bridge structures, piers and abutments may be subject to abrasion (due to driving rain, wind-
borne sand or dust, or flood water). The possibility of vehicle impact from road or water should
be considered. Well-made masonry units will have adequate resistance to these actions but
they should be considered in deciding the quality of bricks or blocks and mortar to use; and
impact loads should be considered in the design of the wall resistance. In some instances the
design of the structure needs to be detailed to minimise the risk of, or physically protect
vulnerable components from, the impact from road or water born traffic or debris.
Thermal and moisture movement
Thermal and moisture movements can cause expansion and contraction in brickwork which
can result in cracking unless it is allowed for. Mortars should normally be designed to be
weaker than the bricks or blocks laid up in them to enable high stress concentrations to be
relieved. The recommended mortars for various classes of bricks allow for this. Expansion
joints should be provided through brickwork (and any supported structure) every 12m; they
should be 10mm wide, and filled with compressible material so that they do not become
inactive.
7.2.2 Field testing

Where possible, information should be obtained from the brick or block manufacturer
regarding the Standard to which the units conform, and details of the results of recent tests on
strength, dimensional stability, water absorption and chemical composition as appropriate.
Failing such information, field-testing will help ensure that the bricks are of generally sound
quality.
Quality of the raw materials used
The brick earth used for making burnt clay bricks should not contain iron pyrites, pebbles, or
nodules of lime or tree roots. The content of clay should be 15% to 30%. A small quantity of
lime is acceptable as long as it is in a finely divided state. Soils from areas, which are or have
been saturated in salt or sea- water, should be avoided. Similarly aggregates for concrete
blocks should satisfy the requirements for good concrete, as set out later in this chapter.
General characteristics of clay bricks
A good clay brick should be sound, hard and well burnt with uniform size, shape and colour,
homogeneous in texture, and free from flaws and cracks. A broken surface should show a
uniform structure free from holes or embedded lumps. Corners should be square, straight and
well defined. When struck against another brick or with a small hammer, bricks should give a
metallic ring, not a dull thud. When soaked in water for 24 hours there should be no sign of
softening or distortion. Before or after immersion, the surface should not be able to be
scratched with the fingernail.
Strength: drop test
If no specific compressive strength requirement is required for load-bearing purposes, the
strength of a masonry unit may be crudely assessed by dropping it flat from a height of about
1.2 to 1.5m to the ground, or striking one brick against another. In neither case should it
break.
62
Strength: impact test

For a more controlled impact strength assessment, place a brick with its largest face
downwards; resting on timber battens 180mm apart. Drop a mason’s 2kg hammer from a
height of 0.5m so that it strikes the upper face midway between the battens. The brick should
not break. If more than 2 in a sample of 20 bricks break in this test, the bricks should not be
used. For bricks and blocks of different shapes, a similar test may be used but the height of
drop and span will vary.
Dimensions
No dimension should differ by more than 5mm from the standard size. The overall dimensions
of a set of 20 or more bricks or blocks, randomly selected, should not deviate by more than
+/-4% (length and width) or +/-3% (height) from the standard size.
Water absorption test for clay bricks
Take a sample of 5 bricks at random. Dry and weigh each brick (W1); then submerge in clean
water at ambient temperature for 24 hours. Wipe surface and weigh again (W2).
The water absorption (%) is the ratio:

100 x (W2-W1) / W1
For bricks to be used in normal conditions of exposure, water absorption should not exceed
15%. More severe limitations will be required for bricks to be used in conditions exposed to
permanent wetting and drying (e.g. at the base of piers or abutments).
Durability
One way to test durability is through the construction of a test panel to be exposed to
conditions similar to the proposed work; but a period of some months’ exposure in severe
weather will normally be needed to assess performance adequately. Alternatively observing
the performance of the same masonry units in other building situations of comparable
exposure (reference sites) can be a good indication of durability. Some kind of exposure test
should be used if the units are to be used in conditions where they will be exposed to heavy
frosts.
7.2.3 Mortars for brick and block masonry

The requirements for mortars are the same as those for stone masonry.
7.3 Timber and Organic Materials

In many areas timber, in the form of sawn sections or poles, is a highly cost-effective material
to use for load-bearing structures, even where there are concerns about the over-exploitation
of tropical forests. The quantities of timber required are relatively small and a good
management regime will ensure or arrange for planting of replacement trees for construction
and maintenance needs. This can be stipulated in contract documents. With proper selection
of species; stress-grading (See Section 7.3.1 following) to ensure efficient utilisation; and
attention to seasoning, preservation and subsequent maintenance; structures made from
either softwoods or hardwoods can have a design life comparable to that of steel or concrete
structures. In addition the appearance of timber structures fits the natural surroundings and its
use can provide local employment without the need for highly sophisticated technology in
manufacture or preparation with reduced transport costs.
63
The principal use of timber in low-cost road structures is for bridge decks where its structural
advantages can be utilised most fully, and where it is more easily protected from moisture
penetration. Use of timber for running surfaces may make sense even when the supporting
structure is of steel, masonry or concrete. Trussed or girder bridge decks can be made from
cut sections of timber or from timber poles. Timber has also been used for bridge piers and
abutments and for retaining structures, though in these uses a relatively shorter lifetime must
be expected. In Tanzania, a successful programme to use timber for culvert linings has been
in progress for some years.
7.3.1 Characteristics and utilisation of timber

Hardwoods and softwoods and their availability
Softwoods are derived from coniferous evergreen trees grown mainly in temperate forests.
They are relatively rapid-growing and the wood is of a generally relatively low density
3
(typically less than500 kg/m ), moderate strength and easy to work. However, the wood is not
normally very durable unless protected by preservatives. Globally, coniferous forests are very
extensive and are managed to produce a sustained yield of timber. In areas of temperate
climate, softwoods are therefore relatively cheap, making timber structures highly cost-
efficient.
Hardwoods are derived from broad-leaved (deciduous) trees which lose their leaves in winter;
they are found in both temperate and humid tropical climates. Compared with softwoods they
3
are relatively slow-growing and this results in wood which is denser (typically > 650 kg/m ),
and of higher strength, though sometimes difficult to work with normal hand-tools. Often
hardwoods are highly durable even without the use of preservatives. However, some
hardwoods, such as balsa, are extremely light and have a low strength (hardwood is a
botanical rather than a mechanical classification of timber). Hardwoods of a number of
species from the tropical forests have been seriously over-exploited and are, or will soon
become, scarce. Nevertheless in most tropical regions there is a sufficient supply of less well-
known species which are available locally at reasonable prices and these may prove to be
ideal for use in road structures in these regions. Efforts are being made to introduce
sustainable hardwood management practices.
The principal species suitable for road structures are shown in Tables 7.4, 7.5 and 7.6 (with
their scientific and common name) divided into heavier and lighter hardwoods and softwoods.
Table 7.4: Heavy hardwoods
3
Density >650kg/m when dried to 18% moisture content
Afrormosia (Pericopsiselata)
Ekki (Lophiraelata)
Greenheart (Ocotearodiaei)
Iroko (Chlorophoraexcelsa, regia)
Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata)
Karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor)
Keruing (gurjun) (Dipterocarpusspp)
Opepe (Naucleadiderrichii)
Sapele (Entandrophragimacylindricum)
Teak (Tectonagrandis)
64
Table 7.5: Lighter hardwoods

3
Density <650kg/m when dried to 18% moisture content
African Mahogany (Khayaivorensis, anthotheca)
Afzelia (Afzelia spp.)
Dahoma (Piptadeniastrumafricanum)
Gum (Eucalyptus saligna)
Jacareuba (Calophyllumbrasiliense)
Meranti (Shorea spp.)
Muminga (Pterocarpusanyolensis)
Table 7.6: Softwoods
Softwoods for bridge construction should generally have a

3
density >420kg/m when dried to 18% moisture content
Cedar (Cedrus spp.)
Cypress (Cuppressus spp.)
Douglas fir (Psewdotsugataxifora)
Kauri, East African (Agathis alba)
Parana Pine (Araucaria angustifolia)
Pine, Caribbean Pitch (PinusCaribaea)
Pine, Scots or Redwood (Pinussylvestries)
Forms of timber and timber products

Timber is most commonly utilised structurally in the form of sawn sections. Timber is
generally sawn at sawmills, in or close to the forests from which the trees are extracted, and
then supplied to timber wholesalers or importers who sort, grade and treat the timber for
supply to the users. There are, however, many local variations and hand sawing is still
practiced in some areas. Whether machine or hand-sawn, logs are usually sawn by means of
a series of parallel cuts through the log, which is referred to as flat-sawn. The resulting
sections have a tendency to some distortion because of different shrinkage rates on the upper
and lower surfaces. The alternative quarter-sawn logs will have less distortion, but waste
more of the log (see Figure 7.8). In sawing timber into rectangular sections some of the log is
inevitably wasted, and a more economical way to use timber, which eliminates sawing and
also preserves more of its natural strength.
65
Figure 7.8: Saw cuts
The poles can be used for piling or as part of a timber lattice structure. Larger logs can be
used as abutment, pier or deck members. Use of pole structures enables younger trees or
thinnings from immature forests to be used, and thus the timber is cheaper.
Bamboo, though botanically closer to grass than timber, can often be of very high strength
and strong enough to be used structurally. Bamboo bridges have been built for road traffic but
it is very difficult to achieve good durability in bamboo structures and its use is not
recommended in this manual without further local research evidence.
Seasoning
Freshly cut timber contains a substantial proportion of water (up to 100% of its dry weight)
and, if used in the green state, it is subject to substantial shrinkage movement as well as
being prone to fungal attack. Thus, for effective structural use, timber must be dried so that its
moisture content is close to the equilibrium moisture content (between 10% and 20%,
depending both on the type of timber and the climatic conditions). This process, which has to
be carried out with care to avoid distortion, is referred to as seasoning. Seasoning also
increases the strength and stiffness of the timber.
Timber preservation
Preservative treatment is needed to protect timber from fungal attack, insects and marine
borers. There are a number of chemical treatments available. The success of the treatment
depends on effective choice of both the chemical substance used and the treatment process.
Chemical preservatives include:
 Oil-based preservatives such as creosote;
 Water-based preservatives such as copper/chrome/arsenite;
 Organic solvent preservatives such as pentachlorophenol.
Stress grading
Because of the natural variability of timber, even of pieces from the same source, careful
grading, piece by piece, is essential to ensure safe and efficient use. Stress grading can be
done either visually or mechanically. Visual grading involves making a visual assessment of
the extent of the principal factors affecting strength - knots, fissures, grain slope, wane,
distortion, and perhaps worm holes and fungal decay, and classifying the timber according to
predetermined measures of each which are acceptable in the various grades. Some aspects
66
of visual stress grading are described below. In machine grading, each piece is subjected to a
bending test under load in an automated process, and is graded according to its deformation;
a visual assessment is carried out at the same time.
Natural defects
Natural defects shown in Figure 7.9 are features which develop in the living tree which may
affect its structural usefulness. Some can be accommodated within limits.
The most important are:
 Knots - parts of branches which have become enclosed in the main tree; they can
reduce strength in tension and can be difficult to work;
 Fissures- splitting separation of the fibres due to a variety of causes including:
stresses in the standing tree (shakes), slits from rapid drying, resin pockets (in resin-
bearing softwoods);
 Wane - inclusion in the sawn timber of part of the original round surface of the log;
 Insect holes;
 Grain slope - the small angle between the direction of the grain and the length of the
cut timber.
Several other types of natural defect are unacceptable and should be eliminated from any
timber used structurally:
 Brittleheart - this material is found in the centre of some tropical trees and should be
avoided because it is of low strength and breaks with a brittle fracture;
 Fungal decay - this is discussed below.
Figure 7.9: Natural defects in timber
67
Shape
The processes of sawing and seasoning timber create distortions which must be limited for
satisfactory use. The four principal types of distortion encountered are bow, spring, twist and
cup. Some suggested limits are given in Table 7.7 below.
Moisture content
Moisture content needs to be limited to achieve the best structural properties and reduce
shrinkage as well as reduce susceptibility to fungal attack. Seasoning should reduce the
moisture content to within 5% of the equilibrium moisture content, which is in the range 10 -
12% for hot-dry regions but may be 14 - 18% for tropical rainforest regions.
Density
The density of timber depends on its type. Softwoods typically have densities in the range
3 3
350-480 kg/m but, for bridge construction, those suitable have densities above 420 kg/m at
18% moisture content. Tropical hardwoods typically have densities in the range 500 to 800
3
kg/m (or even higher) but there are many hardwoods with much lower densities. The
foregoing tables divide the common species of hardwoods into two classes: heavy hardwoods
3
with densities above 650 kg/m when dried to a moisture content of 18%; and lighter
3
hardwoods with densities less than 650 kg/m .
Strength and elasticity

Strength and stiffness are the most important properties from the point of view of structural
utilisation and they are closely related; timbers with higher strengths generally also have a
higher modulus of elasticity.
For structural design, maximum allowable stresses in bending, tension, compression (both
parallel to and perpendicular to the grain) and in shear must not be exceeded. These are
normally derived from guidelines or codes of practice in which timbers are grouped into
strength groups; values of the strength and stiffness parameters are given for each group
depending on the moisture content and extent of defects in the timber. Design stresses for the
three principal timber groups are shown in Table 7.7.
Table 7.7: Design stresses for the three principal timber groups
Heavy Lighter Softwoods

Hardwoods Hardwoods (MPa)
(MPa) (Mpa)
Bending 15.1 8.6 5.4
Tension 9.0 5.0 3.2
Compression parallel to the grain 11.3 6.8 5.0
Compression perpendicular to the
2.2 1.8 1.5
grain
Shear 2.2 1.1 0.9
68
Durability
The durability of timber relates primarily to its resistance to fungal attack and attack by insects
or marine borers. Durability is enhanced by good timber selection, effective seasoning,
preservative treatment, and maintenance after construction. It is also enhanced by good
design, particularly measures to ensure that timber is protected from water. The end grain
and joints are particularly susceptible.
Fungal attack can cause both staining and decay. Some fungi attack cell contents only rather
than the cell wall substance and, as a result, no structural degradation of the timber occurs.
Decay is not an inherent property of the material itself but depends on the availability of food
(the wood itself), moisture, air and favourable temperature conditions. Some species have
more durable heartwood than others and this is related to the toxic chemicals present in the
cells and cell walls of the more durable species.
Ensuring that its moisture content is below 18% (based on the oven-dry weight of the wood)
can increase the natural resistance of wood to decay. In addition to using seasoned timber,
the wood should be protected from dampness by moisture barriers or flashing. If timber is in
contact with the ground, only the more durable heartwood or preservative-treated timber
should be used.
In tropical climates great damage is done to wood by subterranean termites. Termites must
have access to the soil or to some other constant source of moisture. They can severely
damage timbers in contact with the ground and may even extend attack to the roof timbers of
high buildings.
Ensuring that all means of access are eliminated may prevent damage above ground. Metal
shields or stump caps, or poisoned soil barriers are effective in preventing the passage of
termites from the foundations to other parts of the structure. Where shields are used,
adequate clearance below deck level should be provided to allow easy, and regular,
inspection. In areas of severe infestation the only practical methods of control are, however,
the use of termite-resistant or preservative-treated timbers.
Apart from termites, there are a number of other insects, which attack timber. Moisture is an
essential element for some insects’ development and hence drying is an obvious protective
treatment. However, preservation is generally regarded as being a broad and more positive
measure particularly where the timber is to be used in structural applications.
Protection of timber submerged in salt water against attack by waterborne organisms is
usually based on the use of mechanical sheathing with resistant timbers, concrete or non-
ferrous metal, or the use of preservatives which are resistant to leaching, such as creosote.
Some tropical woods possess a natural resistance to such attack.
Shrinkage and thermal movement
Some shrinkage and expansion as a result in changes in the moisture content of the timber
must be allowed for in design. The important shrinkage movements are tangential and radial,
that is, across the width of the timber; in these directions the movement can exceed 3% as a
result of a change in relative humidity from 90% to 60%. In the longitudinal direction the
shrinkage movement is very small, less than 0.1%. The coefficient of thermal expansion is 30-
-6
60 x 10 per °C across the fibres, but less than one tenth of this parallel to the fibres. Thermal
expansion, even of large structures, is therefore not a problem.
Fire resistance
Timber is a combustible material and will ignite at temperatures of around 220 to 300°C. It
also produces toxic carbon monoxide and large quantities of smoke when ignited. When used
in external conditions on road structures the risks are from fire caused by fuel spillage in
69
overturned vehicles and wildfires. However, timber chars as it burns, at about 0.5-0.7mm per
minute, which helps to insulate the interior. There is no instant loss of strength in fire, nor a
rapid expansion, and timber structures can safely carry their loads for some time in a fire,
enabling people to escape and the fire to be extinguished. Fire retardant and fire-protection
chemical treatments are available either as paints or for pressure impregnation, but they are
expensive, and the paints require maintenance. Fire protection is therefore not usually applied
to external structures for low volume roads.
7.3.2 Field testing

Some visual indicators for a good quality timber are:
 The cellular tissue should be hard and compact;
 The fibrous tissues should adhere firmly together and should not clog the teeth of the
saw;
 Depth of colour indicates strength and durability;
 A freshly cut surface should be firm, shining and somewhat translucent, whereas a
dull chalky appearance is a sign of bad timber;
 In resinous timbers those with least resin in the pores are the strongest and most
durable; in non-resinous timbers those with least sap are best;
 A good timber is uniform in colour, with straight grains, free from dead knots, cracks
and shakes, and has regular annual growth rings.
Shape
The bow, spring, cup and twist of a piece of timber can be measured directly if the timber is
placed on a flat surface. An average of at least 10 measurements should be taken. Some
limits to distortion appropriate for tropical hardwoods and softwoods to be used structurally
are shown in Figure 7.10.
Bow: X should not exceed 15mm per 2m length (in a piece of 75mm and greater in thickness)
Spring: Y should not exceed 7mm per 2m length (in a piece of 250mm or more in width)
Twist: Z should not exceed 10mm per 2m length
Cup: W should not exceed 1mm per 25mm of width
Figure 7.10: Timber shape criteria
70
Visual stress grading

Visual stress grading involves making measurements or inspections of natural defects: slope
of grain, knots, fissures and resin pockets, wane and insect holes.
Minimum acceptable limits for all these characteristics are shown in Table 7.8. Other visible
defects including bark pockets, compression failures, fungal decay, and brittleheart should not
be permitted in any structural timber.
Table 7.8: Limits of visible defects for structural timber from tropical hardwoods
Property Acceptable limit for structural timber

Slope of the grain 1 in 11
Knots: size 25% of the thickness, up to 75mm
Knots: frequency One sizeable knot per metre of length
Fissures and resin pockets Moderate fissures (of greater than 1/3 the thickness but less than
the thickness): not to exceed in length 20% of the length or 1.5
times the width.
Wane Not to exceed 25% the sum of the width and thickness
Insect holes In a square of 100mm sides not more than 32 pinholes
(<1mm), nor more than 4 shot holes
(<3mm) nor more than 2 holes of 6mm diameter
Determination of moisture content

The moisture content of wood can be measured by the oven test method. Small samples are
0
cut from the wood to be tested, the samples are weighed and then dried in the oven at 100 C
until their weight becomes constant. They are then weighed again. The moisture content, m,
is calculated, as a percentage.
m % = 100 x weight of water = 100 x initial weight - final weight

dry weight final weight
Typical equilibrium moisture contents for different regions are shown in the foregoing text.
The equilibrium moisture content of the timber should be determined by a laboratory; the oven
test can then be used as a check on the effectiveness of seasoning of timber delivered to site.
Moisture content should be kept within 5% of the equilibrium moisture content.
Strength and elasticity: load testing
The suitability of the structural properties of a timber are normally determined by the use of
standard tables of properties for the species to be used, coupled with stress grading to
determine the classification of the sections available. However, in certain circumstances, the
structural properties of timber can be checked by a direct load test. This is easiest to carry out
when the timber is to be used in bending.
71
A pair of joists is set up between solid supports using the span length which will be used in
the actual structure. The joists are connected to each other by cross-bracing, and a deck is
placed over them. The deck is loaded uniformly, using heavy materials such as bricks or
stone, until it reaches the design load. The deformation at mid-span is then measured. Under
the design load it should not exceed about 1/300 of the span. The load should then be
increased to 50% above the design load under which load the timber should show no sign of
failure.
7.4 Plain and Reinforced Concrete

Plain and reinforced concrete are widely used in road construction. Concrete technology is
now established almost universally, even if it is not always well understood. Suitable raw
materials to use as aggregates, forming the bulk of the material, are found almost
everywhere. Cement and reinforcing bars are widely manufactured to standards that are
internationally recognised. Concrete is sometimes the cheapest available option. However,
high importation, production or transport costs and the high carbon footprint of both cement
and steel can make locally produced materials more attractive. When it is well made, concrete
is also a strong and durable material leading to a low maintenance requirement, important for
rural structures. Concrete also has the particularly important property of being highly resistant
to the action of water.
Reinforced concrete is suitable for bridge decks, piers and abutment, as well as for box
culverts and culvert rings Plain concrete may be used for drifts and causeways, culvert rings
up to 900mm diameter and for the foundations of walls, piers and abutments made of
masonry and timber.
Because concrete, unlike other structural materials, is generally made on site from its raw
materials, an important requirement for the use of concrete in structures is that both designers
and builders, as well as those responsible for long-term maintenance, understand its essential
properties and characteristics.
7.4.1 Materials for concrete

There are three essential constituents of concrete as illustrated in Figure 7.11:
1. Cement is the active ingredient. It constitutes about 10%-15% of the concrete by
weight. The cement, in combination with water, forms a strong matrix which
surrounds and binds the aggregate together. As the concrete mix sets and hardens it
gains strength and durability.
2. Water constitutes about 5% of the concrete by weight. Initially, it gives the concrete
workability, allowing it to flow and take up the shape in which it is molded. Over time,
the water combines chemically with the cement in a process called hydration which
causes the concrete to set and develop strength.
Figure 7.11: The constituents of concrete

72
3. Aggregates are inert materials, usually of mineral origin, which constitute the bulk of
the concrete (about 75%-85%). They are usually chosen from local sources for low
cost but their size range, shape, density, hardness and surface properties have
important effects on the resulting concrete.
In making concrete, these three constituents are mixed together in appropriate proportions to
make a fluid mass which is then placed in formwork, compacted to remove air, and finally
allowed to set and harden.
Plain concrete is relatively weak in tension therefore steel reinforcement is used where tensile
stresses are expected. When reinforced concrete is being made, the reinforcement is formed
into a cage or grid which is placed in the formwork before the concrete is placed. The
following sections describe the materials requirements.
Cement
The cement most commonly used for concrete is Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). This is
made in factories in which a mixture of limestone (or other calcium-rich minerals) together
with clay or shale is fired at a high temperature and the resulting cement clinker is ground to a
fine powder. The operation is highly controlled and the resulting cement is produced to a
specification which defines the essential properties including strength, setting rate and
chemical composition.
Cement is normally delivered to site in 25 - 50kg bags. The cement must be kept totally dry
until it is used otherwise it will begin to react with the water and be rendered useless. Cement
should therefore be stored off the ground in a shaded, dry and well-ventilated place (Figure
7.12). If any lumps of hardened cement are found in a bag, the cement in that bag should not
be used for structural work. Cement should typically be used within 6 months and therefore
stored in a ‘first in – first out’ system.
Figure 7.12: Cement stored in dry conditions

Water
The mixing water used should be clean and free from salts. It can be taken from rivers, lakes
or wells or from a treated water supply. Saline water may be used for plain concrete, though it
will affect the rate of setting, but should not be used for reinforced concrete. River water
containing sediments can be used if the sediments are first allowed to settle out in a tank or
drum until the water is clear.
Aggregates
The aggregate is divided into two parts: coarse aggregate and fine aggregate. The fine
aggregate is normally naturally occurring sand with particles up to about 2mm in size. The
coarse aggregate is normally stone with a range of sizes from about 5mm to 20mm (or
sometimes larger); it may be naturally occurring gravel or, more commonly, crushed or hand-
73
broken quarry stone. In areas without hard stone resources and with an established fired clay
brick industry, burnt bricks can be machine or hand crushed to be used in concrete.
Aggregates must be entirely free from soil or organic materials such as grass and leaves as
well as fine particles such as silt and clay, otherwise the resulting concrete will be of poor
quality. Some aggregates, particularly those from salty environments, may need to be washed
to make them suitable for use. Tests for aggregate quality are described in Section 7.4.4.
Both the coarse and fine aggregates need to contain a range of particle sizes that are mixed
together in such a way that the fine aggregates fill the space between the coarse aggregate
particles. A ratio by volume of one part fine aggregate to two parts coarse aggregate is
generally used. Aggregates can be crushed and screened by hand or by machine.
Aggregates should be stored in such a way that they do not become contaminated by soil and
so that rainwater can drain easily.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement is normally in the form of steel bars. Three characteristics are of primary
importance:
 Enough strength that a small amount of reinforcement can be used to carry the tensile
and shear forces;
 Enough ductility that the rods can be bent without breaking and, if a member is
overloaded, that the structure will deform without failing;
 Sufficient bond between the reinforcing and the concrete that forces can be
transferred between them.
Two types of steel reinforcement are in common use: mild steel and hot rolled high-yield
steel. Mild steel bars are round whereas high yield bars have a deformed surface to improve
the bond with the concrete. Typical reinforcement sizes range from 6mm to 30mm in
diameter. Reinforcing steel is usually available both in rod and mesh forms. Reinforcement
bars are cut to the required length and bent to the required shape. They are then tied together
in the arrangements shown on the drawings using binding wire and spacer blocks.
On site reinforcement should be kept straight until needed and should be stored clear of the
ground to prevent contamination with soil.
Concrete mixes
The proportions of the constituents may be varied to obtain the required properties. As a rule,
the larger the amount of water added to the mix the more fluid and easy to cast in place it will
be but the lower will be the final strength and durability. The ratio of water to cement should
therefore be as low as possible for the necessary workability of the concrete. Given this
requirement, mixes with a larger proportion of cement to aggregates will tend to be stronger
and more durable.
Three principal types of concrete are required for use in low volume roads as shown in Table
7.9.
With good quality graded aggregates and water content just sufficient to give adequate
workability, the nominal mixes shown in Table 7.10 should achieve the strengths indicated. It
is crucial that the mix does not contain excess water as this will result in increased porosity in
the final concrete and considerably reduced strength and durability.
74
Table 7.9: Concrete types
Structural concrete Grades 20 and 25

This is concrete intended for use in reinforced structures and load-bearing
applications such as bridge decks and culvert rings. The grade indicates
2
the target crushing strength of cubes (N/mm ) at 28 days after casting.
Maximum aggregate size is normally 20 mm to allow the concrete to pass
round the reinforcement and give good compaction. Typical mix
proportions for Grades 20 and 25 are given in the Table below.
Mass concrete This is appropriate for gravity structures where reinforcing steel is not
used. A large sized stone (up to 50mm) is permitted. For the construction
of drifts and causeways, larger pieces of stone (referred to as plums) may
be set in place before the concrete is poured to act as fill. These should be
of the same quality as the aggregate and have a maximum size not
greater than three- quarters of the depth of the concrete. The cement
content for mass concrete is higher than for lean concrete but lower than
for structural concrete. Mix proportions are 1:3:6.
Lean concrete This is a meager mix with low cement content. It is used for blinding the
foundation excavations for structures where it acts as a clean working
surface prior to placing structural concrete. It is also used as a porous
backing to structures and behind weep holes to allow water to migrate
through without washing soil particles through the structure. The mix
proportions are 1:4:8 by volume.
Table 7.10: Concrete grades, strengths and batching strengths

3
Cement/ fine Material required for 1m finished concrete
Expected 28 (guidance)
Class of aggregate./
day strength
concrete 2 coarse agg. 50kg Cement 3 3
N/mm Fine (m ) Coarse (m )
(guidance) bags (kg)
Lean - 1:4:8 3.3 (166) 0.47 0.94

Mass 15 1:3:6 4.3 (215) 0.46 0.92
Grade 20 20 1:2:4 6.0 (300) 0.42 0.84

Grade 25 25 1:1.5:3 7.3 (365) 0.38 0.76
7.4.2 Production and placement

Mixing
Concrete may be mixed (or batched) by hand or by a mechanical mixer. When batching by
volume is to be used, the mix proportions should be measured using a gauge box with
3
dimensions as shown in Figure 7.13. The gauge box has a volume of 0.036 m , equivalent to
one 50kg bag of cement.
Aggregates and cement are thoroughly mixed together in the dry state, and then the water
added gradually while mixing until a uniform mass of the right workability is achieved.
Concrete should be mixed on a clean, hard, level and impermeable platform, or in a mixer.
75
Batchwith1bag
Number of Yield
Class of boxes of per
Concrete aggregates batch
Fine Coarse (m3)
Lean 4 4 0.30
Mass 3 6 0.24
Grade 20 2 4 0.16
Grade 25 1.5 3 0.14
Figure 7.13: Concrete mixes (guidance)

Transporting
Concrete should be mixed as near as possible to the site of placement and may be
transported using trucks, wheelbarrows, or even using head pans for sites with difficult
access. The wet mix should be transported within 30 minutes to allow placing before setting
commences.
Placing
When the concrete is poured, the formwork or shuttering for the concrete must be clean,
smooth faced, and secure from movement or leakage. Formwork is normally constructed from
timber and plywood, especially where shapes are complex. Where the same shape is
repeated (e.g. for culvert barrels or headwalls) then steel formwork can be economical and
efficient to use. The dimensions and widths of the space to be filled must be carefully
checked. Formwork construction should be planned to enable later removal. Formwork must
be strong and well secured so that it does not move or distort under the pressures exerted by
the wet concrete or the vibration operation. It must be complete without gaps for the wet
concrete to escape through. Any reinforcement must be well secured and positioned away
from the formwork with set mortar or plastic spacers to ensure that the correct cover is
achieved. Purpose-made mould oil can be used to aid later removal of the formwork without
damage to the concrete; used engine oil may be used for this function.
The wet concrete should be placed in layers and rammed or vibrated immediately to form a
dense well-graded mass with no air pockets. The layers should be built up and compacted
into each other without allowing joints of set concrete to form (except at predetermined
construction joints). The concrete should be placed in layers of thickness less than 300mm
when hand ramming. This may be increased to 600mm when a vibrating poker is used. Care
must be taken not to disturb the formwork or any reinforcement during placing and
compaction. Over-vibration must be avoided because it can lead to segregation of the
concrete paste from the aggregates.
76
The top of the placed concrete should be finished smooth with a mason’s trowel or float.
However, any day work joints (e.g. in a wall lift) should be left rough to ensure a good bond
for the next layer of concrete. Concrete should not be mixed or placed in ambient
temperatures of less than 3˚C or above 38˚C.
Curing
Concrete hardens as a result of hydration of the cement with water. Fresh concrete contains
more than enough water to hydrate the cement completely but if the concrete is not protected
against drying out, the water content, especially near the surface, will be insufficient for
complete hydration. This causes cracking. Direct sunlight will speed up evaporation so
temporary shading should be provided where needed. Curing should start as soon as the
concrete begins to harden (3-4 hours after placing). Suitable methods include: sprinkling or
flooding; covering with empty cement bags, hessian bags or other fabric, sand, sawdust
(50mm thick), grass or leaves, all of which should be kept wet. For faces cast against
formwork, the formwork may be loosened after one day and left in place, dampening from
time to time. All concrete should be cured for at least 7 days. During this time it should be
protected from frost if necessary.
Detailed local specifications for concreting procedures should be followed because these can
take account of local raw materials, site practices and climate.
Table 7.11 provides guidelines for the placing, compacting and curing of concrete to assist in
the attainment of a quality material.
Table 7.11: Recommendations for good quality concrete
Activity Recommendations of good practice

Placing  Forms and the shutters should be cleaned before placing the concrete;
concrete  Concrete should be placed in layers of 300mm depth;
 Concrete should not be placed in heaps because this causes separation of
the stones from the sand and cement;
 Concrete should not be dropped from a height of more than 1.5m because
this also causes separation of the stone from the sand and cement;
 Reinforcement bars are to be placed inside the shuttering before placing the
concrete.
Compacting  Compacting is undertaken by tamping with a steel or wooden rod or
concrete vibrating poker;
 It is important to remove all the air in the concrete because entrained air
reduces the strength of the concrete;.
Curing  Curing means keeping the outside of the concrete moist (wet)during the
concrete setting (hardening) of the concrete by:
 Wetting the concrete surface frequently;
 Covering the surface with wet material (cloth, paper bags,
sand etc.);
 Hardening of concrete requires at least 7 days. Curing prevents cracks in
the surface layer of the concrete;.
 As cement is normally one of the most expensive items in the construction
process, it should not be wasted.
Too much cement = costly
Too little cement = low strength
77
7.4.3 Properties of concrete

Workability of fresh concrete
In its freshly mixed state concrete needs sufficient workability to enable it to be placed into the
formwork and compacted. The workability needed depends on the shape of the formwork to
be filled, the amount of reinforcement in it, and sometimes on the method of transportation.
Workability is measured on site by the slump test, which is described below. Table 7.12
indicates the maximum workability suitable for different situations.
Table 7.12: Maximum slump values for particular uses
Concrete use Maximum slump
Lean concrete 100mm
Reinforced foundations 80mm
Other reinforced areas 50mm
Strength and stiffness

Concrete mixes are designed to achieve a given 28-day strength in compression, as
measured by crushing tests on cubes or cylinders. The strength of a concrete develops slowly
as the cement hydration reaction continues. After 28 days the concrete will have attained
most of its final strength, which is why at this age strength is specified. Typical structural
concretes have strengths in the range 25- 40 MPa. For good quality control of the concrete,
crushing test samples are made regularly on site and sent to a testing laboratory for testing at
28 days.
Tensile strength and stiffness also develop as the compressive strength develops. The tensile
strength of concrete is normally about one-tenth of its compressive strength. A quality control
test, which could be used to assess the strength based on the tensile strength, is suggested
in field testing below.
Moisture movement
Wet cured concrete exposed to air will shrink over time. It will also expand and contract
subsequently as a result of changes in ambient humidity or exposure to rain or moisture. The
extent of shrinkage depends on the properties of the concrete and ambient conditions but,
typically, about 0.8 to 1.0mm per m of drying shrinkage can be expected (in all dimensions)
with subsequent variations of about one-third of these values. This can cause unsightly
cracking in concrete structures unless joints are provided at intervals to allow it to occur.
Additional (creep) moisture movements occur as a result of the load. Creep continues over a
long period of time (some months). Both creep and shrinkage can be restrained (though not
prevented) by the presence of reinforcement.
Durability
The durability of concrete depends on its resistance to the major causes of deterioration:
corrosion of the reinforcement, frost attack, sulphate attack, chemical attack, and deterioration
of the aggregate-cement bond. There are four principal agents of deterioration shown in Table
7.13. Protection of the concrete from these agencies of deterioration can be achieved by:
 Good compaction - permeability of concrete is increased if compaction is poor or
cracking occurs as a result of poor curing;
78
 Adequate cover to reinforcement - minimum cover is specified according to the

environmental conditions; greater for external surfaces, and surfaces which are to be
tooled etc.;
 Use of low permeability concrete - by using well-compacted concrete with low water
cement ratio, which reduces the ability of water to move through the concrete;
 Providing a minimum cement content - to create a sufficiently alkaline environment to
inhibit reinforcement corrosion, a minimum quantity of cement is needed. Nominal
mixes provide an adequate amount;
 Minimise the risk of alkali silica reaction - by limiting the alkali content of the concrete
or by using non-reactive aggregates.
Table 7.13: Agents of concrete deterioration
Corrosion (rusting) of Corrosion is caused by an electro-chemical reaction occurring in the

the reinforcement presence of water and air. It occurs when water gains access to the
reinforcement; through inadequate concrete cover to the reinforcement;
because of poorly mixed or poorly compacted concrete; or as a result of
cracking.
Sulphate attack Sulphates in soil and some aggregates will react with the hydrated cement
resulting in expansion and damage of the concrete.
Alkali-silica reaction So-called “concrete cancer” is a deterioration of the concrete as a result of
a reaction between alkaline fluids and reactive minerals in certain types of
aggregates.
Thermal movements
-6
The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is about 10 to 14 x 10 mm/mm, i.e. about
-6
3mm per m for a 30°C temperature rise, about the same as for structural steels (12 x 10 ).
Thus, for long concrete structures such as multi-span bridges, expansion joints are needed to
allow for seasonal temperature changes.
79
8 STRUCTURE DESIGN
There is a large amount of energy stored in flowing water. A fast flowing river 0.5m deep can
wash away a car or pickup truck. Even at lower volumes and velocities, water can wash away
road structures. A high priority task in designing a road structure is therefore to minimise the
disturbance to the water flow in the channel, which then minimises the potential damage to
the structure and scouring of the watercourse.
The vast majority of structural failures occur during flood periods and over 50% of these
failures can be attributed to scour. The initial section of this chapter deals with scour and how
to design and construct a structure to withstand scour effects.
There are often a number of elements, which form a road structure. In some cases these are
common to a range of structures. After the section dealing with scour this chapter is broken
down into sections which each cover an individual structural element. Table 8.1 shows the
aspects which must be consulted for the design of different structural elements for water
crossing structures.
Table 8.1: Guidance on design aspects
Structural Item Large-bore

Drift Culvert Vented Drift Bridge
Culvert
Foundations ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Structural slabs ✔ ✔ ✔
Cut-off walls ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Pipes ✔ ✔
Headwalls &wingwalls ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Apron ✔ ✔ ✔
Approach ramps ✔ ✔ ✔
Downstream protection ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Arches ✔
Bridge design
 General
 Deck ✔
 Abutments (arch
 Piers bridges)
 Bearings & joints
8.1 Scour
Scour is the erosion of material from the river sides and bed due to water flow (Plate 10)
Damage due to scour is the most likely cause of structural failure. Minimising or eliminating
the effects of scour should therefore receive the most attention when designing any structure.
Scour can occur during any flow but the risk is generally greater during floods.
There are three major types of scour to be considered:
80
1. River morphology: these are long-term changes in the river due to bends and
constrictions in the channel affecting the shape and course of the channel.
2. Construction scour: this is the scour experienced around road structures where the
natural channel flow is restricted by the opening in the structure. The speed of the
water increases through the restriction and results in more erosive power, removing
material from the banks and bed.
3. Local scour: occurs around abutments and piers due to the increased velocity of the
water and vortices around these obstructions.
The latter two scour types are the most important to consider when designing a structure. The
amount of scour at a structure will be affected by the following factors:
 Slope, alignment and bed material of the stream: the amount of scour is
dependent on the speed of the water flow and the erodability of the bed material;
 Vegetation in the stream: any vegetation growing permanently in the stream can
improve the strength of the riverbed, reduce the flow velocity, and reduce scour ;
 Depth, velocity and alignment of the flow through the bridge: the faster the flow,
the more scour will occur;
 Alignment, size, shape and orientation of piers, abutments and other
obstructions: water is accelerated around these obstructions, creating vortices with
high velocities at abrupt edges on the obstruction, increasing the scour depth;
 Trapped debris: debris can restrict the flow of water and cause an increase in water
velocity - it is important that structures are designed to minimise the chances of debris
being trapped and to ensure that inspections and maintenance are carried out after
flood periods to remove any lodged debris;
 Amount of bed material in the water: if the water is already carrying a large amount
of material eroded from further upstream, a greater amount of scour will occur at the
structure.
The proposed site of the structure and the watercourse upstream and downstream must be
inspected for evidence of existing scour, erosion or deposition in the watercourse and banks.
It is difficult to accurately predict the level of scour that may be experienced for a particular
design. There are many formulae for predicting the amount of scour around a structure but
these formulae, in general, require detailed knowledge of the river and bed characteristics.
They are also based on empirical data and will often give different design scour depths.
Engineering judgement will be required. This Manual proposes a number of ‘rules’ for
designing to resist scour. It must be stressed that these rules are not infallible and local
knowledge should also be taken into account when designing a structure.
8.1.1 Rule 1 - Provide sufficient foundation or cut-off wall depths

Regardless of the required depth for foundations determined by the ground conditions and
predicted scour, the minimum foundation depths shown in Table 8.2 should be provided. The
depth is measured from the lowest point in the bed of the watercourse at the crossing point.
These depths can only be reduced where firm rock is encountered at a shallower depth and
the foundations are firmly keyed into the rock.
Table 8.2: Foundation depths
Structure Foundation Depth Cut-off wall depth

Drift Not applicable 1.5m
Relief culvert Not applicable 1.0m
1.5m
Watercourse culvert Not applicable
(headwalls and wingwalls)
81
Vented drift Not applicable 2m

Large bore culverts 3m 3m
Bridges 3m 3m
8.1.2 Rule 2 - Create a minimal constriction to the water flow

The amount of scour experienced at a structure is proportional to the restriction in the normal
water flow. If the flow is considered unconstrained then scour will not exist. If the site
conditions permit, the opening widths in Table 8.3 should be provided to eliminate the effects
of scour.
Table 8.3: Opening widths
Peak flood 3
0.5 1 2 4 6 8 10 15 20 25 30 m /s
flow rate
Minimum
3.5 5 7 10 12 14 15 19 21 24 26 m
width (W)
In some cases, particularly for bridges and larger flows, it will not be possible to provide the
opening widths shown in Table 8.3 above. The design, particularly the level of foundations,
should allow for a lowering of the riverbed level due to scour. The amount/depth of scour (as
shown in Figure 8.1) that will occur depends on the following 3 factors:
 Constricted flow width;
 Maximum flow rate;
 The type of material forming the sides and bottom of the watercourse.
The depth of scour is

therefore:
Depth of scour = flood

water depth at structure –
original unconstrained
watercourse depth
Ds = D1 – D
Figure: 8.1: Scour allowances
82
The three following graphs (Figures 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4) allow the prediction of the water depth in
the channel which will allow the depth of scour to be calculated.
Figure 8.2: Scour – fine silt
Figure 8.3: Scour - fine sand

(as above)
83
Figure 8.4: Scour – coarse sand

The depth of scour indicates the general level of erosion that will occur in the riverbed.
Additional local scour will occur near bridge abutments and wing walls and also at the edges
of aprons. Table 8.4 shows the factor that the general scour should be multiplied by to
calculate the depth of scour that may be encountered near structural elements.
All foundations should be constructed below the predicted depth of scour.

Predicted maximum depth of scour = depth of general scour x local scour multiplier
Table 8.4: Scour depth adjustment
Local scour
Local scour at structural elements
multiplier
Long abutments parallel to water flow in straight channels 1.5
Abutments in curving channels and/or Part of structures with multiple openings 2.0
Abutments and wingwalls where flow reaches structure at an angle greater
2.25
than 20 degrees
Ends of protective aprons or drift slabs 2.5
8.1.3 Rule 3 - avoid the use of piers

If piers are absolutely necessary they should be aligned exactly in the direction of water flow.
Figure 8.5 shows the likely depth of scour that may be encountered around piers that are
aligned in the direction of water flow. Scour around piers will be doubled for piers that are
o
aligned 10-15 away from the direction of water flow.
84
Figure 8.5: Depth of scour around piers (from TRL ORN9)
8.2 Foundations
The strength and durability of any structure will be determined by the quality of its foundation
and the bearing capacity of the soil (refer to Chapter 2).
For small, simple structures such as drifts, culverts and vented fords it will be sufficient to
construct the structure on well drained, firm soil. Referring to the soil bearing capacity tables
in Chapter 5, these conditions include any rock, clays and silts that are at least “firm” or sands
and gravels that are at least “loose”. These conditions can be determined on site by checking
for footprints when walking over the proposed location. If more than a faint footprint is left it
will be necessary to improve the ground before construction commences.
If the ground conditions are poor at the proposed level of the structure’s foundation it will be
necessary to continue excavation to firm material that can provide sufficient bearing capacity.
The engineer will then have three options for the construction of the structure:
 Alter the design to lower the level of the foundations;
 Replace the poor excavated material with new material that has a better bearing
capacity (e.g. a well graded sand and gravel) that is compacted into the excavation in
300mm layers;
 Provide a piled foundation (not covered by this Manual).
For all structures it is necessary to start the construction on a well-drained, level base. The
excavations for all structures, apart from those built on rock, should be dug an additional 300
mm below the proposed foundation level. A 300mm layer of sand and fine gravel should then
be placed and levelled in the bottom of the excavation to provide a good base for the
structure. Alternatively at least 100mm of lean concrete blinding should be laid to provide a
firm clean working platform.
A method for calculating the approximate load exerted by the foundations of a vented ford or
large bore culvert on the ground is to calculate the load of the structural fill material and
multiply by a safety factor shown in Table 8.5.
85
Table 8.5: Bearing safety factor
Material Load per metre of fill Safety factor

Concrete/gravel 25kN 1.5
Earth 20kN 1.5
Where a foundation is to be built on rock which may be sloping down to the watercourse (see
Figure 8.6), it will be necessary to form a level platform for the foundation. This may be
achieved by either breaking out the rock to give a level foundation or building up the
foundation to level by placing concrete around drilled and grouted mild steel bars. The
preferred option, which should be adopted unless the rock is too hard to break out, is to break
out a level platform. Sloping firm rock abutments are, of course, suitable for arch bridge
springings. In these circumstances the rock should be excavated approximately to a plane
roughly at right angles to the slope of invert of the arch at the springing (See Figure 8.17
detailing masonry arch culvert construction). The face may be cut in steps to increase bond
between the structure and rock foundation.
Figure 8.6: Construction on sloping bedrock
8.3 Structural Slabs

8.3.1 Drifts
The primary objective in the design of a drift is to provide a suitable surface for vehicles to
drive across while creating minimal disturbance to the water flow. Drift slabs should therefore
follow, as closely as possible, the bed of the watercourse. The drift slab surface should be no
more than 200mm above the existing bed level. However, it is desirable to construct the drift
with a finished level at the same level as the riverbed. Slabs which are constructed more than
200mm above the existing bed level are likely to cause severe erosion downstream of the
drift, requiring frequent maintenance.
NOTE: There is one situation where it may be permissible to raise the finished level of the
drift above the riverbed. If the site selected for the drift appears to suffer from silting the final
level of the drift could be raised 200-300mm above the natural riverbed. This raising of the
86
level will cause water to flow slightly faster over the drift and reduce the potential for the drift
to silt up.
If the river is flowing in a channel with banks on each side, it will be necessary to ensure that
there is a suitable approach slope from the road on each side to the drift in the bottom of the
riverbed. These approach slopes should not be so steep that vehicles get stuck at the bottom
of the drift. A maximum gradient between 5 and 10% will be determined by the vehicles that
are using the road. A gradient of10% may be used if the only vehicles using the road are cars
and light trucks. A gradient of 7.5% may be used for medium size trucks and small minibuses
and a gradient of 5% used if buses and large trucks (>10tonnes) are expected to travel along
the road. Allowance should be made for the fact that heavier vehicles may use the road
following improvement of the route.
Although vehicles may not be able to cross the drift during periods of high water, it is essential
that the drift slab extends beyond the highest flood level to ensure that scour and erosion will
not take place at each end of the drift. It may, therefore, be necessary to construct the drift
slab to the top of the riverbanks at the end of the approach slope.
To reduce the cost of construction it may be possible to reduce the width of the drift slab so
that it is narrower than the normal road width. Vehicles would not be able to pass each other
on the drift so the designer must ensure that there is sufficient passing space on each side of
the drift to allow vehicles to wait and pass each other. To prevent vehicles driving off the drift
and possibly getting stuck in the soft or loose river bed, or vehicles attempting to pass each
other on the drift, guide stones should be placed along the edges of the approaches and
across the drift.
The width of the central or flat middle section of the drift should minimise disturbance to the
water flow. The construction of the road will cause a larger amount of water to flow across the
drift due to water flowing off the road along the side drains.
Drift slab construction

There are four possible solutions for constructing the drift slab. In descending cost they are:
 Concrete slab;
 Cement bonded stone paving;
 Dry pitched stone paving;
 Gabions with gravel or broken stone.
The main factors affecting the choice of construction method are:
 The nature of the river bed;
 The expected volume and flow rates of the water;
 The availability of different construction materials;
 The cost of labour.
If large volumes of fast flowing water are expected it will be necessary to use a concrete slab
or cement bound stone paving because the water will erode gravel and dislodge hand pitched
stones. In the cases of slower flowing water or small streams hand pitched stone or gabions
are likely to be acceptable and a cheaper option.
8.3.2 Concrete slab

Although concrete slabs are the most expensive they are a long lasting, low maintenance
solution. The concrete slab should extend the full width of the drift between the cut-off walls
87
with a minimum thickness of 250mm. In areas where stone is locally available ‘plums’ may be
put in the slab to reduce the amount of cement required and hence reduce the overall cost.
Where plums are used they should not have a dimension greater than 75mm (100mm where
the slab is 300mm or thicker) and should be placed as far as possible in the middle of the
slab.
8.3.3 Cement mortar bonded stone paving

Stone paving will offer a cheaper alternative to a concrete slab in areas where masonry or
locally manufactured blocks of sufficient strength are available. The slab should be a
minimum of 300mm thick and may require more than one course of paving to be laid. The
blocks should be laid in an arrangement to ensure that the different courses interlock with
each other.
8.3.4 Hand packed stone

In areas where masonry stone is widely available this option is likely to be cheaper than
constructing a concrete slab. However, it is only suitable for low velocity flows and can take a
considerable length of time to construct for larger crossings. It is essential that the stones are
well placed to ensure that they are interlocked to prevent them being washed out by the
water. The whole structure can be washed away if the water can wash out one stone because
this weakens the remaining structure. Larger stones are better than smaller ones because
they are less likely to be washed away. The best stones to use are angular and flat faced and
should be placed on their edge to give the greatest interlock between stones.
8.3.5 Gabions and gravel

This is likely to be the cheapest and quickest option for constructing a drift slab. Smaller
stones may be used in the gabion than for hand pitched stone and maintenance does not
require specialist skills. However, gabion baskets and gravel will be unable to withstand large
flows of water. The drift basically consists of a gabion basket on the downstream side which
acts as a dam to prevent the gravel being washed away.
Where gravel may be washed away but there is a reasonable amount of gravel in the
riverbed, it may be possible to protect the riverbed and trap gravel and sand in the top of a
gabion mattress to create a vehicle running surface. Gabion mattresses are similar to gabion
baskets except that they are a flatter section, usually 250-300mm deep, and cover a wider
plan area. Sand and gravel will tend to be trapped on the top of the gabions which will prevent
wear of the wire by traffic.
An additional measure to stabilise the face of the gabion and the retained material is to insert
natural fibre matting in the top and face of the gabion. This also encourages vegetation
growth for improved stabilisation.
8.3.6 Slab construction (vented fords and large bore culverts)

The number of options available for the type of slab will depend on its ultimate use. If the slab
is to be used on the top of a fill layer, as in the case of vented fords or causeways, it is likely
that only a concrete slab or cement bonded stone paving will be suitable. The slab should
also have a 2-3% crossfall in the direction of water flow to ensure that the deck drains quickly
when overtopped and sand or silt is not deposited on the running surface.
88
8.4 Cut-off Walls

Cut-off walls, also called curtain walls, should be provided at the edge of a structure. They
prevent water eroding the material adjacent to the structure which would eventually cause the
structure to collapse. The location of cut-off walls for the various structures is shown in Table
8.6.
Table 8.6: Cut-off wall locations
Structure Locations
Drift Upstream and downstream sides of drift slab
Culvert Edges of inlet and outlet apron
Vented ford Upstream and downstream sides of main structure and approach ramps
Large bore culvert Upstream and downstream sides of approach ramps
The foundations of the main structure should be built at a greater depth than
standard cut-off walls, below the possible scour depth
Bridge The foundations of the main structure should be built at a greater depth than
standard cut-off walls, below the possible scour depth
The absence of cut-off walls at the inlet of the structure could allow water to seep under the
apron and structure causing settlement and eventually collapse of the structure. At the
downstream end of the structure the flowing water could erode the material next to the apron,
eventually eroding under the apron and causing it to collapse. The benefits of a cut-off wall
are illustrated in Figure 8.7.
Figure 8.7: Cut-off wall
89
The depth of the cut-off walls will depend on the ground conditions. Where a rock layer is
close to the ground surface the cut-off walls should be built down to this level. If there is no
firm stratum near the surface the cut- off walls should extend the minimum dimensions listed
in the previous section on scour. The method of construction of the cut-off wall should be
similar to the construction method and material used for the remaining parts of the structure to
facilitate the construction and reduce cost.
8.5 Pipes
Pipes will be required for culverts and vented fords. This section initially covers the vertical
positioning of culverts followed by the sizing of pipes and then other design issues including
types of culvert and construction options.
8.5.1 Vertical positioning of pipes

The vertical positioning of culverts requires particular attention. The consideration of the
natural vertical alignment of the watercourse must take precedence over the vertical
alignment of the road. Neglect of this factor has led to many culverts being installed
incorrectly leading to excessive silting, erosion and, in some cases, failure. It should be
remembered that the water forces during peak flow will be actively promoting the return to the
natural watercourse alignment.
There are three basic culvert installation situations. The most appropriate culvert type will
depend on the outfall gradient.
Type A: Flat outfall (less than 5%). This culvert type should be used in flat areas and
for watercourses with shallow gradients. In these cases the road should be built up
over the culvert with ramps 20-50m long or to comply with national road vertical
alignment standards. A culvert will silt up if it is positioned too low to avoid the
requirements of building up the road alignment.
Type B: Intermediate outfall (approx. 5 - 10 %).This arrangement requires the culvert
to be excavated slightly into the existing ground although the invert of the culvert at
the inlet should be at the same level as the bed of the watercourse. The inlet of the
culvert will be below the existing ground level and will require an ditch to be dug
leading to the inlet with a gradient of approximately 4% or a drop inlet will be required
to be provided. The road will still have to be built up with ramps or alignment
adjustment over the culvert to provide the minimum required cover.
Type C: Steep outfall (more than 10%). The culvert can be installed without building
up the road level. The culvert should be buried to provide adequate cover over the
pipe. A drop inlet will be required at the entrance to the pipe and a short outfall ditch
at the exit. On steeply sloping ground careful attention should be given to preventing
erosion downstream of the culvert. Further information on erosion protection is given
in a later section in this chapter.
8.5.2 Pipe sizing

Because of changing climatic conditions, debris and bed load in channels, changing land use
patterns, and uncertainties in hydrologic estimates, culvert size and capacity should be
conservative and should be oversized rather than undersized. Ideally, a culvert will be of a
size as wide as the natural channel to avoid channel constriction. Channel protection, riprap,
headwalls, and trash racks can all help mitigate culvert problems, but none are as good as an
adequately sized and well placed pipe. An oversized culvert, designed to avoid pipe repairs or
failure as well as prevent environmental damage, can be very cost-effective in the long run.
Also, the addition of concrete or masonry headwalls helps reduce the likelihood of pipe
plugging and failure.
90
A number of methods are available to assess the required culvert pipe size(s). These are
described in the following sub-sections.
The most appropriate method for sizing pipes is to carry out a design based on one of the
three cases shown. However, this design process requires data on the culvert catchment area
and predicted rainfall intensity. In the absence of other data Figure 8.8 suggests the size and
number of pipes that are required to give a suitable culvert capacity for the recommended
storm return period. Figure 8.8 is based on gentle/rolling ground with medium soil
permeability.
Figure 8.8: Culvert pipe requirements

The design process for sizing pipes will depend on the particular flow characteristics of the
water through the pipes. There are three cases, which must be considered as shown in
Figure 8.9.
Figure 8.9 Pipe design cases
91
Proceed with the following steps for the design of the pipe.
Step 1: Peak flood flow
The first stage in culvert pipe design is to estimate the maximum expected peak flood flow
which was discussed in Chapter 6, Section 6.1.
Step 2: Check for case 3
If case 3 exists it will not be necessary to carry out any further work because the culvert size
is determined by the requirements of minimum diameter for cleaning. Table 8.7 shows the
maximum flow rates for assuming case 3 flow exists for a 600mm diameter culvert with an
invert on different gradients. For case 3 to exist the flow at the downstream end of the culvert
must be uninhibited. This will require the outfall from the culvert to have the same or greater
slope than the invert of the culvert.
Table 8.7: Maximum flow rates
Maximum flow rates for 600mm diameter case 3 culverts

Invert slope Max flow rate
1% 20 l/s
2% 40 l/s
3% 50 l/s
4% 60 l/s
Case 1
Case 1 has water backed up on the upstream side of the culvert but the water is able to flow
freely away from the downstream side of the culvert. This situation is likely to occur on sloping
ground where the outfall continues down the hillside.
Case 2
Case 2 has water backed up on both the upstream and downstream sides of the culvert. The
flow of water through the culvert is less than in case 1 (for the same size culvert) because the
water backed up downstream reduces the flow. This situation will exist in flat areas where the
water in the culvert outfall slows or ponds in the channel.
Case 3
Case 3, with no water backed up at either end of the culvert, will only occur for low flow rates
and where the water can flow away from the culvert in the downstream channel. If flow rates
are low but the outfall slope is shallow the culvert is likely to operate under case 2.
Step 3: Pipe dimensions
In order to design the pipe it will be necessary to guess a pipe size and invert level and
gradient. These dimensions will be used for the flow calculations and then compared with the
predicted peak flood flow. Through experience the designer will be able to make a good initial
guess at the size and/or number of culvert pipes required. For designing a culvert a first
guess should be taken as one 600mm pipe. A fall of 3-5% should be placed in the invert to
ensure that water flows through the culvert without depositing silt and other debris.
92
Regardless of the design water flow, all pipes should have a minimum diameter of
600mm to ensure that they can be manually cleaned when clogged
Step 4: Maximum upstream depth

During flood periods, storm water will back up in the upstream channel of the culvert. The
amount of back up will depend on the culvert characteristics. The amount of back up
permitted should be chosen to ensure that the water does not flood cultivated land and
property or overtop the road embankment and culvert headwall. The depth of water due to
backing up is measured for the streambed and is shown as d1 in the Figure 8.12.
Step 5: Determine downstream characteristics

It will also be necessary to determine if the water is likely to pond and back up at the
downstream end of the pipe. Ponding will depend on the slope of the channel.
Step 6: Driving head
The driving head (the difference between water levels each side of the culvert) is the potential
energy, which causes the water to flow through the pipe.
Where:
H is the driving head
Driving Head = H d1 is the upstream depth
H = d1 + h – d2 d2 is the downstream water depth
h is the drop in invert level as shown in
Figure 8.9 above
Step 7: Friction factor

The length and roughness of the pipe will affect the flow rate. The friction factor determined
from the graph (in Figure 8.10) is an indication of the resistance to flow due to the pipe’s
characteristics and is required to calculate the maximum flow in the pipe.
Step 8: Check maximum flow rate
Once the friction factor and head are known the maximum flow rate through the pipe can be
obtained from the graphs in Figure 8.11.
Step 9: Check inlet restriction
For higher flow rates the rate of water flow through the culvert will be restricted by the
entrance diameter of the culvert. Check the maximum flow rate for the culverts obtained from
Figure 8.12 and compare it with the flow rate obtained from step 8.
Step 10: Check acceptable flow rate
The maximum flow rate obtained in either step 8 or 9 should be compared with the maximum
predicted flow rate.
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Where the maximum flow rate is larger than the predicted flow rate, the culvert design is
acceptable. The next design stages for the culvert should be carried out namely selecting
appropriate inlet and outlet arrangements and confirming the type of pipe based on the
assumptions made in the design steps.
If the maximum flow rate is less than the predicted flow rate the design is unacceptable. If the
culvert were to be constructed in this design the floodwater would overtop the road causing it
to be washed out, or it would flood adjacent fields and properties. The design process must
be carried out again from step 3 making one of the following changes:
 Adding another pipe of the same diameter;
 Increasing the size of the pipe.
Nomogram method
Pipe size as a function of anticipated design flow (capacity) and headwater depth can be
determined using the Nomograms shown in Figures 8.13, 8.14 and 8.15. These figures apply
to commonly used culverts of round corrugated metal pipe, round concrete pipe, and concrete
boxes. Each of these figures applies to pipes with inlet control where there is no constraint on
the downstream elevation of the water exiting the structure. In these circumstances the
culvert acts as an orifice and the capacity can be determined in a relatively simple manner on
the basis of headwater height and inlet geometry (barrel shape, cross- sectional area and the
inlet edge). Barrel slope affects the inlet control performance to a small degree but may be
neglected. Ideally, the inlet water elevation (headwater depth) should not greatly exceed the
height or diameter of the structure in order to prevent saturation of the fill and minimise the
likelihood of the pipe plugging from floating debris.
94
Figure 8.13: Headwater depth and capacity for corrugated metal pipe culverts with inlet
control (Adapted from FHWA 1998)
95
Figure 8.14: Headwater depth and capacity for concrete pipe culverts with inlet control.
(Adapted from FHWA, 1998)
96
Figure 8.15: Headwater depth and capacity for concrete box culverts with inlet control.
(Adapted from FHWA, 1998)
97
Simplified formulae method

The use of formulae (Table 8.8) is preferred by some designers to the use of the Nomograms
shown above. The formulae are based on the following assumptions:
 Inlet Control;

0
Wingwall Angle = 45 ;
 Vertical Headwall.
Table 8.8: Simplified Formulae for calculation of discharge capacity

3
Discharge Capacity Q (m /s) (with inlet control)
Type
Hw/D=1.00 Hw/D=1.25 Hw/D=1.50
Concrete Pipe 1.3 x D2.5 1.9 x D2.5 2.2 x D2.5
Corrugated Metal Pipe 1.1 x D2.5 1.6 x D2.5 1.8 x D2.5
Arch Culvert (semi-
2.3 x H2.5 3.4 x H2.5 4.0 x H2.5
circular)
Box Culvert 1.5 x B x H1.5 2.1 x B x H1.5 2.5 x B x H1.5
D: diameter of a pipe culvert (m) B: width of a box culvert (m)
Hw: headwater height (m) H: height of a box/arch culvert (m)
Tables for the hydraulic design of pipes sewers and channels Volumes I & II, 7th edition,
published by HR Wallingford (UK), may also be used where different conditions exist, or
greater accuracy is needed. More detailed information can also be found in FHWA Manual
HDS-5, Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts, 1998.
8.5.3 Pipe options

There are many different options available to the designer for constructing culvert pipes.
Precast pipes
Precast pipes are usually manufactured in a central yard and are then transported to site.
This method of construction has the advantage that the quality control for the construction of
the pipe is likely to be improved, but the two main disadvantages are the increased
transportation costs (as illustrated in Figure 8.16) in bringing the pipes to site and the careful
transportation and handling required to ensure the pipes are not damaged.
Figure 8.16: Transportation issues
98
Concrete pipes should preferably be transported on end on a bed of sand, to minimise the
risk of damage. Particular care is required in laying and jointing the pipes to ensure good
support to the lower third of the pipe circumference.
In situ construction
Pipes constructed in situ can be made from a variety of materials. Careful supervision will be
required on site to ensure that the pipes are manufactured to sufficient quality but the
transportation costs may be reduced when compared with precast pipes if their transport
distances are substantial.
Masonry culverts (arch and box)
Masonry culverts are generally constructed as box culverts for small sizes and arch culverts
for larger sizes (Figure 8.17). There are three stages to constructing a wall and slab box
culvert:
 Excavation and construction of the base;
 Construction of the walls;
 Laying the roof slab and backfilling the culvert.
The culverts can be constructed with different top slabs depending on the size of the culvert.
These slabs may be masonry, timber or precast concrete. The advantages and
disadvantages of masonry culverts are shown in Table 8.9.
Figure 8.17: Masonry culverts
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Table 8.9: Masonry culverts
 The use of locally available material reduces  Arched culverts require dressed stone
the cost of construction bricks, blocks or mortared jointing
 Simplicity of construction
 Low level of maintenance required
 Range of options available for the top slab
on box culverts
Concrete arch or box culverts

These can be constructed using the same principles as masonry culverts. Spans larger than
800mm will require reinforcement design and detailing.
Timber Culverts
Option 1: Timber barrel
Timber barrel culverts are typically manufactured from shaped, treated wooden planks with
tongue and groove joints held in position by steel bands or wire. Once the culvert is in place
and backfilled, the steel bands are no longer required because the ground material holds the
pieces of the culvert in position. The bands can therefore rust away after the culvert has been
placed without the culvert collapsing. The advantages and disadvantages of these types of
culverts are shown in Table 8.10.
Table 8.10: Timber barrel culverts
 Can provide cheap culvert if timber widely  Professional wood treatment facilities
available; required.
 Culverts can be assembled at site allowing
larger numbers to be transported on a lorry;
 Design life is over 25 years with treated
wood;
 They are light and easy to handle;
 Culverts can withstand small ground
movements and settlement without losing
their structural integrity;
 Short working life if wood is badly treated.
Option 2: Timber log culverts

A simple and quick method for constructing small relief culverts can be to use timber logs
(see Figure 8.18). These culverts will usually be unlined, bare earth and will only
accommodate slow flows (up to 1 m/s). Figure 8.15 shows the key dimensional requirements
for these types of culvert. This type of construction should only be viewed as a temporary
culvert unless the timber is properly treated. It can be a useful construction method for
emergency maintenance during the rainy season.
100
Figure 8.18. Timber log culvert details
Table 8.11: Timber log culverts
 Very quick and cheap to construct;  Very short life, especially if timber is
 Minimal skills required for construction. untreated;
 Unlined ditch very susceptible to scour
during heavy rains.
Cast in-situ concrete culverts

These culverts use a timber or steel mould to form the pipe of the culvert. A rubble concrete
mixture is used to form the foundation of the pipe. The mould is then placed in position and
lean mix concrete poured around the culvert mould. Once the concrete has set the mould is
collapsed and removed. The advantages and disadvantages of a in-situ cast culvert are given
in Table 8.12.
Table 8.12: Cast in-situ concrete culverts
 Low cost as mould can be reused many  Poor life expectancy if rubble concrete
times; is not well placed or compacted.
 Quick construction methods;
 Low cement requirements due to use of
rubble concrete.
101
Precast unreinforced concrete culverts

These culverts are usually manufactured in a casting yard and brought to site in units. They
need to be manufactured under conditions of good quality control to ensure that they have
sufficient strength. This option is only worth considering for high production numbers where a
large number of culverts will be constructed in the same area. The advantages and
disadvantages are shown in Table 8.13.
Table 8.13: Precast unreinforced concrete culverts
 The quality of the pipe can be ensured;  High cost for small batches;
 Do not require steel reinforcement;  Careful transportation required to ensure
 Very good performance when bedding they are not damaged or broken;
and back filling has been carried out  Not suitable if site access route is in bad
well; condition;
 Pipes up to 900mm dia. can be man  High transport costs due to their shape
handled by labour alone;  Diameters greater than 900mm dia.
 Economic where a large number of cannot be made due to strength and
identical pipes are required. handling problems;
 Pipe lengths are restricted to 1m to
ensure that they can be handled by
labour alone.
Steel culverts
Steel culverts will usually be constructed from pre-bent corrugated sheets, which are bolted
together on site. They can be very expensive if a steel manufacturing capability is not
available locally in country. Imported steel culverts consume scarce foreign exchange
resources. Their advantages and disadvantages are shown in Table 8.14.
Table 8.14: Steel culverts
 The steel culverts can withstand small  Requires the transport and possible
ground movements; import of expensive steel sheets;
 Light sections are easy to handle and  Secure storage of the sheets required to
install; prevent theft;
 The components for a number of  Particularly susceptible to early failure on
culverts can be transported on one unpaved roads without a rigorous
truck. maintenance regime that will ensure
minimum cover to the steel pipe is
maintained.
8.5.4 Pipe inlets

The general design of headwalls and wingwalls is discussed elsewhere in this Chapter.
However, there are two design cases of pipe inlets that require special attention:
 Pipes on steep slopes;
102
 Pipes, which are transferring large volumes of storm water from a side drain to the
other side of the road.
Pipes on steep slopes

If the culvert is located on steeply sloping ground the overall height drop across the culvert
may need to be much steeper than 5%. If this case occurs the culvert should be designed for
the maximum desirable invert slope (5%) and a drop inlet used to achieve this. This will
reduce the energy of the water leaving the culvert thereby preventing extensive scour. Drop
inlets can also be used for relief culverts on long downhill lengths of side drain (see Figure
8.19).
Figure 8.19: Drop inlet on relief culvert

Pipes transferring large water volumes
One of the most important design rules when constructing a road water structure is to disrupt
the flow as little as possible. Unfortunately this will usually not be possible for a culvert that is
transferring water from a side drain to the opposite side of the road. The water must make an
abrupt right angle change in direction to enter the culvert. For large flows there will therefore
be a large amount of turbulence in the water and the potential for scour will be high. Figure
8.20 indicates the following key features in the inlet design for large flows:
 Rounded wingwalls to ‘guide’ water into pipe;
 Sloping wingwall on inside radius;
 Lined channel sides and base which extend 5m up the channel;
 Cut-off wall provided at the edge of the inlet;
Consider a box culvert option because this will cause less restriction and turbulence.
Figure 8.20: L-shaped inlet
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8.5.5 Pipe bedding and cover arrangements

If the culvert is constructed from precast units it will be necessary to place a bedding material,
such as sand, on the foundation to remove any irregularities and ensure an even support to
the base of the precast units. The support for the pipe should be either 250mm of compacted
crushed stone, granular material (with a maximum stone size of 30mm) or 150mm concrete
slab (see Figure 8.21). If the preferred design option is a masonry culvert the foundation for
the walls can be extended to form the base of the culvert.
Figure 8.21: Pipe, granular bedding and cover

Backfilling around the culvert is one of the most important stages in the construction (Plate
11). The quality of the backfilling will determine the strength of a culvert to resist vehicle
loads above it. The designer should specify the material to be used to backfill around the
culvert which should be easy to compact and well graded to promote drainage. Stones larger
than 30mm should not be included in the backfill as they may damage the culvert. The
excavated material from the culvert construction may be used for backfilling if it meets these
criteria.
As material is backfilled around the culvert it should be well compacted in layers of 150mm.
Particular care should be taken for the lower half of the pipe to ensure:
 The material under the pipe is compacted with hand rammers;
 Hand rammers do not damage the culvert;
 The pipe is held at the correct level and does not ‘rise’;
 Each side of the culvert is backfilled at the same rate to ensure that the culvert is not
pushed out of line.
104
The minimum desirable cover from the top of a culvert to the road surface should be the same
as the diameter of the culvert. If the conditions do not permit this depth of cover it may be
reduced to 75% of the pipe diameter.
The cover can be reduced to half the culvert’s diameter if the concrete bed, haunch and
surround are cast as shown in Figure 8.22. The remaining cover should be good quality
standard fill material and the road should be surfaced with gravel or other material as
appropriate.
Figure 8.22: Pipe arrangement with minimum cover
8.5.6 Multiple culverts and vented fords

The design principles for multiple culverts and vented fords are the same as single bore
culverts. Where more than one pipe is to be installed the minimum space between the
centreline of adjacent pipes should be at least 2 pipe diameters. Where space restrictions
require the installation of pipes at closer spacing, the factors in Table 8.15 should be used to
reduce the flow rates through the pipes derived previously in this chapter.
Table 8.15: Pipe spacing and flow reduction factors
Spacing between pipe centres Flow reduction factor

More than 2.0 pipe diameters 1.0
1.5 - 2.0 pipe diameters 0.9
Less than 1.5 pipe diameters Due to difficulties in ensuring adequate compaction
under and between pipes, bedding of lean concrete
should be used in these circumstances.
105
The flow capacity of different culvert shapes and diameters should be checked according to
the characteristics of the site. The number and size of pipes should then be chosen to ensure
that the sum of all the individual pipe flows is greater than the design flow.
The design flow for a multi-bore culvert should be taken to be the maximum flood flow. As
vented fords are designed to be overtopped during peak flows the pipes should be designed
to pass the normal flow and small floods. Overtopping will only occur for the higher flow rates
and the designer will have to decide what level of flow the pipes will pass before overtopping
occurs. The overtopping flow will depend on the duration, size and regularity of high flows and
the total number of pipes that can be fitted into the structure.
This Manual does not cover the design of box culvert options. For these refer to the current
MRB Bridge Design Manual and publications such as TRL Overseas Road Note 9.
8.6 Headwalls and Wingwalls

8.6.1 Culverts
Headwalls and small wingwalls are required at each end of a culvert and serve a number of
different purposes:
 They direct the water in or out of the culvert;
 They retain the soil around the culvert openings;
 They prevent erosion near the culvert and seepage around the pipe, which causes
settlement.
The headwall can be positioned at different places in the road verge or embankment as
Figure 8.23: Possible culvert headwall positions

The closer the headwall is placed to the road on an embankment the larger and more
expensive it will be. The most economical solution for headwall design will be to make it as
small as possible. Although a small headwall will require a longer culvert, the overall cost of
the structure will normally be smaller. If, due to special circumstances at a proposed culvert
site, a large headwall with wingwalls is required, it should be designed as a bridge wingwall.
Where a road is not on an embankment the size of the headwall will be small regardless of
position. In this case the position of the headwalls will be determined by the road width and
any requirements of national standards. The headwalls should be positioned at least 1 metre
106
beyond the edge of the carriageway width to prevent a restriction in the road and reduce the
possibility of vehicle collisions (see Figure 8.24).
Figure 8.24: Position of culvert headwalls

Headwalls should project above the road surface by 300mm and be painted white so that they
are visible to drivers. There are a number of different layout options for culvert headwalls
which are shown in Figure 8.25.
This arrangement can be used This arrangement should be used Where the road is on an
for simple low flow relief for larger flows instead of the embankment it is essential that
culverts. It is the cheapest option simple arrangement. The wingwalls be provided to prevent
but prone to erosion for larger wingwalls increase the protection the risk of water seepage and
flows. from erosion. subsidence of the embankment.
This arrangement is likely to be the
most economical.
Figure 8.25: Headwall and wingwall arrangements
107
Headwall with drop inlet: This arrangement should be used when the road is on a steep
side slope to reduce the invert slope of the culvert (see Section 8.5.4).
Headwall with L inlet: This arrangement should be used where the road is on a gradient and
water is to be transferred from the carriageway side drain on the high side of the road (see
previous pipe inlets section 8.16.4).
Headwall and adjacent works must be designed so that the culverts can be de-silted manually
under maintenance arrangements. This can be difficult with a drop inlet arrangement.
8.6.2 Wingwalls - Larger structures

Wingwalls are used to retain the soil behind the abutments of bridges, to help guide flows
through the structure in flood conditions, and to safely retain the backfill material without risk
of erosion. There are two basic reference layouts for wingwalls, either parallel to the road or
parallel to the watercourse (see Table 8.16). However, wingwalls are usually constructed at
an angle between these two arrangements. Wingwalls should always be constructed to the
toe (bottom) of the slope and not part way down. Wingwalls that do not extend to the bottom
of the slope are likely to suffer from erosion around the ends.
Table 8.16: Wingwalls
Wingwalls parallel to water course Wingwalls parallel to road

Foundations can be stepped but are harder to
Foundations on same level.
construct.
Wall more susceptible to erosion from
Wall mostly away from watercourse.
watercourse.
Wall size smaller than wall parallel to road. Wall size longer than wall parallel to watercourse.
Larger amount of fill to be moved, placed and Reduced amount of fill required to be moved,
compacted. placed and compacted
The relative availability and cost of fill material and raw materials to construct the wingwalls
will determine the most appropriate arrangement. In general, to ensure the cheapest option,
the design should ensure the smallest wingwalls are chosen for the structure and its particular
location. Where wingwalls are chosen that run parallel to the road it is necessary to take
suitable measures to prevent water in the carriageway side drains causing erosion around the
wall at their outfall. This usually requires a lined channel or cascade at the base of the
wingwall. The two main factors affecting the overall design of a wingwall are the construction
material and the bearing capacity of the soil.
8.6.3 Stone, brick and blockwork walls

Stone, brick and blockwork walls should be built with a tapering back face to withstand the
pressure exerted by the fill material (see Figure 8.26). The size of the wall will depend on its
height, the bearing capacity of the soil, and if there is any surcharge (additional fill material
above the wall). Any material used in the wall should meet the requirements of Chapter 7.
108
Figure 8.26: Stone, brick or blockwork wall with and without sloping backfill
(surcharge)
Tables 8.17 and 8.18 provide a guide to the height of the wingwall with and without surcharge
related to the bearing capacity of the soil and the width of the base.
Table 8.17: Height of wingwall without surcharge
H- Height of wingwall Bearing capacity of the soil

(without surcharge) Medium
Low (75-125kPa) High (>250kPa)
(125-250kPa)
L - Width of the base (mm)
1000 500 500 500

1500 900 800 800
2000 1700 1150 1150
2500 *Construction not 1450 1450
3000 possible without ground 1750 1750
improvement
3500 2400 2000
4000 3200 2300
4500 4200 2600
Notes:
* Ground improvement increases the bearing capacity of the soil through the addition of other materials to
the ground eg gravel or cement – this is outside the scope of this Manual.
Where wingwalls are constructed on medium or high bearing capacity soil, parallel to the road, and are
only used to retain road fill material to a height of up to 3 metres the wall may be constructed as follows:
1. Top of the wall to be 500mm wide
2. Vertical front face and 1:4 sloping back face (1 horizontal: 4 vertical)
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Table 8.18: Height of wingwall with surcharge
Bearing capacity of the soil

H- Height of
Medium
wingwall (with Low (75-125kPa) High (>250kPa)
(125-250kPa)
surcharge)
L- Width of the base (mm)
1000 1000 950 950
1500 1500 1200 1200
2000 2000 1450 1450
2500 *Construction not 1750 1750
3000 possible without ground 2350 2000
improvement
3500 3200 2250
4000 4200 2550
Notes:
* Ground improvement increases the bearing capacity of the soil through the addition of other materials to the ground
e.g. gravel or cement – this is outside the scope of this Manual.
Where wingwalls are constructed on medium or high bearing capacity soil parallel to the road and are only used to
retain road fill material to a height of up to 3 metres, the wall may be constructed as follows:
1. Top of the wall to be 500mm wide
2. Vertical front face and 1:4 sloping back face (1 horizontal: 4 vertical)
8.6.4 Gabion baskets

Gabion baskets may be used in areas where stones are available (Figure 8.27).
In some areas there may be a problem of persons removing wire from the gabion baskets for
other construction purposes. If consultations through community groups cannot resolve this
problem then more robust steel mesh gabions may need to be considered.
Figure 8.27: Gabion baskets for walls
110
Table 8.19 assumes that the gabion baskets have been filled according to the criteria outlined
in Chapter 7 and have a height and width of 1 metre.
Table 8.19: Height and width of gabion walls
Bearing capacity Height Width of gabion wall at height ‘n’ above base
of soil of wall
(m)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
50 - 125 kPa 1.5 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 1 1
2.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1 1 1
3 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1 1 1
3.5 2 2 2 1.5 1.5 1 1 1
>125 kPa 1.5 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 1 1
2.5 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 1.5 1.5 1 1 1 1 1
3.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1 1 1 1 1
4 2 2 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1 1 1
8.6.5 Timber walls

Felled timber tree trunks as described in Section 7.3 can be used to form a wingwall.
8.7 Aprons
An apron is required at the inlet and outlet of culverts and downstream of drifts and vented
fords to prevent erosion. As the water flows out of or off a structure it will tend to erode the
watercourse downstream causing undercutting of the structure. Refer to the section on cut-off
walls earlier in this Chapter. Aprons should be constructed from a material which is less
susceptible to erosion than the natural material in the streambed.
8.7.1 Drift aprons

Where the discharge velocity across the drift is less than 1.2m/s, which may be experienced
for relief drifts, a coarse gravel layer (10mm) will provide sufficient protection downstream of
the drift. For discharge velocities greater than 1.2m/s more substantial protection will be
required using larger stones. This is discussed in the section on downstream protection. The
width of the apron should be at least half the width of the drift and extend across the
watercourse for the whole length of the drift.
8.7.2 Culvert aprons

Aprons should be provided at both the inlet and outlet of culverts (see Figure 8.28). They
should extend the full width between the headwall and any wingwalls. If the culvert does not
have wingwalls the apron should be twice the width of the culvert pipe diameter. The apron
should also extend a minimum of 1.5 times the culvert diameter beyond the end of the pipe.
Cut-off walls should also be provided at the edge of all apron slabs. The choice of apron
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construction is likely to depend on the type of material used for construction of the culvert. It
may be constructed from gabion baskets, cemented masonry or concrete.
Dim A – Distance between wingwalls or 2 x culvert dia. for culvert without wingwalls,
Dim B – 2x culvert dia.
Figure 8.28: Culvert apron
8.7.3 Vented ford aprons

The apron for vented fords should extend the whole length of the structure including
downstream of the approach ramps to the maximum design level flood. The other design
requirements for vented ford aprons are the same as culvert aprons.
8.8 Approach Ramps

Ideally crossings should not have approaches steeper than 10% (See Section
4.3.1).However, steeper approaches can be provided if governed by the local terrain.
Approaches steeper than 10% will require the running surface to have a thin concrete or
cement bound masonry slab to allow vehicles to maintain traction particularly during wet
periods. The slab should be at least 150mm thick and be constructed on a sand or compacted
masonry/aggregate base.
The approach way is subjected to similar erosion characteristics as the main structure. It is
therefore necessary to surface the approach ways with the same material as the main
structure, at least to the height of the maximum flood level, to ensure damage does not occur.
If the structure is designed to be overtopped the approach ways must be constructed higher
than the maximum flood level to ensure that the water does not erode around the ends of the
structure leaving it inaccessible.
It is also necessary to provide cut-off walls (Section 8.4) along the sides of the approach ways
to protect against scour. The sides of the approach ways should be faced to ensure erosion
does not occur. They may be constructed from:
 Masonry walls (most appropriate for higher walls);
 Gabion baskets;
 Concrete walls (for low walls up to 0.5 metre);
 Timber logs (high maintenance required).
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The design of these walls will be similar to the design of wingwalls described in Section 8.6.
The fill material in the approach way should be chosen from one of the three options shown in
Table 8.20.
Table 8.20: Fill material in the approach way
Well compacted sand and Lean concrete mix with

Rubble masonry
gravel plums
Sand and gravel may be If a well-graded mix of sand and A concrete mix of 1:4:8
readily available in the gravel is not available it may be (cement, sand and aggregate)
watercourse around the more economic to use rubble can be used with large plums
crossing site. These may be masonry rather than breaking up to 200mm in size. This
stockpiled during the initial rocks to create a well graded option will have the highest
stages of construction by material. Broken man-made cement requirement, and hence
labour. The material to be used bricks can be used in addition to, cost. However, it may be the
as a fill should be well graded or instead of, natural stone most beneficial fill option if there
and placed in 100mm layers provided they meet the are small quantities of sand,
which are well compacted requirements outlined in chapter aggregate and large stone near
before subsequent layers are 7. Rubble masonry should be the bridge site.
placed. bound together with a 1:8
cement-sand mortar.
The running surface of the approach way should be designed as a structural slab of either
concrete or cement bonded stone paving. The slab should also have a 2-3% crossfall in the
direction of water flow to ensure that the deck drains quickly after rainfall.
Approach ways will be susceptible to scour from water flowing from the carriageway side
drains into the watercourse due to the increased slope. A lined channel should therefore be
provided at the edge of the approach way to ensure that erosion does not occur. The
approach ways (see Figure 8.29) should be constructed separately from the main structure to
allow for thermal expansion of the structure and slight ground movements, particularly for the
structural slab. If they were constructed integrally with the main structure, any slight
settlement or thermal effects could cause cracks in the structure which would weaken it
against damage from water. The approach ways therefore require an end wall and cut-off wall
next to the main structure. The gap between the two structures should be very small (no
greater than 10mm). The edges of the approach ways should be marked.
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Figure 8.29: Construction of approach ways
Figure 8.30 shows an example of an approach way cross-section with guide/kerb stones to
show drivers the location of the edge of the carriageway.
Figure 8.30: Approach way cross section
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8.9 Downstream Protection

Previous sections on scour indicated that it is likely that erosion of the watercourse will occur
around the structure due to a constriction of the water flow. The constriction causes the water
velocity to increase as it passes through/ over the structure and this high velocity can be
maintained well downstream of the structure. A previous section also discussed the use of
aprons downstream of a structure to prevent erosion and undercutting of the structure itself.
However, in small-constrained channels severe erosion may still occur after the apron,
particularly where the watercourse is on a gradient. It is therefore often necessary to provide
additional protection to the watercourse to reduce the velocity of the water and prevent
erosion.
For slow flowing water it is unlikely that any protection will be needed but for faster flowing
water the maximum allowable velocity will depend on the bed material and the amount of silt
or other material already being carried in the water.
Erosion can occur in any channel regardless of the presence of any structure. It is therefore
not possible to state how far downstream of a structure channel protection should extend.
However, the following issues should be taken into account:
 The general erodability of the bed, this will depend upon the type of channel material
and the gradient;
 The likelihood of damage to the structure if erosion occurs downstream;
 The potential effects of erosion on downstream areas (eg. damage to buildings or
farming land).
Maximum water flow velocities that can be tolerated without channel protection related to the
type of bed material are shown in Table 8.21.
There are many methods for providing protection to the watercourse. The choice of method
will depend on the availability or cost of different materials, the size of the watercourse and
level of protection required.
Table 8.21: Maximum water velocities
Maximum water velocities without channel protection

Bed material
Clear water Water carrying silt
Stiff clay 1 1.5
Volcanic ash 0.7 1
Silty soil / sandy clay 0.6 0.9
Fine sand / coarse silt 0.4 0.7
Sandy soil 0.5 0.7
Firm soil / coarse sand 0.7 1
Graded sand and gravel 1.2 1.5
Firm soil with silt and gravel 1 1.5
Gravel (5mm) 1.1 1.2
Gravel (10mm) 1.2 1.5
Course gravel (25mm) 1.5 1.9
Cobbles (50mm) 2 2.4
Cobbles (100mm) 3 3.5
Well established grass in good soil 1.8 2.4
Grass with exposed soil 1 1.8
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8.9.1 Rip-rap
Rip-rap is the name given to stones placed in the river bed to resist erosion. In order to be
effective the stones used should be large or heavy enough that they will not be washed away
during floods. Although rip-rap may appear to consist of random rocks it should be well
graded and placed as tightly as possible to improve its resistance to erosion. The rocks used
should also be strong and not likely to crumble. Angular rocks, in general, have the best
performance due to the interlock that is formed between rocks. Round rocks can be used if
they are not to be placed on the sides of a watercourse which has a gradient steeper than
1:4. Flat slab stones should also be avoided as they can be easily dislodged by the water
flow. Table 8.22 shows the sizes of stone that should be used for rip-rap. It should be possible
for one or two labourers to place the majority of the stones with the few remaining larger
stones being placed by a small labour gang.
Table 8.22: Stone sizes for rip-rap bed protection
Minimum % of
Thickness of rip-
Water velocity Rock size dia. Rock mass rock meeting
rap
(m/s) (m) (kg) specified
(m)
dimensions
0.40 100 0%
Less than 2.5 0.30 35 50 % 0.5
0.15 3 90 %
0.55 250 0%
2.5 - 3 0.40 100 50 % 0.75
0.20 10 90 %
0.90 500 0%
3-4 0.70 250 50 % 1.0
0.40 35 90 %
8.9.2 Masonry slabs

In areas where outlets from culverts are on a steep slope it may not be possible to place rip-
rap because it will be washed down the slope. Masonry slabs, cascades or channels may be
constructed on the steep section of the outfall to control erosion (Figure 8.31). As the water
velocity will be high it will be necessary to use mortar in the slab because hand pitched stones
are likely to be washed out. It will not be necessary to make the slab smooth: a rough slab will
help to reduce the energy in the water. Large stones which project above the standard level
may be fixed in the slab to create more turbulence to slow the water speed. Masonry
cascades or step structures can incorporate a series of ‘ponds’ or sumps to help dissipate
energy.
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Figure 8.31: Energy dissipating apron

In flatter areas, up to a 5% gradient, it should be possible for small watercourses to use hand
pitched masonry providing it is well placed with any large flat stones bedded on their edges.
8.9.3 Gabions
Gabion construction methods are discussed in some detail in Section 7.1.9. Gabions can be
used to protect the bottom or banks of a watercourse (see Figure 8.31). As the stones are
confined by the wire cages, much smaller stones than those used for rip-rap can be used.
The disadvantage of gabions is that they have the additional cost of the wire for the cages
when compared with rip-rap. However, the ability of single labourers to move and place the
stones may outweigh the cost of the wire. As gabions can be made in different sizes they can
be used for a wide range of different shaped watercourses. They can also withstand limited
ground movements and therefore accommodate any small changes in the riverbed. If the
bottom of the watercourse requires protection it will be possible to make a gabion that is only
200 or 500mm thick to form a mattress over the watercourse bed. Figure 8.32 shows two
methods for using gabions and mattresses for protecting the watercourse.
Figure 8.32: Gabion protection on steep banks
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Figure 8.33 Illustrates how gabion can be tied together to form a protective mattress on
slopes less than 1:2. The size of the gabions will depend on the velocity of the water flow. For
all flow velocities the smallest gabion used is 0.5 x 0.5 x 1m.
Figure 8.33: Gabion protection on shallow banks
Any mattresses in the bottom of the watercourse should be 200-300mm thick for water
velocities up to3m/s and 500mm thick for velocities over 3m/s. It is very important that they
are securely wired together to ensure that they do not slide down the bank and cause the
water to erode the watercourse banks behind them. The minimum size of the gabion baskets
makes this option suitable only for larger watercourses.
8.9.4 Vegetation
Vegetation is likely to be the best option for small watercourses because, once established, it
slows down the speed of the water flow and holds erodible soil together. It can also be a cost
effective protection method where suitable local plants are available. The use of vegetation to
control erosion is sometimes called bio-engineering. Bio-engineering covers a wide range of
techniques that use vegetation, which include the control of erosion and stabilisation of
engineering structures. This Manual discusses the use of bio- engineering to control erosion
downstream of water crossings. It is not sufficient to randomly plant any vegetation because
the conditions must be correct for the plants to grow and they must produce the desired anti-
erosion effect.
The most basic form of vegetation erosion control will be to allow the region’s natural grasses
to grow in the water channel. They may grow naturally without any assistance if they are
already well established in the channel. However, if some erosion has occurred in the channel
it may not be possible for the grass to establish itself without assistance. In these cases it will
be necessary to cultivate the grass in a nursery or near the site at the roadside (provided
vehicles or cattle will not damage it). Once the grass is established it can then be transplanted
into the water channel. The replanting may be by individual plants or by turfing techniques.
Natural fibre matting may also help to establish plant growth. The timing of the planting will be
dependent on the rainy season. Plants need to get established in the watercourse while there
is moisture in the soil. It may be necessary to regularly water the plants until they are
established in their final situation. However, they are not able to grow during periods when the
channel is full of water. It is unlikely that the grass will grow in the base of the watercourse if
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water is flowing throughout the year. In these cases it may be possible to plant the grass on
the edges of the channel and an aquatic plant in the base of the channel. The choice of plant
will, again, be based on local knowledge but it is likely that plants found in other watercourses
with similar conditions nearby will be the most appropriate. The local agricultural or botanical
institutions should be able to provide guidance on plant selection.
In areas where hand pitched stone is proposed to protect the channel downstream from a
culvert it may be reinforced with plants, rather than cement or mortar, to bind the stones
together.
Stones should be placed in the riverbed in the same manner as for standard hand pitched
stone slabs. Any small gaps that remain between the stones should then be filled with soil
and grass planted approximately 150mm apart. The exact distance will depend on the shapes
and gaps between the stones. When the grass is planted the workers should ensure that the
roots are deep enough to enter the soil beneath the stone pitching. In channels with
permanent water flow the grass should only be planted towards the sides of the channel
because it will be unable to grow under water in the centre of the channel.
Vetiver grass in the appropriate environment can be useful for soil stabilisation because it can
grow in a wide variety of soil conditions including those of very poor quality. It also develops a
fibrous and deep root system which is ideal for holding weak soil together and preventing
erosion. Vetiver grass has successfully been used to prevent erosion on steep roadside
banks and at the edges of engineering structures. The cultivated grass shoots are planted out
in the area prone to erosion. The spacing of each shoot will depend on the perceived erosion
risk and will vary between 100mm for high erosion areas and 200mm for lower risk areas.
8.9.5 Steep channels

In areas where water is flowing down steep hillsides and crossing a road through a culvert, it
is necessary to provide protection to the slope above and below the road. This is particularly
important when a road is winding up a hill and a watercourse crosses the road a number of
times where it is not possible to channel all the water down steep inclines at the hairpins.
Water flowing downhill has a large amount of energy which must be ‘lost’ if erosion is to be
prevented. The most appropriate method in these cases is to construct a step waterfall or
cascade to dissipate the energy (see Figure 8.34).
The photograph and diagram show a step waterfall made from gabion baskets, but it would
also be possible to construct the structure from masonry if available. Regardless of the
material chosen the structure should be built into the hillside by excavating the necessary
material. Care must be taken to ensure that the sides of the channel extend outwards far
enough to ensure that the water is contained in the channel.
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Figure 8.34: Gabion basket step waterfall
8.10 Drain Protection

Along each side of a road there should be a drain to assist in removing water from the
carriageway and transferring it into the nearest watercourse. In flat terrain these drains can be
earth or gravel lined however, where gradients are greater than 2% they will require
protection to prevent fast flowing water eroding the ditch. The most effective method of
preventing erosion is to use scour checks which are mini dams constructed in the drain.
These scour checks form barriers to the water flow causing silt to be collected behind each
scour check and hence forming a series of steps in the drain which help to dissipate the water
energy. Further guidance is provided in Chapter 9 of Volume 1 of this Manual.
8.11 Arches
It is often difficult to define the difference between large bore culverts and arch bridges.
Regardless of the name given to the structure, it will normally only be required where a road
crosses a well-defined watercourse and/or large flows are expected. This Manual defines a
large bore culvert as a structure with arches up to 2.5 metre diameter. There are two design
issues to be resolved if this type of structure is to be constructed.
 Some form of permanent wall will be required on the upstream and downstream sides
of the structure and on the base of the archway to retain the enclosed fill;
 A large amount of fill material will be required to complete the construction.
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8.11.1 Arch shape

An arch resists the dead weight and traffic loads by compressive forces in the arch ring. This
results in very large forces at each end of the arch which must be resisted by the foundations.
If the arch is not semi-circular these forces will have a horizontal component which is harder
for the foundations to resist than vertical forces alone. It is therefore recommended that only
semi-circular arches are used unless specialist engineering support is available for the
design.
The magnitude of the forces at the end of the semi-circular arch shown in Figure 8.35 will be
equal to half the total weight of the arch and fill material plus the weight of any traffic. The
design of semi-circular arches should allow for an element of horizontal loading particularly
during construction and placing of fill material. As the arch load will be concentrated in the
foundations at each end of the arch, these structures should only be built on ground which
has an adequate bearing capacity.
Figure 8.35: Arch forces
8.11.2 Bridge/culvert layout

Once the designer has chosen to construct an arch bridge/culvert he will have to decide on
the size of the arch or arches for the structure. The choice will depend on the particular
characteristics of each potential site but Table 8.23 highlights the different options. If the
designer wishes to use piers then reference should be made to a later section in this chapter,
which discusses the design of piers.
Table 8.23: Small versus large arches
Small arches Large arches

Formwork may require cranes to manoeuvre
Easier to construct using labour based techniques.
components into place.
Piers will be required to be constructed in the It may be possible to span the whole watercourse
water course in wider rivers as multiple spans may with one arch and avoid the need for piers in the
be required. watercourse (reducing scour problems).
The load exerted by a large arch will require
The bearing pressures exerted by the piers will be
ground conditions that can withstand very high
lower than for large arches.
bearing pressures.
8.11.3 Construction sequence

The first stage of building an arch structure is to construct the foundations and any piers that
may be required. The arch formwork can then be put in place and the arch constructed. The
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sidewall construction should only commence once the ring is fully completed. The placing of
fill material above the arch can proceed as the sidewalls are built. The placing of fill in layers
about 1m below the constructed fill height will serve as a platform for the artisans who are
laying the stonework for the sidewalls. Guide stones should be included on each side of the
deck to mark the edge of the carriageway. These could be integral with the sidewalls or be
formed with the deck surface. The options for the design of the deck surface will be the same
as for the approach ways discussed previously.
8.11.4 Arch materials

There are a number of different material options available for the construction of walls and
temporary or permanent shutters for an arched bridge. Some of these options can be used in
both the walls and arch while others are only suitable for forming the arch (see Figure 8.36).
Stone, bricks and blockwork can be used to form the walls of the structure. The choice of
material should be made based on the cost and availability of each material. Any material that
is used should conform to the specifications given in Chapter 7. If part of the wall is in the
water flow, the material should be hard enough to resist erosion. The walls should be
constructed with a tapered back face, similar to the characteristics of wingwalls discussed in
Section 8.17.
Figure 8.36: Use of tyre in formwork
Figure 8.37: Two course arch

Stone, bricks or blocks can also be used to construct the arch of the structure. Some form of
temporary framework will be required during construction. This temporary formwork is likely to
cost as much as the stonework used in the bridge itself. This option is therefore only likely to
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be viable if the formwork will be reused for additional spans or on other structures. The most
appropriate formwork will usually be a wooden frame covered in wooden planks or sheets,
although large truck tyres may be used to hold timber sheets in place for smaller arches.
Reusable steel formwork may also be used, especially if a large number of culverts of the
same diameter are to be constructed. Because the arch gets its strength from its uniform
shape with all components in compression on the arch face it is therefore important that the
formwork used is good quality and rigid to ensure that the arch does not deform during
construction.
All stonework used in an arch should be placed as shown in Figure 8.37. The arch should
consist of a minimum of two courses of masonry which should be interlocking where possible.
The minimum thickness of a semi-circular arch ring is shown in Table 8.24 below.
It is not possible to get the level of interleave shown in Figure 8.34 if using bricks. The
strength of brick arches can only be ensured if a good bond is achieved between the brick
and mortar. As the arch will be very strong and rigid once it has been completed there should
be a simple method for releasing the formwork without damage in order that it can be used
again.
Table 8.24: Minimum arch ring thickness
Arch span (m) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Ring thickness (m) 0.2 0.3 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.5
An alternative to stone or brickwork for the construction of the arch is to use corrugated metal
sheets (Figure 8.38). The advantage of these sheets is that they act as permanent formwork
to be left in place, becoming part of the finished structure and preventing the need to use
expensive temporary formwork. Although corrugated metal sheets are likely to have a higher
purchase and transport cost than stonework this additional cost may be offset by the
elimination of the temporary formwork and the possibility of using lower grade fill, lean
concrete or stonework and skills in the construction of the arch over the corrugated sheets.
Figure 8.38: Corrugated metal sheet arch
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Corrugated metal sheets will need to be pre-bent to the correct radius for the arch by the
supplier. They can then be bolted together at the bridge site to form the arch. To ensure that
the arch does not distort when the fill is placed and compacted, the foundations or piers
should restrain the corrugated metal, preventing it from flattening out. This requires a ledge to
be constructed to hold the sheets in place.
8.11.5 Fill options

There are three fill options that can be used in arch bridges which were discussed in the fills
for approach ways in the section shown in Table 8.19:
 Well compacted gravel;
 Weak concrete mix with plums;
 Rubble masonry.
8.12 Bridge Design

This section covers the design of bridge decks appropriate for use on low-volume (traffic)
roads in rural, often remote, and urban areas. It includes guidelines for the design and
construction of support abutments and piers. A bridge is basically an extension of a road,
albeit a more sophisticated and expensive part. At a cost of up to 100 times or more than that
of an equivalent length of road, however, it is important that careful attention be paid to its
design and construction. Bridges are critical elements of the road system. A bridge collapse
not only disrupts the serviceability of the whole of the road network but it can also endanger
life to a much greater extent than other components of the road.
In this section, as in the rest of this Manual, emphasis is placed on relatively low-technology,
labour based solutions because these tend to be the most economic and socially beneficial in
rural areas of South Sudan. The previous text in this Manual is generally applicable to small
structures both for single and two-lane traffic. The following pages generally cover bridges
spanning less than 10m and carrying a single lane of low volume traffic.
For single lane bridges, an appropriate deck width between kerbs or width limiting obstacles
is 4m which is sufficient for most commercial farm and public transport vehicles. This can be
reduced where certain vehicles are physically prevented from using the bridge and use is
confined to motorcycles, bicycles, pedestrians and animals. Extrapolation of the contents of
this Manual to larger bridge spans or for heavier traffic is not advisable. In these situations, a
full-engineered solution is required and reference should be made to the current MRB Bridge
Design Manual, Overseas Road Note 9 (TRL 2000) or other appropriate documents.
8.12.1 Choice of bridge site

An appropriate choice of location is important if an effective bridge solution is to be obtained
in terms of cost of construction, maintenance and service life. The ideal site would have low
flood levels, high solid banks (preferably rock), a non-skewed crossing and straight approach
roads. Normally, however, some compromise is required.
8.12.2 Loading
Consideration must be given to the type, volume and weight of vehicles which will use the
road. It is often stated “if a heavy truck can physically use the road, then at some stage it will”.
Generally, bridges must also be designed to carry the heaviest load expected. This is
particularly important for decks, less so for abutments and piers. Modern bridge loading
specifications are generally applicable to structures which experience high volumes of traffic
(>10,000 vehicles per day). The economics are such that bridges built to these specifications
cannot be justified for the majority of low cost roads used to service rural areas. Note that
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many low-volume rural roads in South Sudan rarely experience vehicles greater than 6
tonnes. This limit covers cars, light buses, pick-up trucks, cattle wagons, etc. In particular
circumstances this may not be sufficient, for example, near stone or gravel sources or
factories which produce heavy goods. Where heavier traffic (>6 tonnes gross vehicle weight)
is likely to be a regular occurrence, proper engineering design by suitably qualified engineers
is required. This is beyond the scope of this Manual and reference should be made to the
MRB Bridge Design Manual and documents such as Overseas Road Note 9 (TRL 2000).
8.12.3 Scour
The site of bridges must be carefully chosen to take local conditions into account to ensure
durability and functionality, including alignment. Chapter 5 gives details of the general
principles involved in site selection and appraisal. For bridges this is crucial if future problems
and maintenance costs are to be minimised. Peak Flow (or design flow) and peak flow
velocity calculations are detailed in Chapter 5 of this Manual. Design for scour prevention is
detailed in Section 8.1 of Chapter 8. The detrimental effects of scour on bridges and support
systems must be recognised; in fact this is the most likely cause of structural failure in bridges
around the world.
In most cases problems can be minimised, and often avoided completely, by appropriate
choice of form and location for the crossing.
8.12.4 Drainage
Every form of bridge requires some water management to ensure that water does not pond
on the deck. This could cause a traffic safety hazard, rotting of timber, and corrosion of
reinforcement or deterioration of masonry. For solid decks a transverse camber of 1 in 40 and
a 1 in 100 longitudinal fall is sufficient to prevent ponding. Where kerbs are present, some
means of disposing of water from the deck is required. For timber decks, a 20mm gap
between planks is sufficient to allow adequate drainage. For solid decks, scuppers should be
considered and should be carefully located and detailed to discharge excess water through
the deck without causing erosion, staining or maintenance problems. The careful detailing of
roadside drainage outfalls at the bridge site is essential to avoid erosion problems.
8.12.5 Maintenance
In bridge design there is a trade-off between initial construction cost and on-going
maintenance costs, and bridges which are cheapest to build can end up being the most
expensive when whole life costs are considered. Maintenance of a bridge must be considered
at the design and construction phase. The designer should make allowances for access for
inspection and should recommend a maintenance plan which includes extent and frequency
of inspection and any routine works required. These maintenance costs and their practical
arrangements should always be considered when selecting the preferred design solution.
In general, it is a good idea to design bridges to minimise future maintenance actions and
costs. This is because maintenance is often neglected, particularly in rural areas where traffic
levels are low and financial/physical resources and logistics may be severely constrained or
challenging. It should be remembered that routine maintenance will always be required. This
involves regular brief inspections on an annual basis and including preventative maintenance
such as clearing of drains and removal of debris or garbage. This gives a clear indication of
the performance of the bridge and the progress of any deterioration. Provided adequate
guidance and a means of recording the results of the inspection are provided, these
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inspections do not require qualified engineers. However, a more detailed inspection at

intervals of about seven years by a qualified engineer is recommended. The detailed cost of
the bridge structure options should include the expected costs of the maintenance regime
inspections over the design life of the structure in present day costs, and also an estimate of
the likely routine maintenance activities. These should be estimated from maintenance
records for existing similar structures.
Abutments and piers are often constructed within the watercourse. These should be designed
and constructed to keep to an absolute minimum their effect on water flow. This minimises the
possibility of scour and helps to avoid expensive maintenance work.
8.12.6 Choice of structure

The selection of structure type is discussed in Chapter 4.
8.12.7 Choice of materials and form of construction

The general properties of construction materials and how to identify and evaluate them are
outlined in Chapter 7. For bridges, as for other road structures, the choice depends primarily
on local conditions and on the availability of materials and labour and the costs of the feasible
options. However, greater care is required in the selection of appropriate materials for bridge
structures because the materials will be called upon to take greater loads and local
weaknesses or defects may lead to total collapse of the bridge.
Reinforced concrete is generally considered to be the most economic material for
construction of bridge spans up to 30m. This is because of the good durability characteristics
and low maintenance costs. However, while well-constructed concrete is very durable and
requires very little maintenance, construction requires a high level of technical skill as well as
the availability of good quality materials. The guidelines in Chapter 7 must be followed if good
quality structural concrete is required. Bad site practice and poor workmanship can lead to a
very poor structure which may lack long term stability and may collapse. Typical faults include
use of dirty water, sand and aggregate; inadequate mixing; poor placing and compacting of
concrete; inaccurate fixing and positioning of reinforcement or formwork; and storing cement
in humid conditions. Mix design (i.e. the proportions of cement, sand, coarse aggregate and
materials to be used) is very sensitive to mistakes. Labourers often do not realise the
consequences of poor practice and close supervision should always be carried out when
structural grade concrete is required. If there are local shortages of formwork, steel fixing and
structural concreting skills (which often have to be imported into a rural area), it may be more
appropriate to adopt designs that utilise locally available building skills such as carpentry and
masonry.
Each region tends to have its own local construction artisans (e.g. blacksmiths, carpenters
and stonemasons), and materials (stone, brick, wood and gravel). These will affect the
economics, and local resources should be used where possible, although other factors may
also influence the final choice, for example, a local policy may influence preferences. The
construction of stone or brick masonry arch bridges is labour intensive but these are the most
durable and, arguably, the most aesthetically pleasing bridge forms. Simple arches are also
technically the simplest form of bridge structure to construct with relatively limited supervision
requirements. If suitable materials and stonemasons are available, this may be the most
effective long-term solution.
Timber as a primary structural material has its advantages. Its low weight, low cost, general
availability, and ease of construction make it attractive in many remote situations where it is
grown locally. Timber can be assembled using non-skilled labour and in adverse weather
126
conditions. It requires some protection against deterioration and insects, particularly in hot
humid climates. Timber requires deeper sections than steel or concrete, mainly because of its
lower stiffness. Experience in North America, where there are many timber bridges, suggests
an average life of 50 years, although with good maintenance, the life can be considerably
greater.
As timber is light it can easily be washed or blown away. All timber decks should be tied down
at supports and these fixings should be inspected at regular intervals. Timber is easily set on
fire, either by accident or maliciously. Garbage, driftwood, weeds, etc. should not be allowed
to accumulate under the structure. See Chapter 7 for more details including tests to evaluate
prospective timber sources.
Durable local stone in compression is the most economical material of construction when
whole life maintenance costs are included. General properties of different stone are given in
Chapter 7. Alternatively bricks can be used but for bridge structures it is important that they
are consistent in strength and quality. Chapter 7 gives some background on the expected
properties of locally produced bricks.
8.12.8 Foundations
Foundations for piers and abutments are discussed earlier in this chapter. Bridges are usually
2
constructed on sub-soil with an allowable bearing capacity greater than 300kN/mm . This is
easily achieved in gravel, compacted sand and strong clay. A simple check to indicate this
minimum capacity is:
 A man’s weight bearing on a 30mm diameter bar only penetrates 100mm;
 A 2m rod driven into the ground with a 3kg hammer experiences increasing
resistance.
On softer soils a bridge may not be appropriate and another site or form of structure should
be considered. Bridges can be constructed on very soft soils using piles. Timber piles can be
driven using fairly rudimentary equipment and manual or animal power. Where piles are used,
design and supervision should always be carried out by a suitably qualified engineer. Where
bearing capacity is limited, it should be noted that gabion abutments are lighter than concrete
and spread the load well.
8.12.9 Arch bridges

Arch bridges usually provide the best solution in consideration of the level of maintenance
required. This Manual is appropriate only for spans less than 10m. Section 8.11 deals with
large bore culverts and provides general information on the construction of masonry arch
structures. The following paragraphs refer to arch bridges appropriate for low volume roads
suitable for pedestrians and vehicles less than 10 tonnes.
The key elements of an arch bridge are shown in Figure 8.39. The wedge shaped blocks,
stones or bricks which form the barrel or ring of the arch are called voussoirs. These are
usually placed symmetrically around a centre stone or key-stone. In fact, the key-stone has
no special function and is an aesthetic rather than a structural requirement. The stone block in
the abutment on which the arch barrel sits is called a skewback and the surface between the
skewback and the end of the arch barrel is called the springing (see Figure 8.39 below). The
highest point of the arch is called the crown and the lower sections are the haunches. The
upper and lower boundary lines of the arch ring are called the extrados and intrados
respectively. The outer walls which retain the fill are the spandrel walls and they become the
wingwalls at either side of the arch.
127
Figure 8.39: Arch bridge details
Arches can be constructed using any good quality stone or brick. Wedge shaped stone can
be used without mortar but it is more common to use regular shaped rectangular stone or
brick placed with a good quality mortar forming the slightly wedge shaped joints between
each unit. The use of mortar can reduce the stresses in the stone by as much as 30% and
should always be used if possible. If bricks are used, a high standard is required; they must
be fired to a good engineering quality and be consistent in shape and strength.
Arch bridges are heavy structures and care should be taken to ensure that the foundation has
sufficient bearing capacity. Foundations are usually relatively shallow spread footings or onto
solid rock where this exists at the springing. It is essential that there is sufficient resistance in
the abutments to resist the substantial horizontal spreading forces inherent in an arch design.
Excavation must be taken down to firm material. In soft soils, timber, concrete or steel piles
may be required but these are beyond the scope of this Manual. A cofferdam can be used to
provide a temporary dry working area.
Piers in multi-span arch structures are usually thick structural components with widths about
25% of the arch span. These are massive enough so that individual arches of multi-arch
bridges are self-supporting. Piers can be made using a double outer layer of bricks or blocks
and the cavity filled with clay or rubble. However, it is good practice to make the piers of solid
masonry where possible, particularly for smaller bridges.
Details on arch construction and formwork given in Section 8.11.4 also hold true for arch
bridge construction.
To avoid having supports in the riverbed, formwork arching between the abutments can be
used but this would not usually be required for small span arches of normal height.
As access to the riverbed may be required for a long period of time, arches may not be
suitable where floods occur frequently.
Arch bridges are suitable where high clearances are required. As the section above suggests,
the simplest arch shape is a semi-circle, which avoids horizontal thrust forces at the
springings. It also provides maximum headroom and simplifies the geometric layout. Other
shapes such as ellipses are used to reduce the height of large span bridges; these are
considered to have a potential weakness at the quarter points. Any arch form where the ring
is not vertical at the support will induce horizontal forces in the abutments or piers, which
must be resisted.
128
The thickness of the ring or barrel of the arch is the main factor affecting the strength of a
well-constructed bridge. Small arches may be built using a single layer of bricks laid radially
providing a ring thickness of 215mm for a standard brick size. For larger arches the ring
thicknesses shown in Table 8.24 should be followed. Because of the arch shape, the
thickness of the mortar will vary through the depth of the ring. Most arches are made using
two or more concentric rings with mortar providing the only bond. A header or stretcher bond
may also be used, i.e. a brick laid radially to provide a key between the rings. For larger
spans the number of rings can be increased towards the springings. It is recommended that
skewed arches are avoided.
Once the arch ring has been completed the fill material is put in place. A large amount of fill is
required. Any local material of consistent quality can be used, for example, the material
excavated during the construction of the foundations. Strength is not a requirement, its only
function being to distribute the load uniformly to the arch barrel. However, well-compacted fill
can add considerably to the strength of an arch bridge. (Refer to the section on approach
ways for appropriate materials and compaction requirements). A well-drained granular fill is
the best material, being flexible enough to allow the bridge to tolerate some degree of
movement. It is recommended that the arch formwork is only removed once all the fill material
is in place.
For brick arches it is also recommended that the formwork be removed after the mortar has
fully hardened (after about seven days) to avoid distortion of the arch while the mortar is still
soft. For stone arches, this period can be reduced.
Spandrel and wingwalls retain the fill material and stiffen the arch ring at its edges. They
should be thickened at the base to provide better stability. For larger spans it may be helpful
to have wingwalls sloped outwards in plan for extra stability.
8.12.10 Deck
The deck, or superstructure, is that part of a bridge which carries the roadway. Its function is
to transmit the load safely to the abutments and piers without damage to the bridge structure
or undue distortion of the deck. For bridges with spans less than 10m, the only loads that
need to be considered are the dead load of the deck itself, including parapets and any other
bridge “furniture”, and the live load due to traffic or pedestrians.
It is always a good idea to carry out a design check if possible. A simple analysis can be
carried out assuming the deck is a simply supported beam. The loading to be used should
consist of the heaviest vehicle likely to use the bridge and a uniformly distributed load of
2
5kN/m of deck area to represent pedestrian loading (including cycles and animals). The
maximum expected stresses can be obtained and compared with the strength of the material
used. Maximum deflections can also be calculated once the deck details have been
established. In general, it is a good idea to limit the maximum expected deflection to 1/100th
of the span to avoid damage at the deck joints.
The deck can take many structural forms depending on local conditions and availability of
materials and labour. Arch bridges have been described in Section 8.10; other types of
bridges include reinforced concrete slab bridges, beam bridges (reinforced concrete, timber,
steel), and truss bridges (timber or steel). The following gives general information on how
different materials can be used to provide low cost bridge decks.
Material - concrete
Precast concrete beams are likely to be the most economical construction material. However,
for small spans (<6m) simple cast in situ reinforced concrete slabs are likely to be the most
economical solution. For larger spans beams will generally be required. A span to depth ratio
129
of about 12 will generally be sufficient, although decks should not be constructed less than
300mm thick. As previously mentioned, reinforced concrete is a material requiring certain
technical expertise and requires care in construction if an effective structural material is to be
produced. Best practice as described above should always be followed and supervision of
unskilled workers is necessary if structural grade concrete is to be produced. Reference
should be made to the current MRB Bridge Design Manual and Overseas Road Note 9 (TRL
2000) for further information.
Material – timber
There are three basic elements to a timber beam deck:
Beams: These support the surface of the deck, although trusses can also be used.
The beams form the main structural elements of the deck and are described in more
detail below.
Deck planking: These are the boards which are nailed to the beams to form the
surface of the deck. These boards spread the wheel load to the beams. As the beams
are generally spaced at less than 1m the, individual pieces of floor planking do not
need to be too long. A depth of 75-100m is normally sufficient.
Wheel tracks or running boards: These are boards which are fixed to the deck in
the direction of traffic flow on which the vehicle wheels run. They provide protection to
the floor planking from wear and tear from heavy vehicles. The geometry of the tracks
must be such as to accommodate the wheelbase of all vehicles likely to use the
bridge. For most cases, tracks 1200mm wide with a gap of 800mm between inside
edges should be sufficient. In some cases, a cover of asphalt or sand can be applied
to prevent damage from heavy vehicles. Worn out or damaged running boards, deck
planks and beams should be replaced to avoid progressive damage and injury to
bridge users. A beneficial additional detail is to fix a ‘threshold’ plank laterally across
the road at each end of the running boards. This detail will help to reduce the vehicle
impact loadings on the ends of the running boards (this location is particularly
susceptible to loosening of the running board fixings).
Most codes refer to sawn timber of consistent quality. In the following it is assumed that a
supply of well- seasoned hardwood timber is available which is free of rot or insect infestation.
It also assumes that, in the worst case, the bridge will be loaded with light vehicles (< 6
tonnes in weight). Where heavier vehicles are expected more attention should be paid to
structural details and reference should be made to the current MRB Bridge Design, Overseas
Road Note 9 (TRL 2000) or similar documents to define the size and spacing of main
structural elements.
The main deck supports can consist of either a number of beams spanning between supports
or a pair of trusses along the edges of the bridge with transverse stringers carrying the deck.
Simple beam bridges are easier to construct and require less skilled labour but are only
suitable for short spans. For longer span bridges trusses provide a more efficient use of
timber but these require specialist skills for design and construction. In particular, the joints
and connections require careful attention. Design of timber truss bridges should only be
carried out by a suitably qualified engineer.
Timber beams can be constructed from either sawn timber sections or from the original logs
depending on the source of timber available. The factors affecting the strength of girder decks
are:
 Type of timber (quality, strength);
 Depth of member;
 Width of member;
130
 Spacing.
It is possible to design the timber deck for a particular type of timber but this will require
detailed knowledge of its properties. Where sawn timber is available commercially, this
information may be obtainable from the supplier. Section 7.3.1 presents the general
properties of different timber broadly classified into soft, medium, hard and very hard wood
and gives samples of the tree species. This highlights the fact that strength is closely related
to timber density.
Generally sawn timber is easier to use and fix in place because of the regular shape and flat
surfaces. It is also easier to examine for defects such as knots or insect damage which can
seriously reduce strength. Where minor flaws exist, the timber can be used provided the flaw
is placed as close to the top of the beam as possible to reduce its effect on strength. Where
sawn timber is not available, logs can be used. These require more care in selection for
quality and size, positioning and fixing in place.
Table 8.25 provides the size and spacing of sawn timber beams required for various spans.
These are appropriate for pedestrians and light vehicles only (up to 6 tonnes). For heavier
vehicles, the tables in Overseas Road Note 9 should be used. Note that wide spacing makes
fixing of deck planks more difficult.
Table 8.25: Sawn timber beam bridge deck for 6 ton vehicles
Timber size* Beam spacing

Span
(width x depth in mm) (m)
5 150 x 300 0.5
8 200 x 400 0.8
10 200 x 400 0.5
12 250 x 500 1.0
3
Note: * All timber to have a density greater than 450kg/m
Logs are best used round but with the top shaven to carry the deck. The bark should be
stripped and each log checked for soundness and defects. Properly seasoned logs should be
used. Particular care should be taken to ensure that the timber has not been attacked by
insects. As with all timber, logs should be treated with creosote or other preservative agent,
preferably by immersion for several days. Painting is not sufficient protection. The ends of the
logs are particularly vulnerable as they are often in contact with soil. Moisture and garbage
often collect at supports and can cause rotting. The logs should be closely matched for size
and positioned with the top surfaces in the same plane and, to accommodate any variations in
log diameter, with the large diameter at alternate ends on adjacent logs.
Running boards can be placed directly on top of the logs although deck planking is
recommended if pedestrians and animals are to use the bridge regularly. In general, three or
four logs of about 300mm diameter are sufficient to span up to 10m to carry a single lane of
light traffic. Again, for heavier traffic, the tables in TRL Overseas Road Note 9 should be
used.
One common problem with timber decks is excessive spacing of the longitudinal stringers.
Excessive deflection of the stringers under vehicle loading can cause surface damage to the
timber at the supports. This can lead to rotting and early deterioration of the deck. The
deflection can also cause the deck planks to work loose leading to damage, rot or even
complete loss. A general recommendation for heavily trafficked bridges is that the stringers be
placed as close as is reasonable for the available timber sizes to avoid excessive differential
131
movement across the deck. This can be relaxed for low-volume roads. Stringers should be
placed so that the tops are at the same level; this ensures that deck planks bear evenly
across the deck. If one stringer is higher than the rest, the underside should be trimmed
where it bears on the support, or the seating for that stringer should be lowered. This avoids
having to trim the whole top length of the timber. Floor planks 50x100mm make a very
effective deck. These can be laid on edge and nailed to the preceding one to make a very stiff
solid slab 100mm thick.
Where joints are made using nails or screws, the minimum spacing distances shown in Table
8.26 should be used (in terms of the nail diameter) to minimise the chance of damage to the
timber and premature failure of the joint.
Table 8.26: Nailing requirements
Location of nail Number of nail diameters

Edge distance parallel to grain 20 diameters
Edge distance perpendicular to grain 5 diameters
Distance between lines of nails 10 diameters
Distance between adjacent nails in a line 20 diameters
Material – Steel
Steel beams with a concrete or timber deck make a very effective bridge. Steel beams are
imported, expensive and may be difficult to transport. However, they may be available from
demolished steel truss bridges or buildings.
A concrete deck can be cast on top of the beams (composite construction). This must be
made integral with the steel beams either by encasing the beams in concrete or using shear
keys fixed to the top of the beam at 100mm spacing and penetrating 50mm into the concrete
deck.
The deck can also be constructed using soil, rubble or lean concrete provided a method of
supporting and retaining the fill is devised. This could consist of transverse arches supported
by the bottom flange over which fill material is compacted. The arches can consist of brick or
stone masonry, metal plates or concrete.
Steel beam decks tend to rattle and vibrate excessively due to inadequate fixing at the
supports. Beams can be fixed to timber abutments using screws or nails driven through holes
in the bottom flange. If a timber deck is used, the planks should be fixed securely to the
beams.
If available and of suitable length, old railway lines can be used to form a bridge deck.
Because of difficulty of fixing to abutments and attaching deck planks, the rails can be
encased in concrete so that the rails act as reinforcement. This also protects the rails from
corrosion.
8.12.11 Abutments
Abutments provide the support system for the deck and retain the soil under the approach
road (see Figure 8.40 for details). They can be built using various forms and materials. The
main function is to transfer the loads from the deck to the supporting foundations. They are
also located at the transition between the approach embankment and the bridge deck.
Effective abutments should provide good performance and stability to the bridge structure as
a whole. The form of the abutment will depend on foundation material and on the deck type.
132
The bearing capacity of typical soils and rock are given in Chapter 6; this will dictate the size
of the abutment and the bearing area required.
The material used for abutment construction depends primarily on the availability of local
material. It is recommended that concrete or masonry be used to make abutments where
possible. Mass concrete can be used provided the concrete is of sufficient quality and the
abutment is of sufficient size.
Figure 8.40: Abutment details
Timber abutments may be considered acceptable for low volume road structures but their
vulnerability to deterioration and short service life should be recognised. Gabions can also be
used (see Figure 8.41) providing fill material of suitable size and resistance to water damage
is available. They have the advantage of providing natural drainage to the approach road.
However, they are susceptible to damage and settlement due to scour and should be
checked regularly to ensure that the wire has not corroded. Gabion abutments are not
suitable for situations with a paved road surfaces because of the risk of settlement.
133
Figure 8.41: Gabion abutment log deck bridge
Abutments should be built away from the watercourse if possible to avoid scour problems
even if it means an increase in length of bridge. High abutments are expensive and it may be
more cost effective to increase the span if smaller abutments can be constructed further back
from the watercourse. Further information about the options for filling behind abutments is
provided in Section 8.8 on approach ways.
Abutments experience lateral loads resulting from the action of the backfill material. The most
critical loading situation is often when the abutment has been constructed to full height but
before the deck is constructed to provide propping support. To achieve this it may be
convenient to delay completion of the backfilling operation until after the deck has been
placed.
8.12.12 Piers
Piers can be the weakest parts of bridges and are most susceptible to damage by scour. The
number of intermediate piers should be minimised and they should be omitted completely if
possible. If it is necessary to include piers they should be oriented exactly in the direction of
the water flow to minimise the obstruction and water turbulence. Typical pier shapes are
134
Figure 8.42: Pier shapes (Plan view)

Section 8.1 on scour presents a simple estimation of the potential scour depth that may be
expected around a pier. The footing should be placed well below this depth unless a firm rock
foundation is encountered. The shape of the pier will affect the amount of scour and
designers should always aim to construct piers with cross-sections which will minimise their
effect on the water flow.
Design procedures are similar to those for abutments and the guidelines given above should
be followed, however, performance and stability requires more attention.
Piers are required to support the deck of a bridge or the base of an arch. They may therefore
be called upon to carry large vertical loads to the foundations through footings. Footings may
be considerably larger than the piers if the ground conditions are poor. The form and shape of
the pier will depend on the bearing capacity of the foundation material. The bearing capacity
of typical soils is given in Chapter 5, Section 5.1.5.
Stonework or brick masonry is the most suitable for pier construction due to its ease of
construction, durability and resistance to scour. It can also be used to create permanent
formwork for the pier and allow the use of other fill material in the middle (refer to Section 8.8
on fill material in approach ways). Reinforced concrete piers will tend to be more expensive
than masonry due to the increased temporary works required; the probable need to transport
steel to the bridge location; the need for shuttering and the required steel fixing skills. Timber
would be a third choice although it requires frequent inspection and maintenance. Timber
must be braced due to its lower strength capabilities; this will ensure lateral forces due to the
water flow can be resisted. Gabions are not recommended for use as piers because of scour
and settlement risks.
8.12.13 Bearings and joints

On major bridge spans (>20m) bearings and joints are required to allow movement of the
structure to occur without structural damage. For bridges of less than 10m spans, these
movements are small enough to be catered for by simple bearings such as a sheet of felt or
rubber placed between the beams and the abutment, or can be resisted by stresses in the
structural elements. Nevertheless, bridge movements cannot be ignored and should be
considered as part of the design and construction of the bridge.
Movements arise from vehicle loading, pedestrian movement, temperature, wind and
earthquakes. Wind and earthquake loading are major considerations for long span bridges
135
but are not normally considered for bridges with spans less than 50m. Where high winds and
earthquakes are expected, however, detailing should be such that lateral and lifting forces are
resisted by suitably tying down the deck and structural elements. Vibrations from pedestrians,
and particularly from vandalism, can cause problems on “lively” structures and decks should
be prevented from jumping off their supports. Simple upstands at the supports on either side
of the deck will be sufficient to prevent lateral movements in most cases. Steel or timber
dowels can also be used where appropriate.
It is difficult to construct a road continuously over a bridge. The construction joints cause
many problems even in well-designed structures and paved roads. The ingress of moisture
and differential movements between the bridge structure and the backfill material invariably
causes progressive damage which adversely affects vehicles as well as the bridge. On low
volume roads, where vehicle speeds are low, the effect of this is not serious and routine
maintenance is sufficient to maintain a smooth ride. In some cases, however, it may be a
serious problem and a proper drainage system may be required to prevent major damage.
8.12.14 Parapets
Generally, bridges are constructed with parapets to prevent people from falling over the edge
or to provide containment for vehicles in the case of accidents. For low volume roads,
however, these are often not necessary. Some form of kerb to prevent vehicles from slipping
over the edge or to provide some degree of protection to pedestrians should always be
considered.
Where significant flows of pedestrians or animals use the bridge regularly, handrails are
required particularly where a hazard such as a dangerous drop (greater than 2m) exists.
Handrails should be 1m high and are most conveniently made from timber. Where children
are expected to use the bridge regularly, a mesh type of barrier may also be necessary to
prevent them climbing or falling through the parapet.
8.13 Other Design Issues

8.13.1 Debris control
During a flood, vegetation and other debris will be carried in the water. The designer must
make sure that this debris will not either damage the structure itself or cause a blockage in
the water flow which then damages the structure. In the case of bridges it is particularly
important that the water does not overtop the deck because it not designed to withstand the
water flow. Table 8.27 below provides minimum clearances that should be provided between
the maximum water level and the bottom of the bridge deck.
Table 8.27: Minimum deck clearances

3
Discharge (m /s) Minimum clearance (mm)
< 0.3 150
0.3 - 3.0 450
3.0 - 30 600
> 30 1000
136
8.13.2 Road signage

Bridges, drifts and any other structures causing a restriction in the road width should be well
marked by signs to warn approaching drivers. Depending on the visibility along the road, the
sign should be placed between 50 and 100m back from the obstruction and about 1.5m from
the edge of the road. Fixings should be robust and tamper proof. If theft of metal
signs/components is a problem at the structure location, then signs should be painted on a
masonry backing. On surfaced roads, surface markings may be an option.
8.13.3 Carbon footprint

It is likely that there will be increasing concern regarding the sustainable use of resources and
the carbon footprint of road works and, particularly, structures, both in the initial construction
and life cycle of the infrastructure. The designer should accommodate any current national
and regional requirements in the planning and design of the structures.
137
PLATES
138
Plate 1
Guide stones
indicating
narrowing road
width at
approach to
bridge.
Plate 2
Stream drift.
Plate 3
Vented ford.
139
Plate 4
Large bore multi-
arch culvert.
Plate 5
Masonry single
span arch bridge
on rock
foundations.
Plate 6
Block masonry
used as
wingwalls to a
double concrete
pipe culvert.
140
Plate 7
Dry-stone wall.
Plate 8
Gabion erosion
control structure
downstream of
a culvert
Plate 9
Fired clay bricks
used as bridge
abutment
141
Plate 10
Failure of bridge
structure due to a
combination of
constriction of the
watercourse),
scour and
inadequate
protection of
abutments.
Plate 11
Compaction of fill
between twin
corrugated steel
culvert pipes.
Plate 12
Timber bridge-
deck
142
LOW VOLUME ROAD
MAINTENANCE BOOKLET
South Sudan
Ministry of Roads & Bridges (MRB)

May 2013
Table of Contents
Foreword 2
Acknowledgements 2
1. The Aims of this Booklet 3
2. Some Basic Questions 4
3. Road Features 5
4. Basic Access 7
5. Full Access 12
6. The Purpose of Maintenance 13
7. Regular Maintenance 14
8. Occasional Maintenance 17
9. Road Maintenance Tools 19
10. Maintenance Activities 20
Regular Maintenance (Routine) 20
• Roadside activities 20
• Drainage 31
• Road surface 59
- Earth Road 59
- Gravel Road 68
• Structures 89
Occasional Maintenance (Periodic) 99
• Gravel Roads 99
• Paved Roads 106
• Structures 114
11. Management & Priorities 124
12. Work Options 129
13. Planning and Productivity 137
14. Further Advice and Assistance 141
 Documentation
 Knowledge Sources
 Expertise
 Financial or other support
15. Terminology 144
1
FOREWORD
This first edition of the Low Volume Road Maintenance Booklet has been
prepared after circulation and discussion of a draft with the aim of gathering
comments and contributions from stakeholders and potential users.
It is intended that the document will be further refined from time to time to
gather further local experience and facilitate application for maintenance of
Low Volume Roads throughout South Sudan.
Please send any comments and contributions to:-

Philip Marlow Wai Wai
Deputy Director Road Maintenance
Ministry of Road and Bridges (MRB)
Juba, South Sudan
e-mail: [email protected]
This Booklet forms part of the South Sudan Low Volume Roads Manual.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Some material for this Booklet has been taken from the World Road
Association (PIARC) International Road Maintenance Handbook. Additional
images have been provided by Intech Asset Management and UNOPS.
Material has been adapted from the ERA LVR Manual and Road
Maintenance Booklet, and other regional experience and documentation.
This SS LVR Booklet has been prepared under coordination by UNOPS with
support provided by UKAID through AFCAP.
© Government of South Sudan, 2013 (English language version)
Part, or all, of this document may be copied, adapted or translated, provided

the source is acknowledged as ‘South Sudan Low Volume Road Maintenance
Booklet’.
2
1. THE AIMS OF THIS BOOKLET
This Booklet has been developed by the Government of South Sudan as one
of a number of initiatives to help rapidly expand, develop and maintain the
Low Volume Road network to provide greatly improved road access and
lower the costs of transport for rural communities.
The Booklet is applicable to earth, gravel and paved roads that may be
carrying up to about 300 motor vehicles per day.
The Booklet specifically sets out guidance for road and other authorities and
agencies, contractors, local communities, and private road owners on how
to maintain road access making the best use of the limited resources
available to them. It also advises how it may be possible to mobilise outside
resources to enhance the impact of their own initiatives.
By focussing on the use and mobilisation of available local resources, such as

a range of materials and local labour and skills, it is entirely possible to build
and maintain durable all-weather road access suitable for all traffic from
pedestrians and animal transport up to buses and trucks, and at reasonable
cost.
The Booklet advises:
 What is Maintenance?
 What needs to be done to achieve all-year Basic Road Access,
 How to identify the main problems/defects and solve them,
 How to make the most of local materials and skills,
 How to maintain the road access at low cost,
 How to make priorities
 How to organise and plan the work
 Where to obtain further advice and outside assistance.
The Maintenance activities and codes used in this Booklet are provisional,
pending development of National Road Maintenance Specifications.
3
2. SOME BASIC QUESTIONS
What is a road?
A road is a vital asset for economic and social development,
constructed with a running surface to allow the passage of motor
or other vehicles. It is defined as having a camber (crossfall) to
shed rainwater to the side, and a system of side drains and other
drainage features to discharge water away from the running
surface. A track, by comparison, may have neither of these
features. A road may be earth surface, gravel or paved.
What is a Low Volume Road?

A Low Volume Road (LVR) is generally one that generally carries
less than 300 motor vehicles of traffic each day (total vehicle flow
both ways).
What is Maintenance?
Maintenance is the range of activities necessary to keep a road
and associated structures in an acceptable condition for road
users, as intended when it was design and constructed.
What is the Essence of Road Maintenance?

For Low Volume Roads, maintenance can be summarised in three
basic aims:
• Keep the road surface in good condition (for example,
repair ruts and potholes),
• Maintain the road surface camber to shed water to the side
of the road,
• Maintain the drainage system to safely lead water away
from the road. All maintenance activities are
organised to carry out or support these basic aims.
4
3. ROAD FEATURES
5
* Shoulder can be made of the same material as the road surface (e.g. earth and gravel surface)
** Side drains may be required on both sides of the road
*** To drain water off the road surface (ideally 4 - 6 % for unpaved roads, 2 - 3% for paved)
Road Cross Section (imagine a vertical slice through the road)
Drainage Features
Structures (bridges, drifts or culverts) are usually provided at watercourse

crossing points.
The Terminology Section (15) provides the explanation for each road term
or feature.
6
4. BASIC ACCESS
Basic Access is achieved to provide year-round passage to routes by turning

them from weather-dependent tracks into proper roads. A proper road can
be formed from the natural soil (Engineered Earth Road) in many locations.
The main features of a road are:-
 A camber to shed rainwater to each side of the road

 Side drains, turnout drains, drifts and culverts (or other structures)
to manage the water collected from the road surface and to
discharge it carefully to avoid erosion or other problems.
This usually means that the road surface needs to be slightly higher than the
ground at the road side.
7
Most natural soils can be built into an (Engineered Natural Surface - ENS)
Earth Road. However, for route sections with weak soils, or if traffic
increases to more than about 50 motor vehicles per day, or on steep hills, it
may be necessary to improve the road surface with gravel or various types
of paving. This can be achieved at relatively low cost by applying a Spot
Improvement approach to improve these limited problem sections, often
using local labour and materials. Other Parts of the LVR Manual describe
how such improvements can be designed and constructed.
Most routes can be built to Engineered Natural Surface (ENS) – Earth road
standard for most of their length. If in doubt about soil suitability, seek
advice from the MRB or State Road Authority. The Spot Improvements at
problem sections of the route may be selected from the following list of
options and surface improvements:
 Drift or other structure

 Culvert
 Embankment
 S-01: Engineered Natural Surface (ENS)
 S-02: Natural gravel
 S-03: Waterbound/Drybound Macadam
 S-04: Hand Packed Stone
 S-05: Stone Setts or Pavé
 S-06: Mortared Stone
 S-07: Dressed stone/cobble stone
 S-08: Fired Clay Brick, Unmortared/mortared joints
 S-09: Bituminous Sand Seal
 S-10: Bituminous Slurry Seal
 S-11: Bituminous Chip Seal
 S-12: Bituminous Cape Seal
 S-13: Bituminous Otta Seal
 S-14: Non-reinforced concrete
 S-15: Wheel track paving
8
9
The choice of spot improvement should be based on the location features
and the materials and skills available locally. Great care should be used in
using gravel as a road surface in some circumstances. It is unlikely that it will
be suitable due to high costs of replacing the surface material that will be
lost due to rainfall or traffic, or dust nuisance in the locations; where:
 Traffic is more than 200 motor vehicles per day

 Annual Rainfall is greater than 2,000mm
 Slope of road surface is more than 6%
 Through community settlements
 The haul distance from the quarry/pit to the road site is more than
10km
 The road section experiences flooding, or
 The gravel is of poor quality.
10
Despite initial low construction costs, it is important to appreciate that
under a Basic Access and Spot Improvement strategy it is essential to
arrange the necessary Regular maintenance of the ENS and any gravel
surface and drainage, and Occasional maintenance of the improved surface
sections and structures, to preserve the initial construction investment.
11
5. FULL ACCESS
Where sufficient funds or resources are available, a Low Volume Road may
be constructed to Full Access standard. This should provide uninterrupted
all-year, high quality, relatively high speed, low surface roughness access.
There should be no closures in the rainy season.
In practical terms Full Access may involve the provision of a gravel or

sealed/paved surface throughout the length of the route link.
This level of access will also require appropriate levels of regular

maintenance. The annual cost and resources required for this maintenance
may be more than for Basic Access.
12
6. THE PURPOSE OF MAINTENANCE
From the moment that a road is constructed or upgraded, it will deteriorate

due to the effects of weather and traffic. Maintenance is required to be
carried out from time to time to restore its condition to be close to its as-
constructed state. If maintenance is not carried out the road will continue to
deteriorate making passage increasingly difficult, uncomfortable and
expensive to road users. The road may even become impassable for part or
all of the year.
It is convenient to view Maintenance as correcting Defects.
In practical terms it is useful to identify and quantify the Defects, and then
arrange the necessary Maintenance to be carried out. In this Booklet
Defects and Maintenance activities are grouped into the following colour
coded groups:
Regular Maintenance (Routine)

Roadside Activities
Drainage
Road Surface
• Earth Road
• Gravel Road
Structures
Occasional Maintenance (Periodic)

Road Surface
• Gravel Road
• Paved Road
Structures
This Booklet covers the treatment of some 30 common Defects. From time
to time, other defects/activities may be required. Advice should be obtained
from the MRB or State road authorities for any problem or road aspect not
covered in this Booklet.
13
7. REGULAR MAINTENANCE
These are the maintenance activities that are likely to be required

somewhere on a road link every year. Most of the tasks may be carried out
manually. Mechanised or equipment based alternatives are available for
some tasks as indicated.
Regular Maintenance is conveniently divided into four main groups of

activities that are often carried out on a seasonal basis:
Roadside Activities
Drainage
Road Surface
• Earth Road
• Gravel Road
Structures
Roadside Activities
Defect Maintenance Activity (Page No.)
1. Trees and bushes growing on 131 Brush clearing (P21)
roadside
2. Shoulder uneven or eroded, or 132 Shoulder Rehabilitation
does not drain properly (manual) (P25)
3. Shoulder erosion 133 Plant grass and water (P28)
1. Grass on shoulder or in drain 134 Cut grass (P21)
requires cutting
2. Shoulder uneven or eroded, or 240 Shoulder Blading
does not drain properly (minor) (mechanised) (P25)
2. Shoulder uneven or eroded, or 241 Shoulder Rehabilitation
does not drain properly (major) (mechanised) (P25)
Drainage
4. Culvert 121 Culvert Cleaning (P31)
silted/obstructed
5. Ditch silted 122 Ditch Clearing (Manual) (P34)
14
6. Ditch or slope eroded 123 Repair Erosion Damage (Selected Fill)
(minor) (P42)
7. Ditch or slope eroded 124 Repair Erosion Damage (rockfill) (P44)
(major)
7. Slope eroded (major) 129 Wattling (P44)
8. Mortared Masonry 125 Mortared Masonry Repair (P48)
damaged
9. Dry Masonry 126 Dry Masonry Repair (P51)
damaged
10. Gabion structure 127 Gabion Structure Repair (P53)
damaged
11. Erosion in ditch 128 Build wooden/stone scour check
(P56)
5. Ditch silted 230 Ditch clearing (mechanised) (P34)
Road Surface
Defects and maintenance requirements depend on the road surface type.
Earth Road
12. Road surface potholed, 112 Reshape & Compact Earth
rutted or uneven, and does not Road Camber (P59)
drain to edge
Gravel Road
13. Road Surface potholed 110 Spot Repair Selected
Material (P68)
13. Road Surface potholed 111 Spot Repair Crushed
Aggregate (P68)
14. Road Surface rutted or 220 Blade Gravel Road (light)
uneven, and does not drain to (P73)
edge (Minor: <3cm))
15
15. Road Surface rutted or 221 Blade Gravel Road (heavy)
uneven, and does not drain to (P80)
edge (Major: >3cm)

Some of these activities will require skilled personnel
16. Debris or vegetation 400 Cleaning, Clearing,
affecting or endangering Sweeping, De-silting,
structure Unblocking or Removal of
vegetation or flood/wind
borne debris (Structure/
inlets/outlets) (P90)
17. Connectors/fixings are 401 Repair of loose/missing
loose/damaged/missing connectors/fixings (P92)
18. Planks/kerbs are 402 Replace damaged or missing
damaged/missing planks or kerbs (P93)
19. Paintwork defective or 403 Paint main or minor parts of
damaged structure/furniture (P94)
20. Danger or evidence of insect 404 Apply wood preservative or
or moisture attack of timber insect treatment to timber
components components (P96)
21. Masonry or concrete or joints 405 Pointing or repair of
defective (minor) masonry/concrete (P97)
22. Structure furniture defective 406 Repair parapets, marker
posts, safety barriers, signs or
other furniture (P98)
16
8. OCCASIONAL MAINTENANCE
These are the maintenance activities that may be required somewhere on a

gravel or paved road section or link, or on a structure, after a period of a
number of years. The category of repair depends on the type of road surface
constructed. Some of the Occasional Maintenance tasks may be carried out
manually with the aid of simple tools or equipment. Others will require
skilled personnel or large equipment. Transport may be required for the
haulage of materials. Many of the activities will require careful planning and
mobilisation of the necessary resources.
Gravel or Paved Road

23. Gravel 317 Gravel Resurfacing (Selected Material) (P99)
layer too thin 318 Gravel Resurfacing (Crushed Aggregate) (P99)
24. Paved 113a Spot /pothole Repair (Macadam) (P106)……..
road pothole 113b Spot /pothole Repair (Stone setts)
or surface 113c Spot /pothole Repair (Mortared stone)
defect 113d Spot /pothole Repair(Dressed stone)
113e Spot /pothole Repair(Emulsion chip seal)
113f Spot /pothole Repair(Emulsion sand seal)
113g Spot /pothole Repair(Emulsion gravel/slurry
seal)
113h Spot /pothole Repair(Un-mortared brick)
113i Spot /pothole Repair(Mortar jointed brick)
113j Spot /pothole Repair(Non- reinforced
concrete)
17
Defect Maintenance Activity (Page
No.)
25. Random stone filling defective 410 Repair Random Stone
filling (P116)
26. Retaining wall defective 411 Retaining wall repairs
(P117)
27. River or stream bed scoured 412 Watercourse scour
adjacent to structure repairs (P118)
28. Gabion walls or mattress defective 413 Gabion basket repairs
(P120)
29. Structural repairs for the following 414 Major structural
serious defects: Structural timber repairs. These will
decay, splitting or insect attack, require the expertise of
bulging masonry, cracked concrete or an Engineer to assess
masonry, honeycombed concrete, and design/specify the
spalling concrete, serious rust or remedial works in
chemical stains, exposed or corroding response to the scale
reinforcement or pre-stressing steel, and nature of the
damp patches on concrete, seriously defects (P122)
corroded structural steelwork,
damaged/distorted structural
steelwork, missing/loose rivets, bolts
or other fixings, cracks in structural
steelwork, settlement of deck, piers,
abutments or wingwalls, expansion
joint or bearing defects, erosion
requiring piling works.
18
9. ROAD MAINTENANCE TOOLS
Road Maintenance activities require a range of simple and inexpensive tools

and control aids. However construction quality tools are preferable to
agricultural quality. For further guidance see Reference 5.
19
Roadside Activities
10. MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES
REGULAR MAINTENANCE (ROUTINE)
ROADSIDE ACTIVITIES
Defect 1: Grass, weeds, bushes or trees have been allowed to grow

unchecked at the side of the road.
Development, if neglected:
 drainage ditches cannot be cleaned
 surface water can pond at the edge of the road and weaken the
road surface,
 silt can accumulate at the edge of the road,
 the visibility for road users is reduced, with increased risk of
accidents with persons or animals,
 increased fire hazard in the dry season.
20
Roadside Activities
Maintenance Activity
 134 Grass Cutting

 131 Bush Clearing
These two activities may be required individually or together. With the

exception of arid areas, these are Regular activities, involving control of
grass, weeds, bush and trees where these are not controlled by animal
grazing. They may be required to be carried out at least once a year after
the rainy season, or more often where the climate causes vegetation to
grow rapidly.
 Grass Cutting
Grass and weeds should be cut at least once a year after vegetation reaches
full growth or according to local experience. The vegetation should be
trimmed by hand. Sickles, scythes, slashers, bushknives, or similar handtools
will be required.
 Bush control & Trees
Any bushes on the road shoulders or drains should be cut down. Dead or
leaning trees within the right-of-way which may fall on the roadway or block
21
Roadside Activities
the drainage system, or block sight lines should be removed. The felling of
trees, or the removal of large branches at heights of more than 2 metres
above ground level can be hazardous. This work should only be carried out
under expert supervision or by experienced workers. Trees should be felled
using one- or two-man saws or axes. Ladders should be used for climbing
trees, and ropes should be used to restrain trees and control felling. Traffic
should be halted when the tree is finally toppled. All debris should be
removed and disposed of safely.
 Disposal of debris
All cuttings and debris should be disposed of safely so that there is no risk of
drains being blocked or fire hazard.
 Herbicides
Herbicides (weed-killer) are chemical agents intended to destroy or reduce
vegetation growth. It is not recommended that herbicides or any chemical
methods be used to control roadside vegetation. Some reasons are:
– herbicides can cause pollution of crops, rivers and streams and
drinking water supplies,
– herbicides are often dangerous to health,
– herbicides are expensive, and must often be imported,
– herbicides do not always produce satisfactory results.
 Burning
Do not burn roadside vegetation to control its growth or the debris from
Bush Clearing activities. The results may be more harmful than desired:
– the fire could spread and destroy valuable vegetation (trees, grass
crops), and traffic signs,
– vegetation may grow faster after burning,
– smoke and flames blowing across the road are dangerous for
traffic.
22
Roadside Activities
23
Roadside Activities
Defect 2: Shoulder eroded, mis-shaped or does not drain away from

roadway
 hazard to road users, increased risk of accidents,
 obstruction of water flow from roadway,
 inadequate support for the road surface,
 water collects and softens/weakens the shoulder and pavement
 the edge of the pavement will break when vehicle wheels run over
it,
 the roadside ditch may become blocked by the excess material.
24
Roadside Activities
 132 Shoulder Rehabilitation (manual)

 241 Shoulder Rehabilitation (mechanised)
 240 Shoulder Blading (mechanised)
a) Rehabilitation Manual Method (132)

The low surfaces and all high material should be loosened with a pick axe or
mattock. The shoulder should be reshaped to slightly above the final level
and the correct crossfall using a shovel and rake. Any low spots should be
topped up with fresh material of the same type and quality as the existing
shoulder. The crossfall of the uncompacted material should be checked
with a camber board. Excess material should be spread over the
embankment slope or transported by wheelbarrow to a convenient and safe
dumping site. Material should not be deposited on the roadway or in the
drainage ditch. If the shoulder material is dry it should be sprinkled with
water. The shoulder is then compacted with hand rammers or a hand roller.
The compacted surface should butt smoothly onto the roadway. Check the
finished crossfall with the camber board and repeat the reshaping if
necessary. Brush all loose material and debris from the roadway.
25
Roadside Activities
b) Rehabilitation Mechanised Method (241)
The existing surface of the shoulder should be scarified with the tines of a
motor or towed grader. This will loosen the raised areas and allow the
loosened material to key into any existing low areas. The shoulders should
be reshaped to slightly above the final level and the correct crossfall using a
number of passes of the motor or towed grader blade. Care must be taken
not to damage the edge of the roadway with the blade. Any low spots
should be topped up with fresh material of the same type as the existing
shoulder. The cross fall of the uncompacted material should be checked
with a camber board. Excess material and vegetation should be graded to
the embankment side slope. In cuttings, excess material and vegetation
should be graded into a windrow for removal by wheelbarrow, tractor and
trailer or truck. Material should not be deposited on the roadway or into the
drainage ditch.
If the shoulder material is dry it should be sprinkled with water. The
shoulder is then compacted using a self-propelled, towed or pedestrian
roller. The compacted surface should butt smoothly onto the roadway.
Check the finished crossfall with the camber board and repeat the reshaping
if necessary. Brush all loose material and debris from the roadway.
26
Roadside Activities
c) Shoulder Blading (mechanised) (240)

This Regular maintenance activity may be carried out if no additional
material is required to be added to the shoulder. The shoulder material
should contain sufficient moisture to enable the reshaped material to be
compacted by the grading equipment or a roller. It is therefore ideally
carried out in the rain season. Otherwise, water should be added to ensure
a more durable surface finish.
27
Roadside Activities
Defect 3: Existing roadside surface requires protection from erosion (this
activity may be required as a follow up from Maintenance Activity 123)
On some steep slopes or erodible soils surface scour may occur if vegetation
cover is not established. This could damage to the roadway, shoulders,
drainage system or earthworks.
 133 Plant grass and water
a) Seeding
Grass seeding will only be successful if climate and soil conditions are
favourable. The best advice can be provided by the local department of
agriculture on:
– topsoil required,
– seed type, rate of spread,
– fertilizer types, rate of spread,
– most favourable season and weather for seeding,
– other preparatory treatment of the soil (for example mixing-in
ground limestone).
Typical procedure:
– loosen the soil to a depth of 10 cm in the area to be seeded using
rakes or similar tools,
– spread the topsoil to a depth of at least 5 cm,
– water the area to be seeded,
– apply fertilizer at the specified rate,
– (apply ground limestone/additive at the specified rate and mix-in,)
– apply seeds by hand at the specified rate,
– lightly roll the seeded area within 24 hours using hand roller, only if
the soil does not adhere to the roller,
– the seeded area should be watered as required until the grass has
taken hold.
28
Roadside Activities
b) Turfing (grass sodding)

This method is suitable when climate and soil conditions are favourable and
when fresh grass sods (soil clumps containing grass and its roots) are
available.
The general procedure is:
– prepare the area to be turfed to required levels and slopes,
– where no topsoil is present, haul suitable topsoil to site and spread
evenly to a depth of not less than 5 cm.
– water as required,
– cover the area with freshly cut sods without weeds. Sods are to
have thickly matted roots which should not have dried out. Tamp
sods with tamper or use hand roller. On slope use stakes to hold
sods in position,
– water the turves at intervals until the grass takes hold.
Other patterns of sodding are:
– spot sodding (sods spaced about 50 cm in holes deep enough to
take sod and about 5 cm topsoil),
– trench sodding. Lay sods on 5 cm topsoil bed in parallel trenches.
Trench spacing about 50 cm along contour or x-shaped pattern.
29
Roadside Activities
30
Drainage
DRAINAGE
Defect 4: Culvert silted or obstructed with debris
The intended waterway opening will be so reduced that flood water cannot
flow as intended. Flood water will back-up or pond on the upstream side of
the culvert and may eventually over-flow the road embankment. The road is
then in danger of being washed away.
 121 Culvert Cleaning
In order to function properly, a culvert must retain the full opening over its
complete length. In addition, the upstream approaches and the downstream
area must be free of obstructions. Floating debris (tree branches, bushes,
etc.) carried by water is a great danger to culverts. The debris may
completely block the culvert inlet. The following Regular Maintenance
activities may be required:
31
Drainage
– if debris racks are already provided, these as well as the culvert
opening should be freed of all accumulated obstructions,
– Clear any sand, silt or debris

from inside the culvert.
Sanding or silting of culverts,
especially those with
openings smaller than 1
metre, can be a particular
problem. These culverts can
be cleaned by pulling a cable
or rope through, to which is
attached any suitable object
(e.g. a bucket). Alternatively a
long handled trowel and spike
can be used.
32
Drainage
If the silting problem continues despite regular clearing, it may be necessary
to reconstruct the culvert at a higher level or enlarge it.
Material and debris from the culvert must be spread or dumped where they
cannot cause an obstruction to water flow, preferably on the downstream
side of the culvert, well away from the watercourse.
This Maintenance task is best carried out before the rains and after any
heavy rainstorm.
33
Drainage
Defect 5: Ditch silted
Ditch partially or fully blocked by vegetation growth, bushes, fallen trees,

debris, loose silt, loose rocks.
Concentration of flood flow causing erosion and possible overtopping and
damage to roadway, paving or shoulders.
 122 Ditch Clearing (Manual)

 230 Ditch clearing (Mechanised)
a) Manual Method (122)

This is a Regular Maintenance activity. The object is to remove all soil, high
vegetation, materials and objects from the ditch which could possibly
interfere with water flow or cause an eventual blockage of the ditch. This
can include for example, rocks, loose silt and sand, weeds, trees, bushes,
including their roots, etc. Dispose of these materials well away from the
roadside so that water flow will not be impeded and they will not fall or
wash back into the ditch. NO soil material or debris should be placed on the
34
Drainage
roadway. On unlined ditches a short grass cover can help to stabilise the
bottom and sides of the ditch. Therefore where a side ditch is established to
the correct depth and profile with grass cover and no erosion, it is advisable
to merely cut the grass short. This will leave the roots in place to bind the
drain surface together.
At some locations it may be necessary to RESHAPE/REGRADE/DEEPEN the
ditch.
It is advisable to adopt a trapezoidal ditch shape when using labour
methods. The excavation using a hoe/mattock and shovel is easier than for a
V-shaped ditch. An added advantage is that the flat invert causes less
concentration of water
than a V-ditch.
A ditch & slope template
should be used to obtain
the correct drain shape.
– using the
template a 50 cm
wide slot should be
excavated to the correct
ditch shape every 10 metres
along the drain. The slots act
as a guide for excavating the
ditch to the correct shape,
– in flat areas, the gradient of
the ditch should be checked
using ranging rods and
profiles or similar methods,
to ensure that water will not
pond. The levels at adjacent
slots should be checked
using a line and level or
abney level, and the level of
the slot adjusted if
necessary.
35
Drainage
– excavate all surplus material between the slots and to the correct
shape with the aid of stringlines stretched between the slots. If
necessary the intermediate invert levels can be checked using a
traveller sighted between the ranging rod profiles.
– material excavated from the drain must be removed and spread
well clear of the drain so that it cannot later fall or wash back into
the ditch.
– the shape can be checked during the excavation activity using the
ditch template.
When excavating a completely new ditch it is preferable to split the task into
two operations:
i) cut the central rectangular shape
and check with a template
(INVERT).
ii) cut the slopes and check with the full
ditch & slope template (SLOPES).
The alignment or route of the drain should
be set out using stringlines and pegs. The
ranging rods and profiles should be set up at
the start and outfall of the ditch.
Intermediate profiles may be required on
long ditches. The levels of intermediate slots
can be determined using the traveller.
This Maintenance task is best carried out

before the rains and after any heavy
rainstorm.
36
Drainage
DITCH GRADIENT
DITCH
DITCH
DITCH
37
Drainage
38
Drainage
b) Mechanised Method (230)
This activity is suggested where long sections of V- shaped ditches are to be

maintained and cleaned and where high daily outputs are possible. The
activity may be carried out by a motor or towed grader. The grader should
always work by cutting in the direction of water flow in the ditch.
Case 1:
When the grader can operate only on the shoulder and in the ditch, but not
beyond the ditch:
– start by grading the outside slope of the ditch, using the blade to
windrow the soil to the bottom of the ditch between the rear
wheels. (This can be repeated to obtain the desired depth of ditch.
This part of the task can also be done manually),
– the next blade pass(es) are to clean the invert of the ditch by
removing the windrow to the top of the ditch at road shoulder,
– the final pass is required to move the windrow material away from
the shoulder ditch edge.
If the recovered material quality is inferior to that of the road surface, THE
MATERIAL MUST BE REMOVED FROM THE SITE.
– on completion, the ditch should generally have a depth of 50 cm
(minimum), which can be checked with a ranging rod and tape/rule,
– if necessary the grade of the ditch invert can be checked using the
methods described in a) Manual Method (122).
39
Drainage
40
Drainage
Case 2:
When the grader can operate beyond the ditch. Reverse the operations
shown previously:
– grade the inside slope, windrowing material to the bottom of
the ditch. Repeat as necessary to achieve the desired depth of
ditch,
– remove the windrow material to the top of the outside slope,
– move windrow away from ditch edge and spread the material
so that it will not wash back into the ditch,
– on completion, the ditch should have a depth of 50 cm
(minimum), which can be checked with a ranging rod and
tape/rule,
– if necessary the grade of the ditch invert can be checked using
the methods as described in a) Manual Method (122).
41
Drainage
Defect 6: Ditch or slope eroded (minor)
Damage to drainage system, roadway, structures, paving or shoulders.
 123 Repair Erosion Damage (Selected Fill)
This activity may be sufficient for minor erosion damage to a ditch.

However, reconstructing the ditch profile with selected fill material alone
may not be sufficient to prevent the defect recurring within a short time.
Loose stones or boulders should be removed. The defective section of ditch
should be cut back to firm material and fresh material placed in layers not
exceeding 15cm thickness and compacted with a hand rammer. If the
material is dry it should be sprinkled with water before compaction. The
added material should be trimmed back to the correct ditch profile and
checked with the ditch template. Dispose of the excess materials well away
from the roadside so that water flow will not be impeded and they will not
fall or wash back into the ditch.
Scour checks may need to be installed to prevent recurrence.
42
Drainage
Similar minor repairs may be carried out to eroded slopes.
It is likely that additional measures will be required such as:
– 133 Plant grass and water

– 124 Repair Erosion Damage (rockfill), or
– 128 Build wooden/stone scour check
– 135 Wattling
43
Drainage
Defect 7: Ditch or slope eroded (major)
Damage to drainage system, roadway, structures, earthworks paving or
shoulders.
 124 Repair Erosion Damage (rockfill), or

 129 Wattling
A number of activities are possible to repair erosion damage to ditches and

slopes. However it is important to try to determine the cause of the erosion
so that the repair will minimize the risk of it
recurring. It is advisable to obtain Engineer’s
advice where erosion is extensive.
Ditches
Drain sections are often laid at a steep
gradient or on sharp bends without erosion
protection along or at the outfall of the drain.
The following options should be considered:
– Repair the ditch with rockfill lining
– Repair the ditch with timber lining
– Provide masonry lining
44
Drainage
– Regrade/Realign ditch
– Provide relief ditch or culvert
Slopes
Slips or slope erosion/ instability are usually caused
by adverse ground conditions or ground/surface
water or both. The remedial works should be
specified by an Engineer after an inspection of
the site and the necessary investigations. Works are
likely to be expensive and it is important to ensure
an appropriate solution to the problem.
Dealing with slips and unstable slopes is hazardous
and particular care should be taken to safeguard
manpower, equipment and the road users.
The cheapest solution (if appropriate) is expected to
be Wattling. Other principal, but more expensive,
remedial options are:
– counterfort drains
– stone pitching the slope
– reducing slope angle,
– clearing slip material,
– surcharging the slope,
– gabions,
– cribwork,
– masonry retaining wall,
– concrete retaining wall.
45
Drainage
Wattling (129)
This activity may be suitable after repairing an eroded slope with

Maintenance Activity: 123 Repair Erosion Damage (Selected Fill)
Wattling will help to resist surface water erosion of a slope. Wattles are
bundles of plant stems up to 3 m long, tied together and laid in shallow
trenches, staked into position on contour lines (lines of the same height), or
x - form lines. As with turfing and seeding, a favourable climate and soil
conditions are essential for the successful use of wattling.
Wattling helps to stabilize slopes, reduce surface erosion and provides a
bench on which grass can become established. Plant stems which root easily
are preferred. Advice on suitable plants and planting time should be
obtained from the local department of agriculture.
Typical procedure:
– cut wattling stems at suitable source and transport them to site
immediately. Stems should not be allowed to dry out,
– tie bundles of stems 15 - 20 cm diameter, alternating the ends,
– excavate a trench in the slope along the desired line. The trench
should be deep enough to accommodate tied wattling stems (this
work can be completed beforehand),
– place wattling stems in trench and use stakes to fix them in
position. Overlap bundles and stake through the overlaps,
– cover the wattling with topsoil and tamp them firmly in place,
– watering may be necessary until the roots take hold.
46
Drainage
47
Drainage
Defect 8: Mortared Masonry damaged
Further damage to structure or roadway, slope or structural failure.
 125 Mortared Masonry Repair
This activity should only be carried out on masonry structures in reasonably

good condition. If the structure has settled or is in danger of collapse, only
complete reconstruction can be recommended.
- clean and rake out defective joints of weak mortar, soil and
vegetation using compressed air or a water spray, hammer and
chisel,
- at locations where the joint has to be completely renewed, the
stone or brick should be eased out of place temporarily until a new
mortar bed is placed,
- replace missing stones with sound pieces
- use templates and stringlines if necessary to ensure the correct
shape and incline of the face of the mortared masonry work,
- dampen the joint surfaces where fresh mortar has to be applied,
- mix a mortar of cement and sand as required or specified (normally
1 cement: 3 sand) and add only enough water to permit mortar to
be well mixed and applied,
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Drainage
- apply fresh mortar to joint, filling all space available, compacting
with a suitable wooden rammer. Do not use mortar which has
fallen on the ground,
- smooth joints with a suitable tool (a piece of rubber or plastic water
hose, or bent reinforcing steel),
- the final mortar surface should be inset slightly from the
stone/brick surface to achieve a tidy finish,
- in dry or windy weather conditions, mortar can dry out too quickly.
Prevent this by sprinkling water on joints after the mortar has set
and until mortar has completely hardened. Alternatively cover the
work area with wet jute sacks or similar,
- clean visible stone or brick surfaces which have been stained by
mortar or cement-water in the process of the work so that the
finished work will present a neat appearance,
- remove surplus materials and leave the site in a clean and tidy
condition.
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Drainage
50
Drainage
Defect 9: Dry Masonry damaged
 126 Dry Masonry Repair
Try to use the established local dry stone construction techniques.
51
Drainage
This activity should only be carried out on dry masonry structures in
reasonably good condition. If the structure has settled or is in danger of
collapse, only complete reconstruction as a dry masonry or more substantial
structure can be recommended.
- carefully take down the defective areas of dry stone masonry,

stacking the stone for re-use,
- clean and rake out defective joints of soil and vegetation using
hammer and chisel, and brush,
- re-build the dry stone work using the salvaged stones and carefully
selecting each stone to ensure good bonding horizontally and
through the width of the stonework. Use smaller stones to wedge
the larger ones where necessary,
- add new stones if necessary,
- use templates and stringlines if necessary to ensure the correct
shape and incline of the face of the dry masonry work,
- pack the spaces between stones with soil or gravel,
- remove surplus materials and leave the site in a clean and tidy
condition.
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Drainage
Defect 10: Gabion structure damaged
 127 Gabion Structure Repair
Gabions are usually made of zinc coated steel baskets, although may also be
made from welded mesh sheets, galvanised chain link fencing and woven
wire depending on the circumstances and locally available materials. The
baskets are hand-filled with rock and stones between 12 and 30 cm size.
In this way they attain great stability, but will allow minor settlement.
Repairs may be required due to bulging or breaking of the basket due to
foundation or backing movement, or settlement of the stone within the
basket. Gabions are designed to allow some settlement. Repairs should aim
to ensure that the stone continues to be contained. Repairs will normally
consist of opening the baskets, re-packing the stone inside, topping up stone
if necessary, renewing bracing ties and re-securing the lid of the gabion. It
may be necessary to weave new cage material over broken or deformed
areas, and any suitable steel mesh or woven sheets can be used for this.
Where a gabion box is required to be replaced or added, the procedure for
building a new gabion box should be used as follows.
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Drainage
The gabion baskets are normally supplied folded flat complete with tying
wire so that the transport volume is minimised. Foundations should be
54
Drainage
excavated level and cleaned as for a conventional structure, with any
unsuitable material removed and replaced with good soil, stone or gravel,
and compacted. The baskets should be erected in their final position.
Cages should be woven together using 3 mm binding wire securing all edges
every 15 cms with a double loop. The binding wire should be drawn tight
with a pair of heavy duty pliers and secured with multiple twists (1 and 2).
The centre gabion only should be filled initially to act as an anchorage. The
connected baskets should be stretched and staked with wires and pegs to
achieve the required shape (3). Filling should be carried out by hand using
hard durable stones not larger than 250 mm and not smaller than the size
of the mesh. The best size range is 125 to 200 mm. The stones should be
tightly packed with a minimum of voids. Boxes of 1 metre height should be
filled to 1/3 height. Horizontal bracing wires should then be fitted and
tensioned with a windlass to keep the vertical faces even and free of bulges
(4 and 5). Further bracing should be fixed after filling to 2/3 height. 500 mm
height boxes should be braced at mid height only. 250/330 mm deep
gabions do not require internal bracing. The stones should be carefully
packed to about 3 to 5 cms above the top of the box walls to allow for
settlement. Smaller material can be used to fill the voids on the top face, but
excessive use of small stones should be avoided. The lids are then closed
and stretched tightly over the stones, (carefully) using crowbars if necessary
(6). The corners should be temporarily secured to ensure that the mesh
covers the whole area of the box. The lid should then be securely woven to
the tops of the walls
removing stones if
necessary to prevent
the lid from being
overstretched.
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Drainage
Defect 11: Erosion in ditch
Damage to drainage system, roadway, structures, paving or shoulders.
 128 Build wooden/stone scour check
Unlined ditches may suffer from scour of the invert and sides. Simple repairs
may be achieved by filling the affected areas with soil and trimming to the
correct profile, and turfing where climatic conditions are favorable. The
turves will probably need to be pegged in place to retain them, and watered
until established. Simple scour checks may be constructed of wood or
stones. Larger ones may be constructed of stone masonry, brick or concrete.
They reduce the speed and erosion force of the water. They also hold back
the silt carried by the water flow to provide a series of gently sloping
sections of ditch separated by steps.
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Drainage
The scour checks must not be too high otherwise water will be forced onto
the surrounding ground, the shoulder or the roadway. The scour check
construction should therefore be controlled with the aid of a template.
Scour checks should not be constructed on ditches with gradients of less
than 4%. This will encourage too much silting of the drain and could lead to
road damage. The gradient of the side drain should be checked with an
Abney level or line and level to determine the requirements for scour
checks (spacing guidance in the SS LVR Manual).
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Drainage
After the basic scour check has been constructed, an apron should be built
immediately downstream either using stones or grass turves pinned to the
ditch invert with wooden pegs. The apron will help resist the forces of the
water flowing over the scour check. Grass sods should be placed against the
upstream face of the scour check, to prevent water seeping through the
scour check and to encourage the silting behind the scour check. The long
term objective is to establish complete grass cover over the silted scour
checks to stabilise them.
Well constructed scour checks will allow the water to gently cascade over
(and not through) the checks, removing energy from the water and reducing
erosion power.
58
Road Surface
ROAD SURFACE
Whenever works are carried out on the road surface,

warning signs should be placed before each end of
the work site.
EARTH ROAD
Defect 12: Road surface potholed, rutted or uneven, and does not drain to
edge
Road becomes waterlogged or impassable.
 112 Reshape & Compact Earth Road Camber
This activity is carried out using labour, basic hand tools and control aids.
The Method comprises the following steps:
o SETTING OUT
o EXCAVATION OF DITCH AND SLOPE
o EXCAVATION OF BACKSLOPE
59
Road Surface
o CAMBER FORMATION AND FINAL COMPACTION
These steps are shown on this page.
60
Road Surface
SETTING OUT
– The PROFILE method of setting out enables a smooth vertical
alignment to be re-established on a severely deteriorated road
surface.
– The alignment will consist of straight gradients and vertical curves.
– The centre line of the road is pegged every 10 metres.
– A ranging rod is fixed at each 10 metre peg.
– Each ranging rod is fitted with a profile board. The profile board can
slide up and down the ranging rod and be clamped at any height.
Setting out is arranged in sections of 60 to 100 metres, which approximate

to either a straight gradient or vertical curve on the road line.
61
Road Surface
62
Road Surface
Check that the amount of earthworks at each centre line (finished level) peg
is acceptable, or repeat the procedure using different assumptions.
63
Road Surface
Once the centre line level pegs are fixed, set out the pegs for the edge of the
roadway and both sides of the ditch using the tape measure, camber board
and spirit level for the required road cross section.
Pegs should be driven in to the required finished cross section level, or a

fixed height above.
64
Road Surface
EXCAVATE DITCH AND SLOPE
– Material is excavated from the ditch and slope area and used to
form the camber until the required shape of ditch and slope is
achieved.
– Check shape with the ditch and slope template, and spirit level.
– If too much material is excavated, discard the surplus material well
beyond the side drain.
– If the filling placed is greater than 15 cm deep, then it is preferable
to spread and compact the fill material with rakes and hand
rammers or a hand/animal drawn roller in 15-20 cm layers.
65
Road Surface
EXCAVATE BACKSLOPE
If insufficient material is excavated to form the camber, dig additional

material from the backslope or from beyond the side drain.
CAMBER FORMATION AND FINAL COMPACTION
– Continue adding material to the camber to achieve the required

profile after compaction.
– Stringlines stretched directly and diagonally across the running
surface between the setting out pegs can be used to check the
shape.
– Compact the fill material to the final profile, preferably using a
hand or animal drawn roller.
– If a roller is not available, use hand rammers or the tyres of any
vehicle to uniformly compact the soil across the roadway width.
The shaped and compacted earth road surface is a suitable foundation on

which one of the surface options can be constructed directly.
66
Road Surface
67
Road Surface
Gravel Road
Defect 13: Road Surface potholed
Gravel surface loss increases. Road becomes very rough, slowing and
damaging traffic, and may become waterlogged or impassable.
 110 Spot Repair – Selected Material
 111 Spot Repair – Crushed Aggregate
Potholes and ruts should be repaired with materials similar to the

surrounding surface. This can be either selected gravel material (110) or
crushed stone aggregate (111) with sufficient fines to
bind the material together.
– Loose material and standing water is brushed

from the pothole or rut to be patched.
– Large or deep potholes should have their
sides cut back to be vertical and to reach
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Road Surface
sound material.
– The moisture content of the material can be checked quickly by

squeezing it in the hand. If the material is wet enough to stick
together, it is suitable for use. If water runs out of the material, it is
too wet and should not be used.
– If the material is dry, the area to be patched should be sprinkled

with water and water should also be added to the patching
material.
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Road Surface
– The area is filled with gravel to a depth of about 10 centimetres.
– If the material is dry, it should be sprinkled with water to help

compaction.
– The layer is then compacted using the roller or hand rammer.
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Road Surface
– In this way the thickness of the patch is built up in layers.
– Finally, the patched area is filled evenly with the gravel to

approximately 3 centimetres above the level of the surface and is
spread and raked to the correct shape.
3 centimetres is approximately the thickness of a rake handle.
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Road Surface
– The patch is then compacted using the roller or hand rammer to
give a surface which is only slightly above the level of the
surrounding road to allow for further traffic consolidation.
– Both large or small areas to be patched are repaired in the same
way, the rammer is used for the smaller potholes. The roller if
available is used for larger areas, although the hand rammers will
still be required for the corners and short edges.
– Patching work started must not be left unfinished overnight. At
night the site should be made safe for traffic and all signs and
obstacles removed from the road.
72
Road Surface
Defect 14: Road Surface rutted or uneven, and does not drain to edge
(Minor: <3cm)
Gravel surface loss increases. Road becomes very rough, slowing and
damaging traffic.
 220 Blade Gravel Road (light)
Light grading may be carried out with a motor

grader or a tractor towed grader to correct
minor defects on the gravel road surface such
as corrugations, shallow ruts and flat camber.
The task may also be achieved using labour
with handtools.
a) Light reshaping, Manual Method

– The surface material may be loosened, trimmed and reshaped with
a pickaxe, hoe or mattock and rakes to form the required camber
and crossfall.
– The shape is checked with the camber board and spirit level.
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Road Surface
– If gravel stockpiles are provided, any local depressions are filled
with material transported in a wheelbarrow, pannier or other
device.
– The loose material is compacted with the hand rammer.
– Pegs and string lines can be used to help to achieve the correct
shape and camber.
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Road Surface
b) Light reshaping, Mechanised Method
The motor grader or tractor towed grader is used to draw the surface
material back to the crown of the roadway. Normally only 4 passes
will be required to achieve this minor reshaping. It is best carried out
during the rains when there is sufficient moisture in the material for
reconsolidation under traffic, so that expensive watering and
compaction operations will not be required.
75
Road Surface
Minor corrugations can be dealt with by using a low cost drag towed
by a tractor or other vehicle.
Drags can be made cheaply from old tyres or various arrangements of

discarded steel sections.
76
Road Surface
77
Road Surface
– The tractor tows the
drag at up to 5
km/hour depending on
the type of drag and
on the type and
condition of the road
surface.
– The length of pass
should be as long as
possible.
– The number of passes
needed will depend
upon the conditions
and the width of the
road.
– The equipment should
work in the same
direction as the traffic
flow.
– By adjusting the length of each towing chain, a degree of lateral
material redistribution may be achieved.
– DO NOT drive too fast or the drag will jump over the surface
irregularities and raise a lot of dust, it will also cause a hazard to
traffic.
78
Road Surface
IMPORTANT NOTE ON ‘BLACK COTTON’ SOIL
Expansive clay (often referred to locally as black cotton soil), is

a major challenge for road works and is found extensively in
the north eastern part of the country. The soil is capable of
taking up large qualities of water in the rains, or if soaked,
with a corresponding almost total loss of strength. In the dry
season it will shrink with extensive cracking. This gives rise to
serious stability problems in road foundations, for road
pavements and structures.
There are a number of proven techniques for treating these

soils. Unfortunately, these are all expensive in the context of
South Sudan Low Volume Roads.
For LVR with a black cotton soil surface, the most effective
and cheapest approach is to ensure that the road camber and
drainage system are well maintained, and to PREVENT traffic
from passing over the road when it is raining or soaked. This
can be achieved naturally by the steep camber itself, or by
installing road barriers to prevent vehicle passage during the
rain, and immediately after. Usually this can be achieved by
agreement between the road users and community on a Low
Volume Road.
With an effective and maintained camber and drainage

system the road surface will normally drain within a number
of hours after the rain ceases and regain sufficient strength to
allow vehicles to pass without destroying the road surface.
79
Road Surface
Defect 15: Road Surface rutted or uneven, and does not drain to edge
(Major: >3cm)
Road becomes very rough, slowing and damaging traffic. Water ponds on
road surface. Gravel surface loss increases and danger of total gravel layer
loss and road being impassable.
 221 Blade Gravel Road (heavy)
Heavy grading may be carried out with a motor

grader or a tractor towed grader. However the task
will also require towed or self-propelled watering
and compaction equipment. The task may also be
achieved using labour and hand tools by adapting
the methods of Maintenance activity 112.
Preparation
Patching (Activity 110 or 111) of large potholes or depressions should be
80
Road Surface
carried out in advance of the grading. Areas of standing water should be
drained. This preparation will ease the work and make the resulting surface
last longer.
Scarifying
Using a motor or tractor towed grader it may be necessary to scarify the
existing surface to cut to the bottom of any surface defects and loosen the
material for reshaping.
Machine Attendants
These help direct traffic and grader turning, and remove large stones and
other unwanted material from the path of the grader.
81
Road Surface
Grading
The grader works on one
side of the road at a time
and works in passes about
200 metres long to
convenient and safe
turning points. Heavy
Grading will require
additional passes to
achieve the required
camber. Work should be
completed on one side of
the road at a time. An even
number of passes should
be used to avoid a flat
finished crown. Normally
initial cutting passes are
required to bring material
in from the edges of the
road. Spreading passes
redistribute the material away from the crown. The initial passes cut to the
bottom of the surface irregularity and deposit a windrow just beyond the
centre line.
Watering
The towed or self-propelled
water tanker sprays the
windrow with water, if
required. The windrow is
spread back across the road
depositing all the material to
give the correct camber. A second application of water may be required to
obtain the correct moisture content for compaction.
82
Road Surface
Cambering
The aim should be to develop a proper crown on the road. The road should
be cambered to fall away from the crown at a rate of about 6 to 7 cm for
each metre from the centre of the road before compaction. This should
achieve a crossfall of about 4 to 6 cm per metre (4 to 6%) after compaction.
If there is insufficient camber, water will not drain easily from the surface of
the road, potholes will form and the road will deteriorate quickly. This is
particularly important on gradients, where the rain water tends to run along
the road forming erosion channels.
Do not make a final pass down the centre of the road with the grader blade
horizontal. This flattens the centre of the road and causes water to pond
leading to rapid deterioration of the surface.
Do not leave a windrow on the road overnight as this is a danger to traffic.
83
Road Surface
Compaction
When towed, self-propelled compaction plant is being used, it must follow
close up behind the grader, but only on sections where grading has been
completed. Usually about eight passes of a roller will be needed to achieve
full compaction (less passes with vibration), working towards the centre of
the road. Shoulders are treated as part of the running surface.
84
Road Surface
Junctions and Bends

Graders must not park up near junctions or bends where they will be a
danger to traffic.
Check the Camber

Camber should be checked with a
camber board at about 100 metre
intervals along the road. To use the
camber board place it on its edge
across the road with the shorter end
pointing towards the centre line.
Check the level bubble. If it is central,
the camber is correct. If it is not
central, the camber is either too steep
or too flat and further grading and
compaction are required.
Superelevation
On bends the surface must be straight (at 4-6%) from shoulder to shoulder
with the outer shoulder higher. This is called superelevation. This is because
any crown on a bend can be very dangerous to traffic. The superelevation
must be retained for the complete length of the bend.
85
Road Surface
On the transition at each end of the bend into the straight sections, the
superelevation should be gradually reduced until the normal cross section
shape with about 1 in 25 to 1 in 17 (4-6%) crossfall is obtained again.
86
Road Surface
Structures
The shape of the road must be
maintained over culverts to
avoid a hump. Material should
be brought in if necessary from
either side of the culvert to
maintain a cover to the top of
the culvert of at least 3/4 culvert
diameter.
Bridge decks should be kept free

from gravel. Loose material
should be swept away by the
attendants. It is important to
have smooth approaches to the
bridge. They should be smoothed
out using the back of the blade
with the grader working in
reverse, or by hand.
87
Road Surface
Blade position
For most grading work, the cutting blade is

set to be vertical.
For cutting hard surfaces, the cutting blade

should be set back at the top to give the
most effective cutting angle. Scarifying
passes should also be made before cutting.
For spreading, the cutting blade should be

set forward at the top.
88
Structures
STRUCTURES
Defect 16: Debris or Vegetation affecting or endangering Structure
89
Structures
Structure may be damaged or become impassable
 400 Cleaning, Clearing, Sweeping, De-silting,
Unblocking or Removal of vegetation or flood/wind
borne debris (Structure/inlets/outlets)
Debris can be a hazard to traffic, or can cause blockage or turbulence at

a structure causing erosion and damage. It can be expected that each
year there will be an accumulation of debris from road users,
waterborne and flood flows, or normal vegetation growth, which should
be cleared. This is best carried out in the dry season in preparation for
the structure to function properly in the rains.
All debris should be disposed of safely so that there is no further risk to

traffic or structure.
90
Structures
Defect 17: Connectors/fixings are loose/damaged/missing
91
Structures
Structure may be damaged or become impassable
 401 Repair of Loose/missing connectors/fixings
Particularly on timber or steel structures, the fixings may become loose

or be damaged by traffic. If unattended this can lead to part or all of the
structure being damaged. Annual inspections should check all
components of the structure to ensure that the fixtures and fittings are
secure and functioning as intended. Any necessary remedial work should
be arranged.
92
Structures
Defect 18: Planks/Kerbs are damaged/missing
Structure may be damaged or traffic hazard may develop
 402 Replace damaged or missing Planks or Kerbs
Particularly on timber structures, the running boards or kerbs may be

damaged by traffic, may work loose, or be subject to insect attack. Any
damaged, loose or missing components should be re-fixed or replaced.
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Structures
Defect 19: Paintwork defective or damaged
Structural components may corrode and weaken/damage structure
 403 Paint main or minor parts of structure/furniture
Paint will deteriorate with age and its protective function for steelwork
may be impaired. Paintwork may need to be renewed from time to time.
Signs may require to be repainted. Any loose or corroded material
should be removed by wire brushing or paint remover before applying
new paint. Ensure that a suitable type of paint is used.
94
Structures
Defect 20: Danger or evidence of insect or moisture attack of timber
components
Structural components may weaken/damage structure
95
Structures
 404 Apply wood preservative or insect treatment to
timber components
Timber components will require to be re-treated from time to time to

preserve them. Any evidence of insect attack should be investigated and
suitable treatment of the timber carried out. If timber components
become soft or rotten, they should be carefully replaced under the
supervision of an Engineer.
Wood preservation of structural timber can only be thoroughly and

reliably achieved by pressure impregnation where the preservative liquid
is injected deep into the timber. When pressure treatment of
replacement sections cannot be employed, apply a superficial treatment.
This method is only of very limited value and cannot be regarded as
permanent, especially if the wood comes into contact with the soil
or is used in moist climates.
A suggested procedure for superficial treatment is as follows, working

with protective gloves and clothing:
1. Apply the wood preservative) with a paint brush.
2. Ensure the preservative completely covers the wood surface and ends,
and that every crack is also filled with oil. Brush-in at the same time. No
part should be left untreated as fungi could then easily enter.
3. Allow the first coat time to dry.
4. Repeat a second application in the same manner.
5. When the surface of treated wood has been damaged by handling,
transport, bored-bolt holes, or sawing, apply oil treatment to the
exposed surfaces as above before installing in the bridge.
6. After brushing work is completed, clean all brushes and containers
with solvent.
Wash all traces of preservative where it comes in contact
with the skin!
96
Structures
Defect 21: Masonry or concrete or joints defective (minor)
Structure may become damaged by water penetration/seepage
 405 Pointing or Repair of Masonry/Concrete
Minor damage to concrete, masonry or pointing may be repaired by re-

pointing with sand-cement (4:1 ratio) mortar. If there is evidence of
movement in the structure which may have caused the defect to occur,
an Engineer should be advised to check the condition of the structure.
For further guidance refer to Defect 8 Repairs (Page 48).
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Structures
Defect 22: Structure Furniture defective
Components may not carry out their intended function
 406 Repair parapets, marker posts, safety barriers,
signs or other furniture
The various furniture components can deteriorate due to weather, traffic

damage or age. These are important parts of the structure and should be
repaired if necessary to keep them in the intended condition and
function.
98
Road Surface
OCCASIONAL MAINTENANCE – GRAVEL ROAD
Defect 23: Gravel layer too thin
Development, if
neglected:
Road becomes very
rough, slowing and
damaging traffic. Water
ponds on road surface.
Gravel surface loss
increases and danger of
total gravel layer loss
and road being
impassable.
 317 Gravel Resurfacing (Selected Material)
 318 Gravel Resurfacing (Crushed Aggregate)
Gravel surfaces wear down due to the wasting effects of traffic and weather.
Loss rates can be up to 5cm thickness each year or more even on a Low
Traffic Volume Road. Re-gravelling will be required when (or before) the
residual thickness of gravel reduces to about 5 – 8 cm, otherwise there is a
danger of vehicle wheels ‘punching’ through to the weaker material below.
This would result in mixing and effectively the loss of the gravel layer.
Great care should be taken in locating and selecting suitable gravel material.
It should be obtained from a recognized approved source and meet
materials specification requirements. This can be either selected gravel
material, or crushed stone aggregate with sufficient fine material to bind the
material together.
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Road Surface
Gravel or crushed stone should not contain any pieces larger than 3cm, as
this will seriously affect performance. ‘Oversize’ pieces should be hand-
picked or ‘screened’ out. Due to the high cost of re-gravelling, technical
advice should be obtained on sources and material suitability. It is likely that
re-gravelling will be very expensive if the material has to be hauled more
than 10km, and other types of road surface may be more economical.
100
Road Surface
Diversion?
Wherever possible, before the re-gravelling work starts, a diversion should
be opened up adjacent to the road. If traffic is diverted from the work site, it
will enable the job to be carried out more efficiently and safely.
Quarry or Borrow Pit

Before the regravelling work starts, gravel should be tested for compliance
with specifications and stockpiled at the quarry or borrow pit. It may also be
helpful to start hauling the material to site.
Plan the quarry excavations and stockpiles so that:
– the quarry can be fully exploited with removal of the maximum
amount of good gravel,
– the overburden is stockpiled so that it will not hinder future
extension, and that it can be used to reinstate the quarry,
– the best material is taken, where gravel quality is variable within
the quarry,
– material is stockpiled to minimise segregation,
– environmental damage by poor drainage and erosion is minimised
both during and after exploitation of the quarry.
The quarry layout should:
– permit efficient excavation and stockpiling of gravel,
– allow the trucks, tractor and trailers or other haulage vehicles to
enter and
leave
without
obstructions.
Repair the quarry
access road, if
necessary, to ensure
safe passage of
haulage vehicles.
101
Road Surface
Site Preparation
Traffic warning signs should be place at either end
of the re-gravelling site.
The existing road surface must be graded-off or
reshaped by hand to provide a firm regular surface
on which to work. Where possible, the edges
should be ‘boxed’ to provide lateral support for
the new gravel. The graded/reshaped surface should be watered and
compacted. The camber should be checked with a camber board and the
road level should fall 4 to 6 cm for each one metre width of road (4-6 %).
The road drainage system should be checked and repaired if necessary (see
Drainage defects and activities), otherwise the performance of the new
gravel surface will be affected.
At the quarry or borrow pit, the bulldozer or excavation labourers should
have stockpiled sufficient gravel for the work. The excavating and stockpiling
of gravel should create low, broad heaps to prevent segregation of the
coarser material.
102
Road Surface
Gravelling operations
When the initial grading/shaping of the road surface is complete, the loader
or the quarry labour should start to load the tippers or trailers with gravel
for transport to the re-gravelling site.
The supervisor at the quarry should ensure that gravel is taken from the
correct stockpiles and that the trucks/trailers are loaded correctly. Tippers
or tractor trailers should always circulate continuously between the quarry
and the site. Loading resources should be adjusted to try to keep the
haulage equipment working continuously.
– Dumping should start at the
far end of the site so that
the heaps of gravel do not
impede tippers or other
haulage vehicles delivering
later loads.
– Material should be dumped
on one side of the road
only.
– Loads should be placed at
the correct spacing as
instructed by the
supervisor, necessary to
give the required thickness
of gravel over the complete
road width after
compaction.
– If the road is not closed, material should be dumped on the
shoulder, or dumped and spread immediately by labour.
– The tankers or towed bowsers should have filled up with water
using the pump and then have driven to the site.
– Initially the existing road surface is sprayed with water.
– Spreading of the gravel can start when there is a working length of
about 200 metres of dumped material if using a motor or towed
grader. If spreading is by labour, the gravel can be spread as soon
103
Road Surface
as it is dumped, or
even unloaded by
labour if non-tipping
haulage equipment is
used.
– The material is
alternately spread by
the grader/labour
and watered with the
tanker/bowser until its moisture content is correct for compaction.
– The amount of water to be added must be determined by moisture
content tests on site or by the supervisor.
– The tankers/bowsers circulate continuously between the site and
the source of water.
– The new material is now graded or spread by labour to produce a
camber of 4 to 6 cm for each one metre width of road (4 to 6 %).
Guide pegs and stringlines should used if labour spreading is used.
– The camber should now be

checked with the camber board
at approximately 100 metre
intervals along the road for
machine spreading and every 10
metres if labour is used.
– To use the camber board, place
104
Road Surface
it on its edge across the road with the shorter end pointing towards
the centre line. Check the level bubble.
– If it is central, the camber is correct.
– If it is not central, the camber is either too steep or flat and further
grading/manual reshaping, and compaction are required.
– When the correct camber has been achieved, compaction can start
using a self propelled or towed roller, or a pedestrian vibrating
roller for labour works.
– Water should not be added during rolling as the material may stick
to the wheels or drums.
– Rolling should start at the edge of the road and work towards the
middle. The roller should aim to progress from section to section at
the same rate as the grader or labour operations.
– Typically about eight passes of the roller will be needed to achieve

full compaction. Test the placed gravel for specification compliance.
– It is possible to re-gravel without the use of water and compaction,
but it is difficult to achieve satisfactory results, and subsequent
gravel material loss from the surface will be faster. The watering
and compaction help to preserve the investment in the gravel.
105
Road Surface
OCCASIONAL MAINTENANCE – PAVED ROAD
Defect 24: Paved road pothole or surface defect
Road becomes very rough, slowing and damaging traffic. Water ponds on
road surface, speeding the deterioration and increasing risk of accidents.
Road user costs increase substantially. Road may become impassable.
106
Road Surface
Depending on the type of paved road surface:
113a Spot /pothole Repair (Macadam)
113b Spot /pothole Repair (Stone setts)
113c Spot /pothole Repair (Mortared stone)
113d Spot /pothole Repair (Dressed stone)
113e Spot /pothole Repair (Emulsion chip seal)
113f Spot /pothole Repair (Emulsion sand seal)
113g Spot /pothole Repair (Emulsion gravel/slurry seal)
113h Spot /pothole Repair (Un-mortared brick)
113i Spot /pothole Repair (Mortar jointed brick)
113j Spot /pothole Repair (Non- reinforced concrete)
114 Crack Sealing
107
Road Surface
Although well constructed paved roads or sections should give many years
of trouble-free service, from time to time defects can be expected to
develop in any surface, such as:
– Cracking
– Rutting
– Potholes, or
– Edge break
108
Road Surface
These defects are normally limited in extent and
can be repaired using labour, suitable hand tools
and limited materials. Heavy equipment is not
normally required. Compaction equipment may be
required. However, light equipment or hand
rammers will normally be adequate. Any work on
the road surface should be signed either side of the repairs to warn road
users and for the safety of those carrying out the work.
For all of the paved road surface types, the repair techniques are very
similar, and consist of:
 Marking out the area to be repaired

 Excavation of the area to be repaired
 Backfilling the hole with new material
Marking out the area to be repaired

The area to be treated is marked out with chalk by
drawing a rectangle around the defects.
109
Road Surface
Excavation of the area to be repaired
It is necessary to:
– remove all loose or damaged material from within the marked out
area of the road surface back to a firm, sound material.
Sledgehammers, crowbars, hammers and chisels may be required,
– increase the depth of the hole until firm, dry material is found and
then trim the walls of the hole so that they are vertical. If water or
excessive moisture is present, then arrangements must be made to
drain it away from the pavement foundation,
– trim the bottom of the hole such that it is flat, horizontal and free
from loose material then compact it with a hand rammer.
110
Road Surface
Backfilling the hole with new material
The repair will depend on the type of surface. Specifications and

requirements on each material are contained in the South Sudan
Specifications for new works. The same specifications and standards should
be applied to the repair.
The hole is filled with a selected material to match the existing surrounding
good surface and base materials. This can consist of new material, or in the
case of e.g. stone paving, recycled undamaged pieces.
The material is placed in the hole and compacted in one or more layers of
regular thickness depending on the depth and materials involved.
When using granular materials, generally, the last layer, prior to

compaction, must have an excess thickness of about 1/5 the depth of the
final layer, in order to allow for settlement on compaction.
Compaction is continued depending on the size of the excavation, using the

vibrating roller, plate compactor or with a hand rammer, until the surface is
level.
111
Road Surface
112
Road Surface
Porous repairs will require a seal coat to prevent penetration of water.
113
Structures
STRUCTURES
Cross drainage structures (bridges, drifts or culverts) usually account for a

high proportion of the total cost of a road. They are the potential weak
points in a road network due to the possible damaging effects of floods and
high water flows being concentrated at the points where the water crosses
the road. The failure of these structures would result in high replacement
costs and long delays and user inconvenience due to the closure of the road.
It is particularly important therefore, that sufficient attention is given to
structures to ensure that they are maintained in good condition.
A bridge, culvert or other structure is an integral part of the road, and its
condition will affect the level of service that the road provides. A structure
should be designed so that no major repair works should be required during
its ‘design life’ (e.g. replacement of abutments, piers or deck structural
members). Eventually major works may be required such as a complete new
timber bridge deck or safety barrier replacement. However, the structure
should be designed to provide many years of service through its design life
with only minor maintenance.
Importantly, if the maintenance is not carried out, there can be serious

consequences for road users. It can result in increased safety hazards,
reduced quality of service or even loss of the structure and severing of the
transport link.
It is usually not possible with the resources available in developing countries

to devise a ‘maintenance-free structure’ for a watercourse crossing.
However, application of the design and construction guidelines contained in
this South Sudan LVR Manual should reduce maintenance requirements to
an acceptable and manageable level. Conversely, poor design or
construction will result in an abnormally high requirement for maintenance,
or even eventual loss of the structure.
114
Structures
There are a number of aspects which should be appreciated in devising

appropriate management and maintenance arrangements for structures.
This applies to consideration of an individual structure, or a large number
constructed at various locations on a road network.
 Structures will often need no maintenance for periods of many

months or sometimes even years.
 Deterioration or damage to a structure can progress slowly (e.g.
corrosion, attack by insects), or suddenly (e.g. in a flood or vehicle
accident).
 The need for repairs may not be obvious to road users or through
casual observation from the road. However, the deterioration can
progress, if not checked, to result in the need for major works at
great cost and requiring substantial unplanned resource
mobilisation.
 The resources for maintenance and repair of a typical structure are
required intermittently, not continuously.
 It is usually most efficient to provide maintenance resources only
when the structure requires maintenance or repair works.
It is important to ensure the maintenance of a structure so that it remains in

its intended condition, providing the service and benefits to road users and
the community that it was designed for. It is an asset that needs to be
managed.
It is advisable to inspect all structures at least once each year. This is best
achieved after the rains, so that any remedial works can be planned to be
carried out before the next rains.
115
Structures
Defect 25: Random stone filling defective
Erosion of structural protection and possible structural damage
 410 Repair Random Stone filling
Random stone filling is provided to protect the structure and the

adjacent areas from erosion, particularly when the watercourse is in
flood condition. The stone filling may become defective due to ground
settlement or erosion in flood conditions. Minor repairs can be carried
out by topping up the stone with similar material to the original
constructed profile. If the defects are extensive, an Engineer should be
consulted to investigate the cause and plan suitable remedial works.
116
Structures
Defect 26: Retaining wall defective
The road works, earthworks or structure protected by the retaining wall
may be endangered and the route may become impassable
411 Retaining Wall Repairs
It is important to determine the cause of the defective retaining wall,

which may be due to settlement, erosion, water seepage or structural
failure. Any defects should be brought to the attention of an Engineer to
investigate the cause and plan suitable remedial works.
117
Structures
Defect 27: River or stream bed scoured adjacent to structure
Scour adjacent to the structure can cause failure of the abutments or
piers and causing the structure to become un-usable.
412 Watercourse scour repairs
Loss of riverbed material by fast flowing water at piers, abutments and

wing walls is best identified and repaired at low water level or when the
river bed is dry.
The scoured area should be refilled with rock using stone pieces of 10 to
30 kg weight, or heavier. The decision on stone size must be made,
taking into account what is locally economically available.
In serious cases further protection, such as gabions, may be required.
118
Structures
IF SCOUR AREA DRIES OUT:

1. Stake out the area around the pier or wall where scour has occurred.
2. Excavate to estimated lowest scour level.
3. Place riprap stone in layers in the excavation, starting with the smaller
size stone in the lowest layer.
4. Fill spaces between stones with smaller size stone.
5. Continue work layer after layer until normal bed level is reached. The top
layer should contain the heaviest stones and have a flat even surface at river
bed level.
IF SCOURED AREA IS SUBMERGED:

When it is not possible to place the riprap apron in regular layers due to
water flow, the scour area can be filled by random filling of the scour
depression.
1. Establish the extent of scour by survey, plumbing the riverbed. Use poles
or marker buoys to identify the extent of the work required.
2. Using stone blocks as above, drop riprap material into the scour
depression from the bridge, a boat or from the bank until the depression has
been filled. Re-plumb the riverbed throughout the work to check progress.
119
Structures
Defect 28: Gabion walls or mattress defective
The road works, earthworks or structure protected by the gabions may
be endangered and the route may become impassable
413 Gabion Basket Repairs
If the defects are extensive, the gabion structure, or part of it, may need
to be reconstructed.
Refer to the details and description for Defect 10.
120
Structures
Defect 29: Structural Repairs of serious defects
121
Structures
Serious damage to or failure of the structure. Route may become
impassable.
414 Major Structural Repairs
Structural repairs may be required for the following serious defects:
 structural timber decay, splitting or insect attack

 bulging masonry
 cracked concrete or masonry
 honeycombed concrete
 spalling concrete
 serious rust or chemical stains
 exposed or corroding reinforcement or pre-stressing steel
 damp patches on concrete
 seriously corroded structural steelwork
 damaged/distorted structural steelwork
 missing/loose rivets, bolts or other fixings
 cracks in structural steelwork
 settlement of deck, piers, abutments or wingwalls
 expansion joint or bearing defects
 erosion requiring piling works.
These major defects will require the expertise of an Engineer to assess

and design/specify the remedial works in response to the scale and
nature of the defects. It is likely that Plans, Drawings, Specifications and
Bills of Quantities will need to be prepared for these major works.
122
Structures
IN SUMMARY
GOOD, REGULAR ROAD AND STRUCTURES MAINTENANCE WILL

PRESERVE ASSETS AND SHOULD PREVENT ACCESS BEING SEVERED,
AND RURAL COMMUNITIES BEING ISOLATED!
123
Management, Advice and Assistance
11. MANAGEMENT & PRIORITIES
With limited resources, it is usually necessary to set priorities for

carrying out maintenance work. Maintenance should always take
priority over any route upgrading or improvement works. Protect
what you have before extending your assets and liabilities!
Furthermore, maintenance is most effective when applied to

‘maintainable’ routes, that is, those with a road camber and drainage
system already established. This is preferable to trying to work on un-
drained tracks and sunken road sections, which will consume a lot of
resources with limited impact and durability.
The usual questions are:
 Which Route?, and

 Which maintenance activity?
Route Priorities
Within the community, the routes with the higher maintenance

priorities should be agreed. For simplicity and clarity it is best to
divide all routes into 2 or 3 priority groups based on the following
suggested criteria:
 Strategic inter-community or main road links

 Is it maintainable? That is, does it already have camber and
working drainage system?
 Traffic: high (e.g. more than 25 motor vehicles/day) or low
 Population served
 Value of volume of crops extracted each year
 Serving markets, educational or health facilities
124
It is useful to list the routes as an Inventory of assets to be managed,
as an aid to planning and management, for example:
EXAMPLE INVENTORY
Route Length (km) Daily traffic in Reasons for Days

motor vehicles priority impassable
(date of survey) last year
Priority A
Main road to A 6.4km gravel 65 (July 2010) Main Access, 0
No alternative
route
A to village B 3.5km earth with 50 (April 2010) School and crop 0
spot paving exports
Priority B
A to village C 4.5km earth 20 (January Horticultural, 2
2010) Key bridge
Village B to C 5.0km earth 12 (October Dispensary 10
Village C to D 7.0km earth 2009) Pottery, sunken 25
<10 (July 2010) sections
It is beneficial for this information to be displayed at prominent

community locations, and updated regularly.
Maintenance Activity Priorities
Where it is possible to arrange route maintenance on a number of

occasions each year, the following seasonal priorities should be made
for each group of maintenance activities:
BEFORE RAINS: Drainage & Structures
DURING RAINS: Drainage & Road Surface unpaved road sections
AFTER RAINS: Road Surface paved sections & Roadside activities

& Occasional maintenance, Inspect Structures.
125
In this way the vital road drainage system and crossings are prepared
before the rainy periods and are kept functioning through the rains.
The earth and gravel surfaces are most effectively maintained during
the rains (provided they have not been allowed to deteriorate too
much to require reconstruction) when there is moisture in the
materials to help consolidate them after reshaping. Paved road
surfaces will usually develop any defects during the rains and are best
repaired when the drier weather comes.
Some variations to these general priorities may be applied due to

local conditions.
If a route becomes blocked or totally impassable, this is no longer a

maintenance problem. It will usually require the reasons to be
investigated and additional resources required to re-open it.
Assistance or advice may be required from MRB or local authorities.
Upgrading or Spot Improvement Priorities
Each year, and for each route, an assessment should be made of any
desirable spot improvements that should be made if resources are
available. These could include any of the options listed on Page 8.
Management of Structures
The maintenance works required to be carried out on a structure will range

from basic seasonal clearing of silt and debris (Regular or Routine
Maintenance) to ensure it continues to function properly, through to
replacement of components of the structure when they are worn out or
damaged. It can be expected that ALL structures will normally require at
least some basic maintenance each year.
It is necessary to set up a management system to ensure that the structure
stays in a condition that it is able to carry out its function in a safe manner.
126
In essence this ‘system’ should identify defects and when work needs to be
carried out. From this assessment the maintenance funding and works can
be arranged and supervised to ensure that the maintenance is completed
satisfactorily.
A system of inspections is required to identify any damage or deterioration
of the structure, or problems adjacent to the structure which may threaten
its stability.
The key components of a structures management system are:
 An inventory of all structures (i.e. What is the asset? What are its
key features? These are management records which generally do
not change with time, except for new structures or after major
structural changes to an existing one);
 An inspection system (to determine the condition and repair
needs);
 Arrangements for specifying, arranging, supervising,
recording/reporting and paying for the works. Arrangements
should also be in place for checking the ‘value for money’ of
maintenance operations and expenditures.
TRL Overseas Road Note 7 (Reference 12) provides comprehensive

guidelines on the inspection and documentation of inventory and condition
information on structures. A paper based system is quite adequate for Low
Volume Roads. Computer systems can help if the number of structures
being managed is substantial and the operating environment can support
the maintenance of the computer system itself, including arrangements for
the on-going support, costs and skilled resources required. In a limited
resource environment it can be difficult to justify and secure the recurring
costs of administration, computer support personnel and inevitable
software and hardware upgrades required for a computer system; i.e. there
can be an undue and unnecessary dependence on external resources.
Certain maintenance activities such as de-silting and removal of debris

should be carried out under a routine programme of works. For example,
127
before the rainy season all silt should be removed from culverts, their inlets
and outlet channels. After the rains, and particularly after individual floods,
silt and debris should be cleared from structures to avoid later damage due
to blockages or diversion/ concentration of water.
These routine clearing operations are an ideal opportunity to carry out an

inspection of a structure. With the scarcity and expense of engineering
personnel, it is possible to train persons with limited education (e.g. the
gang leader) to carry out inspections and to alert engineering staff to
situations that require their action.
Inspections of ALL structures should be carried out after a flood situation as

this is the most likely time for damage to have occurred. Particular attention
should be paid to identifying any movement, especially at joints,
cracking/spalling and assessing whether erosion has occurred around
abutments and piers, or at the ends of aprons. Where water is permanently
standing against the structure, probing with ranging rods, poles or plumb
lines should be carried out to identify unseen scouring. A boat or raft may
be required for this inspection.
All structures, from culverts to bridges, should receive a documented

routine inspection at least once each year. As indicated above these can be
carried out by relatively unskilled personnel if the appropriate training is
provided. Inspection records should be carefully filed for future reference.
Even a report of ‘no defects’ is important management information.
The management of a structure costs money and, even before a structure is

built, the ongoing provision of the funds and resources for the management
(including inspections), as well as the maintenance of the structure, should
be assured.
128
11. WORK OPTIONS
There are a number of ways that maintenance work can be organised
depending on the financial and human resources available, and ‘in-
house’ capacity of the responsible authority or organisation.
In practical terms, the maintenance of Low traffic Volume Roads

(LVR) will be carried out principally by labour methods with possible
occasional support of intermediate or heavy equipment. The last
option is often too expensive to mobilise and inefficient for remote
rural road works.
All options will require appropriate levels of training and mentoring,

and management arrangements.
The main work organization options are detailed in this section with
their typical advantages and disadvantages. The Works Options are:
 Option 1- Small Contractor (Private)

 Option 2 - Force Account
 Option 3- Community Group
 Option 4 - Length Person or Family Contract
 Option 5 - Compulsory/Voluntary Labour
 Option 6 - Hire-in equipment
 Option 7- Large Contractor Based System
Option 1- Small Contractor (Private)
The small enterprises will be based in the state or local area of the
road. They may be general or building contractors with established
contracting experience in earthworks, masonry and concrete. They
would be expected particularly to make use of local labour, and may
have access to light equipment such as a small compacter, concrete
mixer or tractor. This implementation option can be suitable for All
Maintenance activities and for all types of road surface.
129
Advantages:
 Overheads lower than big contractor
 Low mobilization and demobilization costs
 Construction experience of the enterprise
 Available range of building and maintenance skills
 Local enterprise committed to the community
 Good prospects for local employment and money being
injected into the community
Disadvantages:
 Time, resources and costs involved with preparing and
managing the contract
 Market for maintenance works currently not developed so
prices may be distorted (guideline unit costs should be
available from MRB or local authorities)
 Small contractor may have to hire in some equipment
 May initially require some training/ mentoring, or a higher level
of supervision than large contractors
 May have difficulty in obtaining credit for purchases, or
financing cash flow
 Insufficient funds currently available to pay for this approach
for all maintenance work (but may be suitable for selected
works – see also Option 6)
 Risks of disputes over interpretation of contract responsibilities
Option 2 – Force Account (sometimes called Direct Labour)
This option makes use of a permanently employed and equipped

workforce to carry out the maintenance work such as local road
management units. This implementation option can be suitable for
All Maintenance activities and for all types of surfaces.
130
Advantages:
 Direct response to all maintenance needs
 Rapid mobilization when funds are available
 Retain skills and experience within organization, familiarity
with the network, standards, work methods
 Minimum of works documentation requirements
 Dealings/ disputes with outside parties minimized.
Disadvantages:
 In some cases no budget or funds are currently available for
this option
 Difficulties in equipment procurement & the lowest initial
purchase cost policy can hinder the standardization and
efficiency
 Poor mobility of the workforce around the network unless
transport is provided (at considerable cost)
 Paid labour and equipment may be standing if no funds
available for works
 Possible low efficiency and poor management/use of available
resources, poor cost-awareness
 Little pressure to try new solutions/ technologies
 High mobilization and demobilization costs if sourced from
state or national level
Option 3– Community Group
The use of a group of persons based within the community and

organized specifically to carry out the maintenance works under an
agreement or contract with the community or local authority. This
can be for a single route, or a number of routes serving the
community. This approach differs from the Length person or Family
contract approach only in that the number of persons expected to be
131
involved would be greater, and that consequently work would
probably be concentrated at a particular time or times of the year.
Possibility of organizing annual or regular community ‘day of road
action’ when the whole community works on the road for nominal
payment or arrangement. This implementation option can be
particularly suitable for the Regular Maintenance activities.
Advantages:
 Low cost compared to most other forms of contract (due to low
overheads, low mobilization and demobilization costs, absence
of profit component, and by local participation)
 Can be cash or in-kind payment according to community
circumstances
 Simple contract/agreement required
 Direct response to Regular maintenance needs – Rapid
mobilization, or planned seasonal inputs
 Retain skills and experience within the community, familiarity
with the network and any problem sections
 Close control of the works personnel
 Pride of ‘ownership’ for the network
 No dealings/disputes with parties outside of the community
 Employment and money/resources recycled within the
community
 Employment can be targeted at poor or disadvantaged persons
in the community.
Disadvantages:
 Possibly insufficient cash funds available to pay for this
approach in poor communities
 Possible difficulties in controlling output and quality
 Not suitable in areas of dispersed or low population density
 No equipment capability
132
 May not have access to construction quality hand tools
Option 4 – Length Person or Family Contract
A contract or agreement is drawn up for an individual or family to

carry out specified Regular maintenance activities on a section of
road, at certain times of the year, for a payment in cash or in-kind for
work on a full or part time basis.
Usually a labourer is appointed for a distinct section of road close to

his/her home, typically 1 to 2 km in length. The person walks or
cycles to the work site each work day. He or she is provided with all
the necessary hand tools to carry out all the regular maintenance
activities as instructed by the local authority. An advantage is that
regular maintenance of the entire road can be arranged at all times
and one person can be made fully responsible of a road section. A
disadvantage is that supervision has to mobile and frequent to
ensure that performance does not deteriorate.
Advantages:
 Low cost compared to most other forms of contract (due to low
overheads, low mobilization and demobilization costs, absence
of profit component, and by local participation)
 Can be cash or in-kind payment according to community
circumstances
 Simple contract/agreement required
 Flexible approach to seasonal needs.
 Rapid mobilization by person living ‘on site’
 No dealings/disputes with parties outside of the community
 Employment and money/resources recycled within the
community
133
 Employment can be targeted at poor or disadvantaged persons
in the community
Disadvantages:
 Possibly insufficient cash funds available to pay for this
approach in poor communities
 Possible difficulties in controlling output and quality
 System will degenerate if supervisor is not continuously mobile
and effective in management
Option 5 – Compulsory/Voluntary Labour
The use of local (community) labour to carry out maintenance works

on the roads is one of the options for maintaining community roads.
The approach can be suitable for Regular Maintenance activities. If
the whole community can be persuaded to attend a ‘maintenance
day’ once or twice a year with their hand tools, there will be
sufficient labour resources to carry out the necessary maintenance
work under the guidance of a trained supervisor. This is the cheapest
way to maintain a LVR and involves no taxation or levy to the
community. Everybody contributes and benefits equitably. Wealthier
inhabitants, traders or other well-wishers could contribute hand
tools, equipment hire or food to create a community occasion.
Advantages:
 No financing or cash accounting involved
 In richer communities, individuals can elect to pay cash instead.
This can provide funding for materials, handtools and
equipment hire, or even paid labour
 Minimum of works documentation requirements
134
 Direct response to all maintenance needs
 Rapid mobilization
 Retain skills & experience within community
 Direct supervision of works
 No dealings/disputes with outside parties
Disadvantages
 All persons contribute equally, whether rich or poor
 Can be a severe burden on the community’s poorest persons
 Difficulties in controlling output and quality
 Not suitable for work during the agricultural ‘high’ season
 Few prospects for PAID community employment or money
being injected into the community
 May initially require some supervisor and ‘gang leader’
training/ mentoring,
Option 6 – Hire-in equipment
This is an option to supplement the other options to provide

equipment for specific operations such as towed grading or haulage.
The funding could be provided by the local authority if available, or a
benevolent trader, farmer or other well-wisher.
Option 7 – Large Contractor Based System
The employment of a large equipment-based contractor may be

considered. They are usually based in state centres or Juba and their
overheads, mobilization and demobilization costs and profit
components would be very high. Therefore, the costs would be
135
extremely high and unlikely to be affordable by the community or
local authority. In cases where a contractor is funded externally to
construct a road, this contractor may be engaged as part of the
contract to maintain the road for some years after the final
construction acceptance is finalized.
136
12. PLANNING AND PRODUCTIVITY
It is important to plan the maintenance works according to the defect

repair needs, the priorities and the resources available to carry out
the works.
The following labour resource requirements were developed from

research in East Africa and can be used as an outline planning guide.
OUTLINE REGULAR MAINTENANCE PLANNING FOR LVRs
Number of Person-days of work expected/km/year

Number of Gravel Gravel Earth Earth
"wet" months <50vpd >50vpd <50vpd >50vpd
4 40 45 45 52
8 68 75 79 88
12 100 107 115 125
NOTES:
i Number of “wet” months per year are with rainfall >25mm.
ii Estimates assume ‘maintainable’ road with proper camber and
drainage system and gradients <6%. Not applicable for problem
soils such as ‘black cotton’.
iii Does not include Occasional works such as re-gravelling.
With good record keeping a similar table can be developed for each
community. Equipment inputs may be required for materials haulage
and towed grading. Earth and gravel roads require reshaping/grading
typically between 1 and 4 times per year. These estimates will help to
make resource and cost estimates for each road each year.
137
Productivity Targets
To plan and manage maintenance works it is useful to have

productivity Standards, Norms or Targets. These need to be flexible
considering the variable nature of LVR maintenance works,
experience of the supervisor and workforce, and whether the work is
carried out on a paid or voluntary basis. Development of local Norms
or Targets can take considerable time to achieve. The following
Targets were developed from research in East Africa and practice in
Southern Africa, and can serve as a reference point. The standards
were developed under close supervision conditions, with a well
trained workforce. They represent the best productivities that can be
achieved with a well organised and managed workforce. They should
therefore be as targets to be worked towards. It is expected that
under normal conditions 60 – 80% of the productivity standards
should be achieved. Good record keeping can allow local productivity
standards to be developed over time.
138
139
140
13. FURTHER ADVICE AND ASSISTANCE
Documentation
The following documents and publications may be accessed for further

information. Some of these documents may be accessed or downloaded
free of charge from www.gtkp.com .
1. Ethiopian Road Authority, LVR Design Manual, 2011

2. Ethiopian Road Authority, Maintenance Technical Specifications
3. Ethiopian Road Authority & Intech, Intermediate Technology
Roadworks Equipment, Final Report, November 2010
4. Gongera K & Petts R C, A Tractor and Labour Based Routine
nd
Maintenance System for Unpaved Rural Roads, 2 Edition, 2003
5. ILO, Guide to Tools and Equipment for Labour Based Road
Construction, 1981
6. Intech Associates & MOPW Kenya, Road Maintenance Manual, 1992
7. Intech Beusch & Ministry of Roads and Public Works, Operations
Manual Roads 2000, 2005
8. I&D Consult & MOPW Kenya, Headmans Handbook for Maintenance,
1991
9. Jones T E & Petts R C, Maintenance of Minor Roads in Kenya, TRB
Fifth International Conference on Low Volume Roads, USA, 1991
10. OtB, Low Volume Rural Road Surfacing and Pavements - A Guide to
Good Practice, 2013
11. Petts R C, Handbook of Intermediate Equipment, 2012
12. Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Overseas Road Note 7,
Volume 2, Bridge Inspector’s Handbook, 1988
13. World Road Association (PIARC), International Road Maintenance
Handbook, 4 Volumes, 1994 and revisions
141
Knowledge Sources
1. Global Transport Knowledge Partnership, www.gtkp.com,

[email protected]
2. Transport Research Laboratory, UK
3. CSIR, South Africa
4. Indian Roads Congress
5. Various road sector Technology Transfer Centres
Expertise
1. Ministry of Roads and Bridges , Juba

2. State Road Authorities
3. Locally operating agencies (in 2012 these included UNOPS, WFP,
USAID and some specialist Engineering Consultants).
Financial or other support
It is appreciated that communities and local authorities have very limited

resources and funding available for improving or maintaining rural access
roads. However, regional, national and international organisations may be
interested to help with partial funding for cost-effective, well-targeted rural
transport development initiatives which can demonstrate rural
development or poverty reduction benefits.
The following organisations have previously supported rural transport

initiatives. Details of their headquarter and local representative offices may
be obtained from the internet.
 African Development Bank

 Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa
 CARE
 DANIDA
 DFID, UK
 DGIS (Netherlands)
142
 FINNIDA (Finland)
 Helvetas (Switzerland)
 Irish Aid
 Islamic Development Bank
 Kuwait Fund
 NORAD (Norway)
 OPEC Fund for International Development
 Saudi Fund for Development
 Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC)
 SIDA
 UNOPS
 USAID (USA)
 WFP
 World Bank
143
Terminology
14. TERMINOLOGY
Abney Level - Small hand held slope measuring and levelling equipment.
Aggregate - Hard mineral elements of construction material mixtures, for
example: sand, gravel, crushed rock.
Aggregate Brooming - Using a broom to spread chippings on a surface.
Alligator Cracks - See Crazing.
Apron - The flat invert of the culvert inlet or outlet.
Asphalt - Another word for bitumen. Sometimes used to describe plant
mixed bituminous materials.
Asphaltic Concrete - A high quality manufactured mixture of bitumen and
aggregates. Expensive and usually only used on main roads.
Attendant or Lengthman - A person contracted or appointed to maintain a
section of road. Can be male or female and the term ‘Attendant’ or
‘Lengthman’ assumes either sex.
Basin - A structure at a culvert inlet or outlet to contain turbulence and
prevent erosion.
Berm - A low ridge or bund of soil to collect or redirect surface water.
Bituminous Slurry (Slurry-Seal) - Mixture, usually of fine-grained aggregates,
water, bituminous binder (emulsion), cement, and sometimes an additive,
for a road surface seal.
Bituminous Binder (Asphalt) - A petroleum oil based or natural product
used to bind or coat aggregates for road pavements.
Black Cotton Soil - An expansive clay found widely in the North East of the
country that expands and looses most of its strength when wetted
Bleeding - Defect: Excess binder on the surface of the pavement.
Blinding -
a) A layer of lean concrete, usually 5 to 10 cm thick, placed on soil to seal it
and provide a clean and level working surface to build the foundations of a
wall, or any other structure.
b) An application of fine material e.g. sand, to fill voids in the surface of a
pavement or earthworks layer.
Block Cracking - Defect: Interconnected cracks forming a series of large
blocks usually with sharp corners or angles.
144
Terminology
Brick (clay) - A hard durable block of material formed from burning (firing)
clay at high temperature.
Bridge - A structure usually with a span of 5 metres or more, providing a
means of crossing above water, a railway or another obstruction, whether
natural or artificial. A bridge consists of abutments, deck and sometimes
wingwalls and piers, or may be an arch.
Camber - The road surface is normally shaped to fall away from the centre
line to either side. The camber is necessary to shed rain water and reduce
the risk of passing vehicles colliding. The slope of the camber is called the
crossfall. On sharp bends the road surface should fall directly from the
outside of the bend to the inside (superelevation).
Camber Board - Apparatus for checking the crossfall of the road camber, or
the shoulder.
Cape Seal - A road surface layer formed by slurry seal laid on top of a
bituminous chip seal.
Carriageway - The road pavement or bridge deck surface on which vehicles
travel.
Cascade - A drainage channel with a series of steps, sometimes with
intermediate silt traps or ponds, to take water down a steep slope.
Catchpit - A manhole or open structure with a sump to collect silt.
Catchwater Drain - See Cutoff.
Causeway or Vented Drift - Low level structure constructed across streams
or rivers with openings to permit water to pass below road level. The
causeway may become submerged in flood conditions.
Chippings - Clean, strong, durable pieces of stone made by crushing or
napping rock. The chippings are usually screened to obtain material in a
small size range.
Chip Seal - A surface layer formed by stone chippings laid onto a bituminous
seal coat.
Chute - An inclined pipe, drain or channel constructed in or on a slope.
Cobble Stone (Dressed stone) - Cubic pieces of stone larger than setts,
usually shaped by hand and built into a road surface layer or surface
protection.
145
Terminology
Coffer Dam - A temporary dam built above the ground to give access to an
area which is normally, or has a risk of being, submerged or waterlogged.
Cofferdams may be constructed of soil, sandbags or sheetpiles.
Compaction - Reduction in bulk of fill or other material by rolling or
tamping.
Counterfort Drain - A drain running down a slope and excavated into it. The
excavation is partly or completely filled with free draining material to allow
ground water to escape.
Cracking - Defect: Narrow breaks in a surfacing or pavement material caused
by overloading, fatigue or weakness of the material.
Crazing (Alligator Cracks) - Defect: Interconnecting network of cracks in the
road surfacing.
Cribwork - Timber or reinforced concrete beams laid in an interlocking grid,
and filled with soil to form a retaining wall.
Cut-off/Catchwater Drain - A ditch constructed uphill from a cutting face to
intercept surface water flowing towards the road.
Debris Rack or Grill - Grill, grid or post structure located near a culvert
entrance to hold back floating debris too large to pass through the culvert.
Deck - The part of a bridge that spans between abutments or pier
supports, and carries the road traffic.
Depression - Defect: Localised low areas of limited size in the pavement
surface or in any other surface.
Ditch (Drain) - A long narrow excavation designed or intended to collect and
drain off surface water.
Drag - An apparatus towed behind a vehicle or piece of equipment to
remove minor irregularities and redistribute loose surface material.
Drainage - Interception and removal of ground water and surface water by
artificial or natural means.
Drainage Pipe - An underground pipe to carry water.
Dressed Stone - See Cobble Stone.
Drift or Ford - A stream or river crossing at bed level over which the stream
or river water can flow.
Earth Road - See ENS.
146
Terminology
Edge Cracking - Defect: Longitudinal cracking near the edge of the
pavement.
Embankment - Constructed earthworks below the pavement raising the
road above the surrounding natural ground level.
ENS (Engineered Natural Surface) - An earth road built from the soil in place
at the road location, and provided with a camber and drainage system
Excess Aggregate - Defect: Aggregate particles not coated with binder after
application of binder.
Flow Spreader - A structure designed to disperse the flow at the outfall of a
ditch or drain to minimise the risk of erosion down stream.
Fog Seal - A very light film of binder sprayed onto a road to bind or enrich
the surface.
Ford - See Drift
Formation - The shaped surface of the earthworks, or subgrade, before
constructing the pavement layers.
Fretting - Defect: The loss of chippings from the surface seal or premix layer
due to poor bond between the aggregate and the seal or binder.
Gabion - Stone-filled wire or steel mesh cage. Gabions are often used as
retaining walls or river bank scour protection structures.
Glazing - Defect: Wear or embedment of chippings in the surfacing giving a
smooth, shiny appearance.
Hand Packed Stone - A layer of large, angular broken stones laid by hand
with smaller stones or gravel rammed into the spaces between stones to
form a road surface layer.
Incremental paving - Road surface comprising small blocks such as shaped
stone (setts) or bricks, jointed with sand or mortar.
Invert - The lowest point of the internal cross-section of a ditch or culvert.
Layby - An area adjacent to the road for the temporary parking of vehicles.
Lengthman - See Attendant.
Loss of Surface Aggregate - Defect: Removal of aggregate from a surface
dressing, or from surfacings with coated aggregate, or concrete.
Macadam - A mixture of broken or crushed stone of various sizes (usually
less than 3cm) laid to form a road surface layer.
Manhole - Accessible pit with a cover forming part of the drainage system
147
Terminology
and permitting inspection and maintenance of underground drainage pipes.
Margins - The right of way or land area maintained or owned by the road
authority.
Mitre Drain (Turn Out Drain) - leads water away from the Side Drains to the
adjoining land.
Occasional Maintenance - Operations that are occasionally required on a
section of road after a period of a number of years. Sometimes referred to
as Periodic Maintenance.
Ottaseal - A surface layer formed by rolling natural gravel into a soft
bituminous seal coat.
Outfall - Discharge end of a ditch or culvert.
Parapet - The protective edge, barrier, wall or railing at the edge of a bridge
deck.
Pass - A single longitudinal traverse made by a grader, roller or other
piece of equipment working on the road.
Patching - The execution of minor local repairs to the pavement and
shoulders.
Pavé - See Sett
Paved Road - For the purpose of this booklet, a paved road is a road with a
Stone, Bituminous, Brick or Concrete surfacing.
Pavement - The constructed layers of the road on which the vehicles travel.
Permeable Soils - Soils through which water will drain easily e.g. sandy soils.
Clays are generally impermeable except when cracked or fissured (e.g.
‘Black Cotton’ soil in dry weather).
Plumbing - Using a calibrated line, with a weight attached to the bottom, to
measure the depth of water (e.g. for checking erosion by a structure).
Profile - An adjustable board attached to a ranging rod for setting out.
Ravelling - See Stripping.
Regular Maintenance - Operations required to be carried out once or more
per year on a section of road. These operations are typically small scale or
simple, but widely dispersed, and require un-skilled or trained manpower.
Sometimes referred to as Routine Maintenance.
Reinforced Concrete - A mixture of coarse and fine stone aggregate bound
with cement and water and reinforced with steel roads for added strength.
148
Terminology
Riprap - Stones, usually between 5 to 50 kg, used to protect the banks or
bed of a river or watercourse from scour.
Road Base and Subbase - Pavement courses between surfacing and
subgrade.
Road Maintenance - Suitable regular and occasional activities to keep
pavement, shoulders, slopes, drainage facilities and all other structures and
property within the road margins as near as possible to their as constructed
or renewed condition. Maintenance includes minor repairs and
improvements to eliminate the cause of defects and avoid excessive
repetition of maintenance efforts.
Roadway - The portion within the road margins, including shoulders, for
vehicular use.
Sanding - Spreading course sand onto a bituminous road surface that is
bleeding.
Sand Seal - A surface layer formed by sand laid onto a bituminous seal coat.
Scarifying - The systematic disruption and loosening of the top of a road or
layer surface by mechanical or other means.
Scour - Defect: Erosion of a channel bed area by water in motion, producing
a deepening or widening of the channel.
Scour Checks - Small checks in a ditch or drain to reduce water velocity and
reduce the possibility of erosion.
Scuppers - Drainage pipes or outlets in a bridge deck.
Sett (Pavé) - A small piece of hard stone trimmed by hand to a size of about
10cm cube used as a paving unit.
Shoulder - Paved or unpaved part of the roadway next to the outer edge of
the pavement. The shoulder provides side support for the pavement and
allows vehicles to stop or pass in an emergency.
Slip - Defect: Slope material sliding downhill because of instability, water
penetration or flow.
Slope - A natural or artificially constructed soil surface at an angle to the
horizontal.
Slot - A sample cross section of the road or drain constructed as a guide for
following earthworks or reshaping.
Slurry Seal - A mixture usually containing fine graded aggregates, water,
149
Terminology
bitumen emulsion, cement and sometimes an additive, spread on the road
surface by a specially equipped machine, or by hand.
Sods - Turf but with more soil attached (usually more than 10 cms).
Soffit - The highest point in the internal cross-section of a culvert, or the
underside of a bridge deck.
Special Maintenance - Certain serious, unforeseen situations necessitating
remedial action to be taken as soon as possible, e.g. flood damage, major
slips. Consult the regional authorities regarding these.
Spray Lance - Apparatus permitting hand-application of bituminous binder
at a desired rate of spread through a nozzle.
Squeegee - A small wooden or metal board with a handle for spreading
bituminous mixtures by hand.
Streaking - Defect: Alternate lean and heavy lines of bitumen running
parallel to the pavement centre line, caused by blocked or incorrectly set
spray nozzles.
Stringer - Longitudinal beam in a bridge deck or structure.
Stripping (Ravelling) - Defect: The loss of surface seal from the pavement
due to poor bond between the seal and the lower pavement layer.
Subbase -See Road Base.
Subgrade - Upper layer of the natural or imported soil (free of unsuitable
material) which supports the pavement.
Sub-Soil Drainage - See Underdrainage.
Surface Dressing - A sprayed or hand applied film of bitumen followed by
the application of a layer of stone chippings, which is then rolled.
Surface Treatment - Construction of a protective surface layer e.g. by spray
application of a bituminous binder, blinded with coated or uncoated
aggregate.
Surfacing - Top layer of the pavement. Consists of wearing course, and
Tar Binder - A binder made from processing coal.
Template - A thin board or timber pattern used to check the shape of an
excavation.
Traffic Lane - The portion of the carriageway usually defined by road
markings for the movement of a single line of vehicles.
150
Terminology
Transverse Joint - Joint normal to, or at an angle to, the road centre line.
Traveller - A rod or pole of fixed length (e.g. 1 metre) used for sighting
between profile boards for setting out levels and grades.
Turf - A grass turf is formed by excavating an area of live grass and lifting the
grass complete with about 5 cms of topsoil and roots still attached.
Turn Out Drain - See Mitre Drain.
Underdrainage (Sub-Soil Drainage) - System of pervious pipes or free
draining material, designed to collect and carry water in the ground.
Unpaved Road - For the purpose of this booklet an unpaved road is a road
with a soil or gravel surface.
Vented Drift - See Causeway.
Weephole - Opening provided in retaining walls or bridge abutments to
permit drainage of water in the filter layer or soil layer behind the structure.
They prevent water pressure building up behind the structure.
Windrow - A ridge of material formed by the spillage from the end of the
machine blade or continuous heap of material formed by labour.
Wingwall - Retaining wall at a bridge abutment to retain and protect the
embankment fill behind the abutment.
2WD - Two Wheel Drive vehicle or equipment.
4WD - Four Wheel Drive vehicle or equipment.
151

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SOUTH SUDAN

LOW VOLUME ROADS

CENTRAL AFRICAN SOUTH SUDAN

H.E. General Gier Chuang Aluong

MINISTRY OF ROADS & BRIDGES LVR MANUAL

This area to be completed by the MRB Director

Manual Title CHAPTER NO.

Submitted by: Name/Designation:

Manual Change Action

Authority Date Signature Recommended Action Approval

Director General MRB

Approval / Provisional Approval / Rejection of Change:

Director General MRB Date:

Technical Working Group Members

Individual Organisation Designation

ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS

> : Greater than

VP: Parallel Velocity

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Aggregate (for construction)

Bitumen, Penetration Grade

Bitumen Emulsion, Anionic

Bitumen Emulsion, Cationic

Bitumen Emulsion Grades

Black Cotton Soil

Brick (fired clay)

Causeway or Vented Drift

Cement (for construction)

Chip Seal, Single

Chip Seal, Double

Cobble Stone (Dressed stone)

Concrete Block Paving

Debris Rack or Grill

ENS (Engineered Natural Surface)

Gravel (Construction Material)

Hand Packed Stone

Labour Based Construction

Labour Intensive Construction

Low Volume Road

Mitre Drain (Turn Out Drain)

Roadbase and Sub-base

Turn Out Drain

Underdrainage (Sub-Soil Drainage)

1 INTRODUCTION: CONTEXT AND SCOPE OF THE MANUAL ............... 1

1.2 Road Network Classification ........................................................................................... 4

2 LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND OWNERSHIP ............................................. 7

3 THE APPROACH TO LVR DESIGN ......................................................... 8

3.2 Maintenance Capacity and Development ................................................................... 10

3.3 Low volume earth and gravel roads ............................................................................ 10

3.4 Low volume paved roads ............................................................................................. 12

3.5 Surface Improvement Technology .............................................................................. 13

3.6 Operational Environment ............................................................................................. 13

3.7 Technology Choice ....................................................................................................... 15

3.8 Viability and Sustainability ........................................................................................... 16

3.9 Road Project Implementation ....................................................................................... 16