298 FRANS A.M.

WIGGERMANN

FRANS A.M. WIGGERMANN

The Mesopotamian Pandemonium
A Provisional Census

Supernatural agency

The long history of Mesopotamian civilization has produced over

three thousand gods, and a far smaller number of monsters, sages, spirits,
and demons, which together with the protective deities of the individual,
WKHXQFRXQWDEOHVRXOVRIWKHGHDGDQGWKHGHPRQL]HGZLWFKGH¿QHGVX-
pernatural agency in Mesopotamian thought. The features distinguishing
the evil species from gods and among each other, and the mythologies in
which they functioned, will be assessed here on the basis of the two types
of evidence available, literary and visual.
The literary tradition starts halfway the third millennium BC, and
extinguishes early in the Christian era together with the cuneiform writ-
LQJ V\VWHP ,Q WKH ¿UVW PLOOHQQLXP %& WKH UHOHYDQW PDWHULDO EHFRPHV
abundant and explicit, but also contradictory and confusing, because new
thoughts expressed in traditional garb can hardly be distinguished from
old thoughts preserved out of antiquarian interests. The visual evidence
starts considerably earlier than the literary, and has the advantage of be-
ing datable, the disadvantage of being inexplicit and therefore hard to
decipher. Mesopotamian art is but sparsely supplied with captions, and
WKHLGHQWL¿FDWLRQRIW\SHVDQGVFHQHVLVSUHSRQGHUDQWO\EDVHGRQLQGLUHFW
matches between sundry pieces of visual and literary evidence.
Native descriptions of visual types and art works do exist, but are lim-
ited to the extraordinary, and thus of little use for the ordinary. The Stan-
dard Babylonian Göttertypentext1 describes twenty-seven images of gods
and spirits which presumably once lined the walls of a temple in Kassite
Babylon; the Neo-Assyrian Underworld Vision2 reviews the netherworld
and its inhabitants as seen by an Assyrian prince in a dream: Nergal with
KLVZLIHDQGWKHLUPDMRUFRXUWLHUVSOXV¿IWHHQOHVVHUK\EULGQHWKHUZRUOG
RI¿FLDOV³JRGVVSLULWV´LOƗQX) in Nergal’s service. None of the images of

1
F. Köcher, Der babylonische Göttertypentext, in «Mitteilungen des Instituts für Orientfor-
VFKXQJªSS
2
A. Livingstone, The Underworld Vision of an Assyrian Prince, in «Sate Archives of
$VV\ULDªSS

SMSR 77 (2/2011) 298-322

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 298 13/12/2011 15:51:08

 THE MESOPOTAMIAN PANDEMONIUM 299
HLWKHUWH[WKDVEHHQLGHQWL¿HGDVVXFKLQDUWEXWGHWDLOVRIGUHVVDWWULEXWH
and appearance may be realistic.

The pantheon: divine order and its enforcement )LJV

A pantheon of over three thousand gods seems too large to consist

VROHO\RXWRIGLVWLQFWZHOOGH¿QHGQDWXUDODQGFXOWXUDODJHQWVDQGLQIDFW
it didn’t. The most important agencies are covered by a relatively small
and stable core pantheon of some ten to twenty deities of nature, in the
WH[WVVXPPDUL]HGDVWKHVHYHQRUWZHOYH³*UHDW*RGV´7KHVHIHZJUHDW
JRGVWKHRQHVWKDW³GHWHUPLQHGHVWLQ\´FRQVWLWXWHDQRYHUDUFKLQJQDWLRQ-
DOSDQWKHRQZKLOHWKHPDQ\OHVVHUJRGVWKH³JRGVRIWKHODQG´KHDGOR-
cal city panthea, or serve the courts of the great gods in specialized func-
tions: spouse, child, vizier, herald, deputy, messenger, constable, singer,
throne, weapon, ship, or harp. A special place is taken by a small group
RI³GHDG´RU³ERXQG´JRGVWKHSULPHYDODQFHVWRUVRI(QOLOZKRDIWHUWKH
creation of the modern cosmos were relegated to the netherworld, where
they sometimes served as gatekeepers.

Fig. 1: $VHOHFWLRQRIHDUO\DQWKURSRPRUSKLF*UHDW*RGVDQGWKHV\PEROVWKDWODWHUUHSODFHGWKHP
Drawing: F.A.M. Wiggermann.

In art the great gods are anthropomorphic, while the lesser gods may
EHUHSUHVHQWHGE\K\EULGVDQLPDOVRUSHUVRQL¿HGREMHFWV,QWKHFRXUVH
of time these and other non-anthropomorphic elements such as sun disc,
star, or crescent moon developed into the symbols that replaced the in-
creasingly distant anthropomorphic gods.
In the daily life of Mesopotamia kinship determined one’s place in so-
ciety, and so it did in the supernatural world: the relations between gods,
0RQVWHUV6DJHVGHPRQVDQGSHRSOHZHUH¿[HGE\WKHLURULJLQVWKDWLV

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 299 13/12/2011 15:51:10

  FRANS A.M. WIGGERMANN
by cosmogony. Mesopotamian cosmogony was standardized only in the
late second millennium creation myth (QnjPD (OLã, where Marduk, the
JRGRIWKHFRQWHPSRUDU\FDSLWDO%DE\ORQUHSODFHG(QOLOWKHJRGRIWKH
old religious centre Nippur. The earlier version of the myth, the one up-
dated in (QnjPD(OLãLVDYDLODEOHRQO\DVDOLVWRI(QOLO¶VDQFHVWRUVZKLFK
functioned in a yearly wailing ritual for the dead gods of primeval times.
With many variants this list recurs in lexical texts, god-lists, and incanta-
tions from the third millennium onwards. With the help of fragmentary
information culled from various other texts the implied cosmogony can
be summarized as follows: the primeval ocean, Namma, grew an entity
$Q.LWKHDV\HWXQGLYLGHG³+HDYHQ(DUWK´³+HDYHQ(DUWK´VRPHKRZ
EHFDPH D SURGXFWLYH XQLW DQG SURGXFHG D PDOHIHPDOH SDLU (QNL DQG
1LQNL³/RUGDQG/DG\(DUWK´WKH¿UVWRIDFKDLQRIVHYHQIRXUWHHQRU
WZHQW\RQH JHQHUDWLRQV FORVLQJ ZLWK ³/RUG DQG /DG\ 'XNXJ´ WKH SHU-
VRQL¿HGDQGSURGXFWLYH'XNXJ³+RO\0RXQG´RQDQGIURPZKLFK(Q-
OLO ³/RUG$LU´ ZDV ERUQ %\ KLV YHU\ QDWXUH (QOLO GHL¿HG DLU RU HWKHU
VHSDUDWHG+HDYHQDQG(DUWKEURXJKWWKHDFWXDOFRVPRVLQWREHLQJDQG
EHFDPHWKH¿UVWDQGFKLHIJRGLQWKHFHQWUHRIWKHQRZDYDLODEOHOLYLQJ
space. Major and minor gods were born and populated the earth, which
ZDVQRW\HW¿QLVKHGWKRXJKULYHUEHGVKDGWREHGXJDQGKRXVHVKDGWR
EHEXLOWIRUWKHOHDGLQJJRGVVSHFL¿FDOO\(QOLO$IWHUDZKLOHWKH³ZRUNHU
JRGV´dDOODPHãallû) got fed up with their heavy toil, and rebelled. To
XQEXUGHQWKHP(QOLOJDYHRUGHUVIRUDVXEVWLWXWHWREHFUHDWHGPDQZKR
from then on would carry the workload. The creation of man proceeded
by mixing clay with the blood of the executed rebel leader, named Alla
RU>:@HOOD)LJ
Thus the cosmogony established the power relations between the in-
KDELWDQWVRIWKHFRVPRVWKHQDWLRQDOJUHDWJRGVVSHFL¿FDOO\(QOLOWDNH
WKHGHFLVLRQVQDPWDUDQGUXOHWKHORFDOOHVVHUJRGVSHDFHIXOO\IRO-
ORZDQGVHUYHWKHFHQWUHDQG¿QDOO\PDQLVWKHVROXWLRQWRDSDVWODERU
FRQÀLFWEHWZHHQWKHWZRJURXSVRIJRGVDQGDVVXFKFDQFRXQWRQWKH
VXSSRUWRIERWKDWOHDVWDVORQJDVKLVVHUYLFHLVGHHPHGVDWLVIDFWRU\(Q-
lil’s decisions are enforced by netherworld spirits or gods in his service:
namtaru³'HFLVLRQ)DWH´KLVVRQLVWKHYL]LHURI(UHãNLJDOWKHTXHHQRI
the netherworld; namtaru¶VZLIHLVFDOOHGVLPSO\³6KH)DWH´namtartu),
or in older texts dপXãELVD ³,WV +RUURU LV *RRG´ DQ H[SUHVVLRQ RI WKH
legality of namtaru¶VRI¿FHPnjWX³GHDWK´LVWKH³ORUGRIPDQ´bibbu³D
feline?UHSUHVHQWLQJSODJXH´LVWKH³EXWFKHU´‫ܒ‬ƗEL‫ې‬XRIWKHQHWKHUZRUOG´
other attendants of death operate in groups, the gallû ³FRQVWDEOHV´ WKH
UƗEL‫܈‬X³GHSXWLHV´DQGWKHnjPX³GD\GHPRQV´URDULQJPDQLIHVWDWLRQVRI
EDGQHZV7KHSRZHUUHODWLRQVLQWKHFRVPRVUHÀHFWWKRVHRIDFWXDO0HVR-

The collective occurs in a bilingual creation myth and in 8WXNNX/HPQnjWXZKHUHWKH
HYLOVSLULWVDUHWKHLURIIVSULQJUHDGLQJGXPXdDOODODDPHãmar al-le-e).

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 300 13/12/2011 15:51:10

 THE MESOPOTAMIAN PANDEMONIUM 
potamian politics: a hegemonic ruler takes unpleasant decisions in a distant
centre; local worthies exploit the peasants; and a semi-independent civil
service enforces the decisions that had to keep the hierarchy intact, the ruler
in control, the local worthies comfortable, and the peasants subservient.
On earth, in the houses of man, the semi-independent supernatural
enforcers spelled doom, and, although following orders from a lawful
VRXUFH FRXOG EH FRXQWHG DPRQJ WKH HYLO GHPRQV HYHQ (QOLO KLPVHOI
DQGKLVSDODFH(NXU³+RXVH0RXQWDLQ´WKHVXSHUYLVRUDQGVRXUFHRIWKH
dreaded enforcers respectively, could take on demonic traits.

Fig. 2:(QOLOWKHZRUNLQJJRGVDQGWKHFUHDWLRQRIPDQ
$ODWHWKLUGPLOOHQQLXP$NNDGLDQVHDOIROORZVWKHHDUOLHUFUHDWLRQP\WKLQGHWDLO7KHODUJHVW¿JXUH
the one in the middle, does nothing but raising his hands up to heaven; his headdress, a horned
FURZQLGHQWL¿HVKLPDVDJRGDQGDVZLOODSSHDUIURPWKHUHVWRIWKHVFHQHWKDWJRGPXVWEH(QOLO
KLPVHOINHHSLQJ+HDYHQDQG(DUWKVHSDUDWHG7RWKHULJKWJRGVDUHEXV\EXLOGLQJDKRXVH(QOLO¶V
temple in Nippur no doubt. Since carrying the basket and building houses for the gods was precisely
ZKDWPDQZDVFUHDWHGIRUWKHIDFWWKDWRQWKHVHDOJRGVDUHGRLQJWKLVZRUNVHWVWKHVFHQH¿UPO\
and uncontestably in the early days of the cosmos, the time before the creation of man. To the left a
JUHDWJRGLVH[HFXWLQJDVPDOOHURQHWKHUHEHOOHDGHU$OODZHPD\DVVXPHDQGDWWKHIRRWRIWKH
building a further deity is mixing something in a through, clay and Alla’s blood for the creation of
man we may assume.
$IWHU0XVFDUHOODHGLadders to HeavenFLWQRSKRWR

With the exception of namtaru, whose form is not described, the Neo-
Assyrian Underworld VisionKDVWKHTXDVLGHPRQLFQHWKHUZRUOGRI¿FLDOV
represented by hybrids; from earlier sources next to nothing is known
about the appearance of such beings4:
namtaru³)DWH´GRHVWKHKRQRXUVZLWKDGDJJHULQKLVULJKWKDQGDQGWKHKDLU
of the man to be killed in his left; namtartu³6KH)DWH´KLVZLIHKDVWKHKHDGRI

4
$O\UHIURPWKH5R\DO*UDYHVDW8USUHVHQWVWKHQHWKHUZRUOGDVWKHUHYHUVHRIWKHQRUPDO
ZRUOGZLWKDQDVVSOD\LQJWKHKDUSDQGVLQJLQJDQGDOLRQWKHEXWFKHURIWKHQHWKHUZRUOG
VHUYLQJIRRGIRUDEDQTXHW&KWKRQLFQHWKHUZRUOGJRGVOLNH1LQD]X7LãSDN1LQƣLã]LGDDQG
Ištaran were associated with poisonous serpentine hybrids, and themselves could be partly
WKHULRPRUSKLF1HWKHUZRUOGJRGVPD\EHEDOGRUZHDUDÀDWFDSLQVWHDGRIDKRUQHGFURZQ

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 301 13/12/2011 15:51:11

  FRANS A.M. WIGGERMANN
DJULI¿QKXPDQKDQGVDQGIHHWPnjWX³'HDWK´KDVWKHKHDGRIDVQDNHGUDJRQ
human hands, and the feet of a […]; ãƝGX OHPQX ³(YLO *HQLH´ KDV D KXPDQ
head and hands, a tiara, the talons of an eagle, and his left foot on a NXã€-animal
standing on its hind legs; DOOX‫ې‬DSSX ³+XQWLQJ1HW´KDVDOLRQ¶VKHDGDQGIRXU
human hands and feet; PXNƯOUƝãOHPXWWL ³$WWHQGDQWRI(YLO´KDVWKHKHDGRID
ELUGZLQJVVSUHDGRXWDQGÀDSSLQJKXPDQKDQGVDQGIHHW‫ې‬XPX‫ܒ‬WDEDO³7DNH
$ZD\4XLFNO\´WKHIHUU\PDQKDVWKHKHDGRIDQanzû, four hands and feet of a
[…]; H‫ܒ‬HPPX ³*KRVW´KDVDQR[¶VKHDGDQGIRXUKXPDQKDQGVDQGIHHWXWXNNX
OHPQX ³(YLO6SLULW´KDVDOLRQ¶VKHDGDQGWKHKDQGVDQGIHHWRIDQanzû; ãXODN,
from elsewhere known as a demon lurking in lavatories, is a lion rearing on his
hind legs; PƗPƯWX³2DWK´KDVDJRDW¶VKHDGDQGKXPDQKDQGVDQGIHHWEHGX
³7KH2QH:KR2SHQV´WKHGRRUPDQKDVDOLRQ¶VKHDGKXPDQKDQGVDQGIHHWRI
a bird; PLPPDOHPQX³$Q\WKLQJ(YLO´KDVWZRKHDGVRQHRIDOLRQDQGRQHRI
a […]; PX‫ې‬UD, his front two feet are those of a bird, his rear one is that of a bull;
WZRJRGV, whose names the visionary does not know, one has the head, hands,
and feet of an anzû, in his left hand a […]; the other has the head of a man, a tiara,
in his right hand a mace, in his left his […].

The Göttertypentext describes one netherworld inhabitant, also a

hybrid:amma[kurkur], DIHPDOHGRRUNHHSHURI(UHãNLJDOLVSDUWO\PRQ-
NH\JD]HOOH¿VKVKHHSGRJDQGKXPDQ

The primeval Monsters: brute force in the service of order )LJ

7KHODQJXDJHVRI0HVRSRWDPLDGLGQRWKDYHDZRUGIRU³0RQVWHU´
VRPHWLPHVWKH\ZHUHQDPHGDIWHUWKHLUWKHULRPRUSKLFWUDLWVXPƗPnj³DQL-
PDOV´DQGVRPHWLPHVDIWHUWKHLUIXQFWLRQDVH[HFXWLRQHUVRIGLYLQHZLOO
gallû³FRQVWDEOHV´njPnj³GD\GHPRQV´7H[WXDOO\WKH0RQVWHUVDUHGH-
¿QHGDVDJURXSE\WKHLUDSSHDUDQFHLQULWXDOVDJDLQVWLQWUXGLQJHYLOLQGH-
scriptions of art work in temples or palaces, and especially in the creation
myth (QnjPD(OLãZKHUHWKH\FRQVWLWXWHWKHDUP\RISULPHYDO³6HD´7LD-
mat). Visually the members of the group are marked by hybridity, that is
composition out of human and animal elements; only one, OD‫ې‬PX³+DLU\
0RQVWHU´LVFRPSOHWHO\DQWKURSRPRUSKLFEXWGLVWLQJXLVKHGIURPWKH
civilized Mesopotamian by his barbarian nudity and unkempt hair, – a
kind of social hybridity.
$OWKRXJK SULPHYDO ³6HD´ JDYH KHU PRQVWURXV ³FRQVWDEOHV´ gallû)
DQ DZHLQVSLULQJ VKHHQ SXOX‫ې‬WX and melammû DQG WKXV ³PDGH WKHP
JRGOLNH´ WKH\ DUH QHYHU FDOOHG LOnj ³JRGV´ UDUHO\ VXSSOLHG ZLWK WKH GL-
vine determinative, and rarely admitted into the god-lists. In the art of the
earlier periods the Monsters did not wear the horned crown, the mark of


F.A.M. Wiggermann, Mesopotamian Protective Spirits. The Ritual Texts, Styx & PP,
*URQLQJHQ$5*UHHQ)$0:LJJHUPDQQMischwesen, in «Reallexikon der Assy-
ULRORJLHªSS

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 302 13/12/2011 15:51:11

 THE MESOPOTAMIAN PANDEMONIUM 
GLYLQLW\EXWLQ¿UVWPLOOHQQLXPDUWZKHUHKRUQHGFURZQVSUROLIHUDWHWKH\
often do. Monsters did not normally receive cultic attention, but there
DUH VRPH H[FHSWLRQV ,Q 0LGGOH$VV\ULDQ$VVXU IRU LQVWDQFH D GHL¿HG
%XOO0DQkusarikku) was presented with a bronze cross by his servant
âDPDãWXNXOWƯZKLOHLQ1HR%DE\ORQLDQ8UXN0DG'RJuridimmu) and
/LRQ0DQXUPD‫ې‬OXOO€), both supplied with the divine determinative, re-
ceived offerings. But even the Monsters that did receive cultic attention
remained minor deities with limited responsibilities. Prior to (QnjPD(OLã
evidence on the origin and nature of the Monsters is sporadic; some were
unruly and rebellious, some, like OD‫ې‬PX, played a role in cosmogony.

Fig. 3: A selection of Monsters, and the Four Winds.

Drawing: F.A.M. Wiggermann.

In (QnjPD(OLãthe distinctive hybridity of the Monsters must be due

WRWKHLUURRWVLQWKHSUHQRUPDOHPEU\RQLFFRVPRV³6HD´KHUVHOILVFHU-
tainly not anthropomorphic, since she has horns, a tail, and udders; her
vizier Mummu has a ram’s head, whose bleating may have given him his
QDPH³muh-muh”. About the appearance of the other gods of the prime-

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 303 13/12/2011 15:51:13

  FRANS A.M. WIGGERMANN
YDOFRVPRVOLWWOHLVNQRZQVHH)LJIRU$OODEXW%HURVVRV makes the
connection between primeval chaos and hybridity explicit:
+HWKDWLV2DQQHVWKH¿UVW¿VKVDJHVD\VWKHUHZDVDWLPHZKHQHYHU\WKLQJ
was darkness and water and that in this water strange beings with peculiar forms
came to life. For men were born with two wings and some with four wings and
two faces; these had one body and two heads, and they were both masculine and
feminine, and they had two sets of sexual organs, male and female. Other men
were also born, some with the legs and horns of goats, and some with the feet
of horses and the foreparts of men. These were hippo-centaurs in form. Bulls
ZHUHDOVRERUQZLWKKXPDQKHDGVDQGIRXUERGLHGGRJVZLWK¿VKWDLOVJURZLQJ
from their hind quarters, and dog-headed horses and men and other beings with
WKHKHDGVDQGERGLHVRIKRUVHVDQGWKHWDLOVRI¿VKDQGVWLOORWKHUFUHDWXUHVZLWK
WKHIRUPVRIDOOVRUWVRIEHDVWV,QDGGLWLRQWRWKHVHWKHUHZHUH¿VKDQGFUHHSLQJ
WKLQJVDQGVQDNHVDQGVWLOOIXUWKHUDPD]LQJYDULRXVO\IRUPHGFUHDWXUHVGLIIHULQJ
in appearance from one another.

%HURVVRVFRQFOXGHVZLWKUHPDUNLQJWKDW³LPDJHVRIWKHVHDUHVHWXS
LQWKHWHPSHORI%HO0DUGXN´ZKLFKDOLJQVZLWKWKHFXQHLIRUPYHUVLRQ
of the creation myth, where Marduk set up statues of Tiamat’s defeated
PRQVWHUVROGLHUVDWWKHJDWHRI$SV€³WKDWLWEHDWRNHQWKDWLWPD\QHYHU
EH IRUJRWWHQ´ 2WKHU QRQP\WKRORJLFDO FXQHLIRUP VRXUFHV FRQ¿UP WKDW
representations of the defeated Monsters were to be seen at Marduk’s
temple in Babylon.
In as far as Tiamat’s army is concerned Berossos’s description is very
imprecise, as if he never really looked at the images in question, and on
one point, their hybrid sexuality, it is mistaken. There were asexual pri-
meval beings, as we will see, but not the Monsters. Monsters may form
male-female pairs, albeit unproductive ones, and in art they are usually
EHDUGHGDQGLWK\SKDOOLFDQH[FHSWLRQEHLQJWKHIHPDOH¿VKZRPDQZKR
DSSHDUVQH[WWRKHUEHDUGHGPDOHFRXQWHUSDUWkulullûRQODWH¿UVWPLOOHQ-
nium seals. In this respect the Monsters differ from the utukku-demons,
which have no recognizable components at all, and were, at least initially,
unrepresentable and unrepresented. Another difference between Mon-
sters on the one hand, and demons or ghosts on the other, is that Monsters
were never viewed as agents of suffering or disease.
7KHSULPHYDO0RQVWHUVRI³6HD´EHKDYHGOLNHPHUFHQDULHVDQGGH-
feated by the gods of order, stepped into their service to become guard-
ians against the demons that threatened the state, the king, and the people.
In fact images of Monsters in apotropaic functions have been found regu-
ODUO\DWWKHJDWHVRQWKHZDOOVDQGXQGHUWKHÀRRUVRI¿UVWPLOOHQQLXP
SDODFHV¿JXULQHVDQGUHOLHIVDQGSULYDWHKRPHV¿JXULQHVOHVVUHJXODU-

The translations of Berossos follow S.M. Burstein, The Babyloniaca of Berossus8QGH-
QD0DOLEX

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 304 13/12/2011 15:51:13

 THE MESOPOTAMIAN PANDEMONIUM 
ly on amulets to be worn on the body, and in great quantities on cylinder
seals of all periods.
Through time the group of Monsters adapted to current mythologies,
EXWLWVPHPEHUVKLSUHPDLQHGOLPLWHGWRDKDQGIXORILWHPVDOOLGHQWL¿HG
ZLWK ZHOOHVWDEOLVKHG LFRQRJUDSKLF W\SHV DQG DOO GH¿QHG WH[WXDOO\ DQG
visually as apotropaic helper spirits. The Monsters as members of a co-
herent group of helper-spirits must be distinguished from the hybrids, a
much larger and less permanent group, which excluded the major gods,
and included some lesser deities, the Sages, most or all netherworld of-
¿FLDOVDQGDWOHDVWLQWKHODWHUSHULRGVWKHHYLOGHPRQV.
A group of spirits that formally and functionally can be associated
with the Monsters is that of the Four Winds8; they are supernatural hy-
brids, and, although wearing the horned crown sometimes, they are not
IXOOJRGVDQGGRQRW¿JXUHLQWKHJRGOLVWVWKH\DUHXQUXO\EXWQRWDJHQWV
of disease; and, like the Monsters, they could act as protective spirits in
the service of the gods. Of their origin, primeval or otherwise, nothing
LVNQRZQ7KHH[FHSWLRQDO¿UVWPLOOHQQLXPZLQGGHPRQ3D]X]XDERXW
whom more below, is at once a demon and an apotropaic hybrid.
*HQHUDOO\EUHH]HVZLQGVDQGVWRUPVHPERG\JRRGHYLORUQHXWUDO
intentions:
DO€ ³DGHPRQL]HGDWPRVSKHULFSKHQRPHQRQ´ perhaps originally identical with
alû/lû³%XOORI+HDYHQ´±JXOnjOX³DZLQGGHPRQ´±GLGLSWX ³JXVKRIZLQG´
a demon at the gate of the netherworld; –LP‫ې‬XOOX³HYLOZLQG´± GãƗUX³ZLQG
VSLULW´ VDLG RI JRGV DQG WKH GHDG ³ÀDWXV´ DV FDXVH RI GLVHDVH SD]nj]X is ad-
dressed as ãƗUX; –ãƝ‫ې‬X³ZLQGEUHDWKHPDQDWLRQ´ãDãƝ‫ې‬L³RQHSRVVHVVHGE\
DVSLULW´± GnjPX³'D\'HPRQ´WKHYLROHQWEDGQHZVGHPRQ³GD\´FDQEH
manifest in stormy weather; – G]DTƯTX ³SKDQWRPKDXQWLQJVSLULWJKRVWDJRG
RIGUHDPV´RQHRIWKHlil-VSLULWVVHHEHORZ]DTƯTX¶s are airy, powerless, and
KDUPOHVVEXWFDQFDXVHGLVHDVHTƗW]DTƯTLLQGUHDPVWKH]DTƯTXmay transmit
messages from gods; WKHGUHDPJRG³%UHH]H´LVD³VRQRIâDPDã´

The primeval Sages: pristine magic against disorder )LJ

In their effort against suffering and disease the primeval Monsters

and the Winds are supported by the Seven Sages. From the Late Bronze
Age onwards, when their mythology was restructured, there is a wealth


 , ZLOO XVH ³0RQVWHU´ IRU WKH WH[WXDOO\ DQG YLVXDOO\ GH¿QHG K\EULG KHOSHU VSLULW DQG
³K\EULG´DVDGHVFULSWLYHWHUPIRUDQ\XQQDWXUDOFRPSRVLWHGH¿QHGHLWKHUWH[WXDOO\RUYLVXDOO\
8
F.A.M. Wiggermann, The Four Winds and the Origins of PazuzuLQ&O:LOFNHHG
Das geistige Erfassen der Welt im alten Orient +DUUDVVRZLW] 9HUODJ :LHVEDGHQ  SS


4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 305 13/12/2011 15:51:13

  FRANS A.M. WIGGERMANN
of material on these beings, both visual and textual, but here Berossos’
VXPPDU\PXVWVXI¿FH
,QWKH¿UVW\HDUDEHDVWQDPHG2DQQHV9DSSHDUHGIURPWKH(U\WKUHDQ6HDLQD
SODFHDGMDFHQWWR%DE\ORQLD,WVHQWLUHERG\ZDVWKDWRID¿VKEXWDKXPDQKHDG
KDGJURZQEHQHDWKWKHKHDGRIWKH¿VKDQGKXPDQIHHWOLNHZLVHKDGJURZQIURP
WKH¿VK¶VWDLOLWDOVRKDGDKXPDQYRLFH$SLFWXUHRILWLVVWLOOSUHVHUYHGWRGD\
+H%HURVVRVVD\VWKDWWKLVEHDVWVSHQWWKHGD\VZLWKWKHPHQEXWDWHQRIRRG,W
gave to the men the knowledge of letters and sciences and crafts of all types. It
also taught them how to found cities, establish temples, introduce laws and mea-
sure land. It also revealed to them seeds and the gathering of fruits, and in general
it gave men everything which is connected with the civilized life. From the time
RIWKDWEHDVWQRWKLQJIXUWKHUKDVEHHQGLVFRYHUHG«/DWHURWKHUEHDVWVDOVR
DSSHDUHG«+H%HURVVRVVD\VWKDWWKHVHFUHDWXUHVDOOWRJHWKHUH[SODLQHGLQ
detail the things which had been spoken summarily by Oannes.

Fig. 4: Kassite amulet seal with a Sage holding a bucket with holy water, and a
VSHOOIURPWKHVHULHV³Evil will be eradicated´
'UDZLQJ)$0:LJJHUPDQQDIWHU-:HVWHQKRO]56%LDQFKLHGV
Dragons, Monsters, and Fabulous Beasts, Bible Lands Museum, Jerusalem
QRSKRWR

Like the Monsters and the Four Winds the Sages were supernatural
K\EULGVEXWQRJRGVDOWKRXJKLQWKH¿UVWPLOOHQQLXPWKH\UHJXODUO\ZHDU
WKHKRUQVRIGLYLQLW\7KH\ZHUH¿VKPHQ)LJVDQGZKRDFFRUG-

9
Berossos ascribed (QnjPD(OLã to this Oannes, who is identical with the primeval Sage
8DQQDRU8DQQDDGDSDRIWKHFXQHLIRUPVRXUFHV6LQFHWKHORQJHUIRUPRIWKHQDPHFDQEHUH
UHDGDVWKH¿UVWOLQHRI(QnjPD(OLã written logographically, the ascription of the cosmogonic
SRHPWRWKHDQFHVWRURIVFULEDODUWSUREDEO\SUHGDWHG%HURVVRVE\VHYHUDOFHQWXULHV³:KHQX
DERYHDQQDWKHKHDYHQVDQZHUHQRWQD\HWQDPHGSDGD´7KLVZD\WKHFRVPRJRQLFSRHP
becomes an eyewitness report, transmitted by the Sage who wrote it and his successors to the
present of the Babylonian and Assyrian scholars.

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 306 13/12/2011 15:51:14

 THE MESOPOTAMIAN PANDEMONIUM 
LQJWR%HURVVRVKDGHPHUJHGIURP³6HD´RUDFFRUGLQJWRWKHFXQHLIRUP
VRXUFHVZHUHERUQLQWKH6WUHDPQƗUX), but posterior to the creation of
man, and thus past the point where disorder became order, unruliness
obeisance, and cosmogony actual history and geography.
Like the Monsters, the Sages opposed adversity and disease, but un-
like the Monsters they did not do so with brute force, but with the pristine
cleansing rituals they brought with them from the depths of the primeval
stream11. As the ultimate source of knowledge and scholarship they be-
FDPH WKH SDWURQV RI WKH VFKRODU DQG PRUH VSHFL¿FDOO\ RI WKH H[RUFLVW
ƗãLSX), who in actual reality was the one that cleansed the victim and
exorcized the demons.
8QOLNH WKH SULPHYDO GHPRQV ZKLFK ZHUH WKHLU RSSRQHQWV DQG OLNH
the monsters, which were their allies, the primeval Sages never acted as
agents of suffering or disease.

The primeval pandemonium: cosmic outcasts, total otherness, irredee-

mable evil

Mesopotamian demonology is less varied than Mesopotamian theolo-

J\DQGDWWKHVDPHWLPHOHVVGH¿QHG2QHRIWKHUHDVRQVLVWKDWWKHDQFLHQW
scholars did not collect, organize, and explain their demonic material in
demon-lists12, like they did their theological material in god-lists. A run
through the Chicago Assyrian DictionaryRQWKHVHDUFKWHUPV³VSLULW´
³GHPRQ´³JKRVW´DQG³SHUVRQL¿HG´SURGXFHGWKHQDPHVRIFDSHU-
VRQDODQGSURWHFWLYHVSLULWVDQGHYLOVSLULWVLQFOXGLQJQHWKHUZRUOG
RI¿FLDOVDQGutukku¶VDPRQJZKLFKFDDUHGHPRQL]HGGLVHDVHVFD
W\SHVRIJKRVWVDQGVPDOOHUQXPEHUVGHPRQL]HGDQLPDOVVWRUPZLQGV
SODFHVWLPHSHULRGVDQGDEVWUDFWLRQVDIXUWKHUJURXSFDFRQVLVWVRI
SHUVRQL¿HGGHPRQLFDFWLYLWLHVRUFKDUDFWHULVWLFVOLNH³7KHIHDUOHVVRQH´
OD ƗGLUX ³7KH ODZOHVV RQH´ ‫ې‬DEELOX ³7KH ZDWFKHU´ ‫ې‬Ɨ¶L‫ܒ‬X ³7KH
ÀDVKHU´PXãWDEEDEEXRU³7KHVQDWFKHU´ekkemu)14.


+HQFH%HURVVRV¶³¿UVW\HDU´WKHVWDUWRIKLVWRU\DQG³Erythrean6HD´UHDOJHRJUDSK\
11
 7KH FOHDQVLQJ ÀXLG FRQWDLQHG LQ WKH EXFNHW IURP ZKLFK WKH )LVK6DJH VSULQNOHV WKH
YLFWLPRIDGHPRQLFDWWDFNLVKRO\ZDWHU³IURPWKHVRXUFHRIWKHVWUHDPV´
12
The remarkable absence of demon-lists may be more than coincidence, cf. Utukku
OHPQnjWXãLGGqDQNLDODEDDQãLGDPHãLQDPLQkWãDPrXHU‫܈‬HWLXOLPPDQQ€³LQWKH
FHQVXVRI+HDYHQDQG(DUWKWKH\WKHGHPRQVDUHQRWFRXQWHG´

$/2SSHQKHLPHGThe Chicago Assyrian Dictionary, The Oriental Institute, Chi-
FDJR
14
 8QOHVV VWDWHG RWKHUZLVH WKH OLVWV EHORZ DQG DERYH DUH EDVHG RQ WKLV UXQ WKURXJK WKH
CAD; lemmata and translations are adopted from the CAD with no or only minor alterations;
WKH 6XPHULDQ ³HTXLYDOHQWV´ RI WKH$NNDGLDQ VSLULW DQG GHPRQ QDPHV OLVWHG EHORZ FDQ EH
found in the CAD’s lexical sections. With the bilingual incantations and lexica, and with the
unilingual Akkadian medical, magical, and literary texts, the CAD covers all important sources

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 307 13/12/2011 15:51:14

  FRANS A.M. WIGGERMANN
A relatively well preserved bilingual magical series of late third mil-
lennium origin is our earliest and most systematic source. The series col-
lects exorcisms and cleansing rituals against a number of demonic pow-
ers, which are summarized in the title of the work as XWXNNnj OHPQnjWX
³HYLOVSLULWV´RU³GHPRQV´. The text, though progressively antiquated,
remained in use until the end of the cuneiform tradition, keeping its place
EHVLGHVYDULRXVODWHUXQLOLQJXDOPDJLFDODQGPHGLFDOFRPSLODWLRQVUHÀHFW-
ing more advanced views on demonology.
The utukku-demons stem from the early, embryonic cosmos. Their an-
FHVWRUVDUHYDULRXVO\QDPHGEXWPRVWRIWHQWKH\DUHWKH³VSDZQ´UL‫€ې‬WX)
RI+HDYHQDQG(DUWKZKRRQSULQFLSOHFDQKDYHIRUPHGDSURGXFWLYHSDLU
RQO\EHIRUHWKHLUVHSDUDWLRQE\(QOLOHOVHZKHUHWKHGHPRQVDUHUHODWHG
WR(QNLDQG1LQNLWRRWKHUSULPHYDOSDLUVWRWKH'XNXJ³+RO\0RXQG´
(QOLO¶VELUWKSODFHRUWRWKH$SV€DWWKHHQGVRIWKHHDUWKDSULPHYDOORFDO-
LW\2QFHWKH\DUHFDOOHG³FKLOGUHQRIWKHallû¶V´WKHSULPHYDO³ZRUNLQJ
JRGV´ ZKRVH UHEHOOLRQ OHG WR WKH FUHDWLRQ RI PDQNLQG7KH\ ³KDYH QR
JRG´QROLYLQJGLYLQHSDUHQWWRZKRPWKH\ZHUHUHVSRQVLEOHDQGZKR
ZDVUHVSRQVLEOHIRUWKHP$GHPRQLVQRWDJRGEXW³DOWKRXJKQRWDJRG
KLVYRLFHLVORXGDQGKLVVKHHQmelammûLVORIW\´7KHJRGOLNHVKHHQ
QRWZLWKVWDQGLQJKRZHYHUWKHGHPRQ¶V³VKDGRZLVYHU\GDUNWKHUHLVQR
OLJKWLQKLVERG\´
Like the primeval Monsters the demons did not have cults, but unlike
the latter, who found employ in the service of the gods, they became cos-
PLFRXWFDVWVXQLQWHJUDWHGYDJDERQGVIHHGLQJ³ZLWKRXWPHUF\´ODSƗG€)
on a civilization they could not be part of. The demons, not understand-
LQJ³NHHSZDQGHULQJDURXQGIURPWHPSOHWRWHPSOHEXWVLQFHQRÀRXU
has been scattered for them, nor any divine offering has been made for
WKHPWKHLUEHKDYLRUKDVEHFRPHDJJUHVVLYH´%HFDXVHWKH\GRQRWNHHS
FRXUWLQWHPSOHVOLNHJRGVWKH\DUHXQDEOHWR³KHHGSUD\HURUVXSSOLFD-
WLRQ´,QWKHH[RUFLVWLFULWXDOVWKH\DUHDGYLVHGWRVDWLVI\WKHPVHOYHVZLWK
the food and drink offered to ghosts, and then leave.
As to appearance the utukku-demons were beyond monstrosity. The
text explains that they were neither male nor female, had no wives or
children; that they were incorporeal non-beings, without mouth, limbs,
face, hearing, or vision; that they were concealed, could not be seen even
E\GD\OLJKWWKDWWKHLUQDPHVGLGQRWH[LVWLQ+HDYHQDQG(DUWKDQGWKDW
they were not counted in the universal census.

RI 0HVRSRWDPLDQ PDJLF H[FHSW WKH XQLOLQJXDO 6XPHULDQ LQFDQWDWLRQV DQG OLWHUDU\ WH[WV LQ
as far as they did not have bilingual versions. It is useful and possible to make a distinction
EHWZHHQ³ROGHU´PDJLFEDVLFDOO\WKHELOLQJXDOWH[WVZLWKWKLUGPLOOHQQLXPURRWVDQG³\RXQJHU´
RU³ODWHU´PDJLFEDVLFDOO\WKHXQLOLQJXDO$NNDGLDQWH[WV¿QHUGLVWLQFWLRQVPLJKWEHGHVLUDEOH
but at the moment cannot be realized.

0-*HOOHU(YLO'HPRQV&DQRQLFDO8WXNNnj/HPQnjWX,QFDQWDWLRQV, The Neo-Assyrian
7H[W&RUSXV3URMHFW+HOVLQNL

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 308 13/12/2011 15:51:14

 THE MESOPOTAMIAN PANDEMONIUM 
The demons, then, partook in the not-yet being of the not-yet, embry-
onic cosmos, and as incorporeal, featureless, placeless, and in general
QHJDWLYHO\GH¿QHGFDUULHUVRISXUHRWKHUQHVVWKH\ZHUHQRWDQGFRXOGQRW
be represented in any form. Thus it is no coincidence that utukku’s did
not have cults, since without representation by a statue in a temple there
ZDVQRZD\WKDWWKH\FRXOG$QRWKHUVXSHUQDWXUDO¿JXUHZLWKRXWDSURSHU
FXOWRUWHPSOHLV(UHãNLJDOWKHTXHHQRIWKHXQGHUZRUOGQRWEHFDXVHVKH
was a member of the embryonic not-yet cosmos, however, but because
the laws of the universe did not allow the gods of the underworld and the
gods of upper-world to leave their respective realms.
Later demonology is less precise in its distinction between primeval
utukku’s as unrepresentable not-yet beings, and primeval helper spirits
0RQVWHUVDQG6DJHVDVK\EULGV7KHUnderworld Vision, for instance,
GHVFULEHVD³JRGVSLULW´ilu³Evil Utukku´ as a hybrid with a lion’s head,
and the hands and feet of an anzûELUG*HQHUDOO\ODWHUWH[WVGHVFULEHDOO
demons and netherworld servants as hybrids, and thus as formally indis-
tinct from the exclusive group of Monster helper-spirits. In the Standard
Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic'HDWKPnjWXLVVWLOOFODVVL¿HGDVDQQRQEH-
ing of the utukkuW\SH³ZKRVHLPDJH‫܈‬DOPXFDQQRWEHGUDZQ´ZKLOHD
FRQWHPSRUDU\ULWXDOHPSOR\HV³DQLPDJH‫܈‬DOPXRI'HDWK´XQGRXEWHGO\
a hybrid of the sort described in the Underworld Vision, where Death has
WKH³KHDGRIDVQDNHGUDJRQPXã‫ې‬XããX), human hands, and the feet of a
>«@´,QD6WDQGDUG%DE\ORQLDQOHJHQGDERXWWKH$NNDGLDQNLQJ1DUƗP
6vQ WKH RQO\ GLIIHUHQFH EHWZHHQ HYLO GHPRQV ãƝGnj QDPWDUnj XWXNNnj
UƗEL‫܈‬njOHPQnjWXPHVVHQJHUVRI(QOLODQGQRPDGLFZDUULRUVLVWKDWWKH
IRUPHUGRQRWEOHHGZKLOHWKHODWWHUGR7KH¿UVWPLOOHQQLXPgallû’s, too,
must have resembled human beings, since the word is regularly used to
characterize evil people.
Contrary to the apotropaic Monsters, demons of whatever description
are, with one exception, not found represented in Mesopotamian art at any
time. First millennium exorcistic texts occasionally prescribe the manu-
IDFWXUHRIFOD\¿JXULQHVUHSUHVHQWLQJWKHFRPEDWWHGHYLODRODPDãWX,
utukku, ãƝGX, UƗEL‫܈‬XPnjWXZKLFKSURYHVWKDWDWWKHWLPHVSHFL¿FGHPRQV
ZHUHLPDJLQHGXQGHUVSHFL¿FIRUPV$QH[DPSOHLVWKHDOOLQFOXVLYH¿UVW
PLOOHQQLXPGHPRQ³$Q\WKLQJ(YLO´mimma lemnu), representations of
which could be male or female, have wings, and hips on which its name
could be written; the Underworld Vision describes the same demon as
KDYLQJ³WZRKHDGVRQHWKHKHDGRIDOLRQWKHRWKHUWKHKHDGRID>«@´
7KDW ¿JXULQHV UHSUHVHQWLQJ GHPRQV KDYH QRW EHHQ LGHQWL¿HG LQ WKH DU-
FKDHRORJLFDOUHFRUGLVH[SODLQDEOHIURPWKHIDFWWKDWWKH¿JXULQHVLQTXHV-

In Mesopotamian cosmogony the state of the cosmos before creation is often described
ZLWK ³QRW \HW´ VHQWHQFHV DV IRU LQVWDQFH LQ WKH ¿UVW OLQH RI (QnjPD (OLã ³ZKHQ DERYH WKH
+HDYHQVZHUHQRW\HWQDPHG´

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 309 13/12/2011 15:51:14

  FRANS A.M. WIGGERMANN
tion were made solely to be destroyed in the ensuing exorcism. The
VDPHFDQEHVDLGDERXWWKH¿JXULQHVRIZDUORFNVDQGZLWFKHVHPSOR\HG
in rituals against witchcraft: made of wax or clay they were annihilated
by burning, or by dissolution in water. The one exceptional evil whose
image has been preserved is the baby-snatching demoness Lamaštu, but
only two-dimensionally on terracotta, stone, or metal amulets, not three-
GLPHQVLRQDOO\LQWKHIRUPRIDFOD\RUZD[¿JXULQH18.
The utukku OHPQnjWX class includes among other:
DO€ ³DGHPRQL]HGDWPRVSKHULFSKHQRPHQRQ´ perhaps originally identical with
alû/lû³%XOORI+HDYHQ´±DVDNNX ³EUHDFKRIWDERRDQGLWVFRQVHTXHQFHV
GLVRUGHUGLVHDVHUHEHOOLRXVJRGVSLULW´DJHQHUDOZRUGIRUGLVHDVHGHPRQ³GL-
VRUGHU´ DQG WKH QDPH RI D VSHFL¿F P\WKRORJLFDO HQHP\ RI 1LQXUWD1LQƣLUVX
³'LVRUGHU´KHQFHDOVRDJHQHUDOWHUPIRU³UHEHOOLRXVJRG´WKH³HYLODVDNNX¶V´
are the subject of a separate series of bilingual exorcisms and cleansing rituals;
–GUƗEL‫܈‬X³GHSXW\DWWRUQH\JXDUGLDQOXUNHUJHQLH´WKHUƗEL‫܈‬X is a minor fun-
ctionary, who under orders of the cosmic authorities promotes the cause of ju-
stice, and enforces decisions; – ãƝGX ³VSLULWDVSHFW RIWKHVRXOGHPRQ´ãƝGX
WUDQVODWLQJ Galad or Gudug) is the male counterpart of the lamassu protective
spirit; protects persons, houses, temples, palaces, cities; – utukku³VSLULWDVSHFW
RIWKHVRXOGHPRQRIGLVHDVHJKRVW´7KHHYLOXGXJ³GHPRQ´RIWKHELOLQJXDO
texts and the lexical lists is translated into Akkadian as utukku or sometimes
ãƝGX6XPHULDQXGXJ³JKRVW´LVWUDQVODWHGutukkuLQ$NNDGLDQEXWIRU³JKRVW´
WKHVSHFL¿FWHUPJLGLPH‫ܒ‬HPPXLVSUHIHUUHG$SURSLWLRXVXGXJVSLULWWUDQVODWHG
ãƝGX; GDODGãƝGXoccurs in the same function) operates together with a female
FRXQWHUSDUWGODPDĜlamassu) as an aspect of the soul, and as a supernatural pro-
WHFWRURISHUVRQVDQGEXLOGLQJVXGXJWUDQVODWHGãƝGX or UƗEL‫܈‬X); when viewed as
DQLQVWUXPHQWRIGLYLQHUXOHXGXJFDQEHWUDQVODWHGDV³GHSXW\´UƗEL‫܈‬X7R³DI-
ÀLFWZLWKVLFNQHVV´UD¶ƯEDãXUã€PXVWEHDGH¿QLQJFKDUDFWHULVWLFRIDQutukku,
VLQFH0DUGXNZKHQKHGRHVWKDWLVTXDOL¿HGDVVXFK

Demonized diseases proceeding mechanically

'LVHDVHVDUHZLQGVÀDPHVRUÀXLGVZKLFKGULSGRZQIURPKHDYHQ
break through the ground like weeds, or blow into the body, and seize,
bind, burn, or consume the victim. They could be demonized, or viewed
as operating under divine supervision, but in essence remained misplaced
)LJXULQHVRIGHPRQVDQGJKRVWVXWXNNXãƝGXUƗEL‫܈‬XH‫ܒ‬HPPX) are burnt in Maqlû I


$/DPDãWX"DPXOHWLQWKHVKDSHRIDF\OLQGHUVHDOVKRZVWKHULRPRUSKLF¿JXUHVSURED-

18

EO\GHPRQVDWWDFNLQJDPDQLQKLVEHG'&ROORQ)LUVW,PSUHVVLRQV, British Museum Press,

/RQGRQ  QR  7KH GHPRQV PD\ UHSUHVHQW WKH DGGLWLRQDO HYLOV DJDLQVW ZKLFK WKH
/DPDãWXDPXOHWVZHUHHPSOR\HGRQHLVVSHFL¿FDOO\UHPLQGHGRIWKHLQFDQWDWLRQ³WKDWZKLFK
WUDQVJUHVVHGWKHSULYDF\RIP\EHG´ZKLFKRFFXUVRQVHYHUDO/DPDãWXDPXOHWVDQGSHUKDSVRQ
WKH¿UVWPLOOHQQLXPDPXOHWGLVFXVVHGEHORZ

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 310 13/12/2011 15:51:14

 THE MESOPOTAMIAN PANDEMONIUM 
pieces of nature proceeding mechanically, while their treatment was the
SURYLQFHRIWKHKHDOHUasûUDWKHUWKDWRIWKHH[RUFLVWƗãLSX):
D‫ېې‬Ɨ]X ³WKHVHL]HUMDXQGLFH´±GEƝOnjUL ³ORUGRIWKHURRIHSLOHSV\´±GEHQ
nu ³HSLOHSV\´GHSXW\RI6vQ±ELEƯWX³FKLOOV±GELEEX ³ZLOGVKHHSDIHOLQH"
SODJXH´WKHEXWFKHURIWKHQHWKHUZRUOG±GL¶X ³KHDGDFKHSRVVLEO\PDODULD´
–H¶ƝOX ³ELQGHU´PHVVHQJHURI,ãWDU±‫ې‬LP‫ܒ‬X‫ې‬LQGX³IHYHU´UHSUHVHQWHGE\D
hybrid OD‫ې‬PXVSLULWLQWKHVHUYLFHRI(D±LãƗWX ³¿UHIHYHU´±NƗVLVWX³FRQVX-
PLQJLãƗWX¿UH´±NLEEX ³EXUQLQJ´±ODED‫܈‬X ³DGLVHDVH´±OD¶EX ³IHYHUD
VNLQGLVHDVH´±OL¶EX ³IHYHUDVNLQGLVHDVH´± GPLTWX³IDOO´±SƗãLWWX ³WKH
REOLWHUDWLQJRQH´DEDE\VQDWFKLQJGHPRQHVVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKELOHDQGVLPL-
lar to, or identical with lamaštu; –SHVV€³FULSSOHGGHIRUPHG´DGHPRQL]HG
FRQJHQLDOGHIRUPDWLRQGHVLJQDWHGJLJWLOD³KHDOWK\GLVHDVH´SRVVLEO\WKHZRUG
IRUWKHERZOHJJHGGZDUIDJRRGOXFN¿JXUHRSSRVLWHRIãnjOX ?); – TƗWH‫ܒ‬HPPL
³KDQGRIDJKRVW´DGLVHDVHGHSXW\RI,ãWDU(D±UL‫€ې‬W GãXOSDH³RIIVSULQJRI
âXOSDHWKHSODQHW-XSLWHU´±G‫܈‬ƯGƗQX³YHUWLJR´±ãDLãWƝWDPPDWXOƗQãX³WKH
RQHRIRQHFXELWGZDUIS\JPHH´±ãnjOX ³SRFNPDUNZDUW´DGHPRQL]HGFRQ-
JHQLDOGHIRUPDWLRQGHVLJQDWHGJLJWLOD³KHDOWK\GLVHDVH´HTXDWHGZLWKH‫ܒ‬HPPX
³JKRVW´DEDGOXFN¿JXUH±Gummu ³IHYHU´

Wandering souls craving attention from the living, and causing disease
in the process

7KHJKRVWVH‫ܒ‬HPPX) of people that are properly buried receive of-

IHULQJV NLVSnj; basically water) from their living family members, and
do not cause harm; the ghosts of unburied people search for food and
drink among of the living, and cause unease or disease trying to get their
DWWHQWLRQ 5LWXDOV DJDLQVW WKH ODWWHU SURYLGH PDOH DQG IHPDOH FOD\ ¿JX-
rines representing them with the food and drink they crave, and with a
PRGHO VKLS WR WUDYHO EDFN WR WKH QHWKHUZRUOG DQG ¿QG UHVW )LJXULQHV
representing ghosts have not been found19, and were probably annihilated
LQWKHFRXUVHRIWKHH[RUFLVP$PDOHRUIHPDOHQHFURPDQFHUãDH‫ܒ‬HPPL,
PXãƝO€, ãƗ¶LOWX) could raise ghosts from the netherworld and have them
pronounce on the fate of the living.
7KHJKRVWVRIXQPDUULHG\RXQJVWHUVZKRGLHGVH[XDOO\XQIXO¿OOHG
become lil-spirits, DW\SHRI³SKDQWRPV´RU³DSSDULWLRQV´WKDWWU\WRVDWLVI\
their needs with the living, and in the process cause suffering and disease;
the female ones are particularly aggressive.
The group of OLO-spirits consists of: DUGDW OLOvNLVNLOƯOX, ³SKDQWRP
EULGH´ ± H‫ܒ‬HO OLOv ³SKDQWRPEULGHJURRP´ ± OLOƯWX ³IHPDOH SKDQWRP´ ±
19
Statues of late third millennium kings or en-priestesses could remain in the temple after
WKHLUGHDWKEHVXSSOLHGZLWKWKHKRUQVRIGLYLQLW\UHFHLYHRIIHULQJVDQGIXO¿OOPLQRUIXQFWLRQV
LQWKHGLYLQHFRXUWIRULQVWDQFHDVWKHPDOHXGXJãHGXRUUƗEL‫܈‬XDQGIHPDOHODPDĜlamassu
SURWHFWLYH¿JXUHV

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 311 13/12/2011 15:51:14

  FRANS A.M. WIGGERMANN
OLO€³PDOHSKDQWRP´±DQGSUREDEO\ QDããXTƯWX ³SKDQWRPNLVVHUGH-
PRQHVV´7KH SOXUDO “lilVSLULWV´ RFFXUV RQO\ LQ 3D]X]X¶V TXDOL¿FDWLRQ
³NLQJRIWKHHYLOlilVSLULWV´DQGPXVWFRYHU/DPDãWXRQHRIWKHEHLQJV
over whom Pazuzu exerts power as king. The remarkable and unex-
SODLQHG JURXSLQJ RI VH[XDOO\ XQVDWLV¿HG VSLULWV XQGHU D NLQJ FDQQRW EH
independent from the king’s equally remarkable and unexplained serpen-
tine penis.

Wild animals and dragon-snakes: representatives of the disobedient

)LJV

7KHLGHQWL¿FDWLRQRIFHUWDLQLFRQRJUDSKLFW\SHVDVVXSHUQDWXUDOKHOS-
HUVLPPHGLDWHO\OHDGVWRWKHLGHQWL¿FDWLRQRIWKHLULFRQRJUDSKLFDGYHUVDU-
LHVDVVXSHUQDWXUDODJJUHVVRUV7KH¿UVWPLOOHQQLXPULWXDO³7RSUHYHQWWKH
HQWU\RIHYLOLQVRPHRQH¶VKRXVH´VXPPDUL]HVLWVORQJDQGYDULHGOLVWRI
VXFKDJJUHVVRUVZLWKWKHDOOLQFOXVLYHGHPRQ³$Q\WKLQJ(YLO´mimma
lemnuDFRPSDULVRQZLWKVLPLODUULWXDOWH[WVVKRZVWKDWPRUHVSHFL¿-
cally the apotropaic Monsters protected a house against PnjWƗQnj³SODJXH´
RU³FDVHVRIXQWLPHO\GHDWK´LPDJLQHGDVDEDQGRIGHPRQVJRLQJIURP
house to house and killing everything in their way.

Fig. 5: .DVVLWH DPXOHW VHDO ZLWK DQ LPDJH RI WKH SURWHFWLYH 6RXWK :LQG PDVWHULQJ EXOOV WKH
HPERGLPHQWRIHYLODQGDVSHOOLQYROYLQJ$VDOOXপL0DUGXN
'UDZLQJ -3 *UpJRLUH ,QVFULSWLRQV HW $UFKLYHV $GPLQLVWUDWLYHV &XQpLIRUPHV 0XOWLJUDSKLFD
(GLWULFH5RPDQRWUDQVFULSWLRQ)$0:LJJHUPDQQ

&RPEDWV LQYROYLQJ 0RQVWHUV LQFOXGLQJ WKH )RXU :LQGV DQG WKHLU

various bestial opponents are common on cylinder seals of all periods,
undoubtedly because the implied victory of the agents of order over the
agents of disorder helped the bearer to avoid or endure adversity and dis-
ease. From halfway the second millennium onwards the seals could be
supplied with prayers or incantations enhancing their amuletic value. A
.DVVLWHVHDO)LJVKRZVDQLPDJHRIWKH6RXWK:LQGPDVWHULQJEXOOV

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 312 13/12/2011 15:51:15

 THE MESOPOTAMIAN PANDEMONIUM 
ZLWK EHVLGH LW WKH PDJLFDO IRUPXOD ³0DUGXN LV WKH JRG ZKR NHHSV PH
KHDOWK\´*HQHUDOO\WKHVXSSRUWLQJLQVFULSWLRQDGGUHVVHVKLJKJRGVOLNH
Marduk, Nabû, Ninurta, or Šamaš, while the image shows Monsters,
:LQGV 6DJHV RU +HURHV LQ WKH DFW RI VXEGXLQJ WKH HQHP\ VXSHUYLVHG
no doubt by the visually absent high god of the inscription. Often the in-
FDQWDWLRQVVWHPIURPWKHVHULHV³Evil will be eradicated´ZKLFKDPRQJ
RWKHULVGLUHFWHGDJDLQVWWKHDOOLQFOXVLYH¿UVWPLOOHQQLXPGHPRQ³$Q\-
WKLQJ(YLO´

Fig. 6: First millennium amulet against an unnamed evil in the form of a dragon-
snake rearing its deadly head from underneath the victim’s bed.
Drawing: F.A.M. Wiggermann, after A. Becker, Uruk. Kleinfunde I. Stein, von
=DEHUQ0DLQ]3OQRSKRWR

The opponents in the combat scenes on the seals are lions, bulls, be-
]RDUVDOORSWLRQDOO\ZLQJHGLQWKHPRUHUHFHQWSHULRGVDQGODWHUDOVRRV-
triches, – the wild, or rather disobedient animals that embodied the wild,
or rather disobedient supernatural aggressors combatted by the helper
VSLULWV DQG WKHLU SHHUV WKH ³FDVHV RI GHDWK´ RI DOO VRUWV RU ³$Q\WKLQJ
(YLO´IRUVKRUW
$ ¿UVW PLOOHQQLXP DPXOHW )LJ  VKRZV LQ LWV XSSHU UHJLVWHU WZR
ugallu Monsters raising their weapons against invisible supernatural ene-
PLHVWKUHDWHQLQJWKHVSDFHEHWZHHQWKHPIURPRXWVLGHWKH¿HOGRIYLVLRQ
WKHORZHUUHJLVWHUVKRZVDKXPDQ¿JXUHVHDWHGRQDEHGDQGJHVWXULQJ

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 313 13/12/2011 15:51:16

  FRANS A.M. WIGGERMANN
ZKLOHLQIURQWRIKLPDVHFRQGKXPDQ¿JXUHSUHVXPDEO\WKHH[RUFLVW,
combats an aggressive dragon-snake rearing its head from underneath the
bed. The text on the reverse of the amulet is broken, but undoubtedly fea-
WXUHGWKHZHOONQRZQLQFDQWDWLRQWKDWLQLWV¿UVWOLQHLGHQWL¿HVSUHFLVHO\
such a threat as «that which transgressed the privacy of my bed, made me
shrink for fear, and gave me frightening dreams». The dragon-snake then
represents this nameless evil, which shares its deadly dragon-head with
the demon Death of the Underworld Vision. On contemporary seals the
dragon-snake embodies a mythological version of the same evil, combat-
ted by Ninurta, the ancient warrior god.
The visualization of generic evil by wild animals, snakes, and dragons
LVZLGHO\DWWHVWHGLQWKH$QFLHQW1HDU(DVW21, but not explicit in the Meso-
SRWDPLDQ VRXUFHV , VXEVWLWXWH D TXRWH IURP WKH 2OG 7HVWDPHQW 3VDOP
©<RXZLOOWUHDGRQWKHOLRQDQGWKHDGGHUWKH\RXQJOLRQDQGWKH
serpent you will trample under foot», and one from the New Testament
/XNH©,KDYHJLYHQ\RXDXWKRULW\WRWUHDGRQVQDNHVDQGVFRU-
pions, and over all the power of the enemy; and nothing will hurt you».

Numina loci manifest in animals; demonized dangerous and noxious ani-

mals

The numina loci of deserted places could be manifest in the animals

WKDWRQHHQFRXQWHUHGWKHUH7KH³OXUNHUGHPRQ´UƗEL‫܈‬X), for instance,
ZKR³KLGHVLQFRUQHUV´FRXOGWDNHWKHIRUPRIDJRDWZKLOHâXODNWKH
³OXUNHUGHPRQRIWKHODYDWRULHV´FRXOGWDNHWKHIRUPRIDUHDULQJOLRQ
Some other numina lociJXDUGLDQVSLULWVDQGSHUVRQL¿HGSODFHVDUH
ãD‫ې‬DUƯEL³KHRIWKHUXLQV´±‫ې‬XUãƗQu³RUGHDOULYHU´±GHQƣLGXGX ³WKHORUGZKR
PDNHVKLVUHJXODUQLJKWO\URXQGV´JXDUGLDQRIWKHFLW\±HQQXQJDOOX³FKLHI
ZDUGHQ´³en(n)ungallu RIWKHIRUHVWVZKRVPDVKHVWKHVNXOO´SHUKDSVDQDPHRI
‫ې‬XZDZD; –‫ې‬XZDZD ³WKHJURZOHU´ a quasi-demonic evil troglodyte, who, depu-
WL]HGE\(QOLOJXDUGHGWKHFHGDUPRXQWDLQWKH³GZHOOLQJRIWKHJRGV´± GNLGXGX
³KHZKRPDNHVKLVUHJXODUURXQGVRIWKHSODFH´PD‫܈܈‬DUGnjUL³JXDUGLDQRIWKH
ZDOO´±NLQnjQX ³VWRYHSHUVRQL¿HG´TƗWNLQnjQL³KDQGRIWKHVWRYH´DGLVHDVH
–GPD‫܈܈‬DUNXVVr³JXDUGLDQRIWKHWKURQH´±PD‫܈܈‬DUãDPrXHU‫܈‬HWL³ZDWFKPHQ
RI+HDYHQDQG(DUWK´DIXQFWLRQRIWKHWZLQJRGVRSHQLQJWKHJDWHVRI+HDYHQ
– QƗUX dtG ³ULYHU JRGGHVV´ ± GQLGXJDOOX ³GRRUNHHSHU´ D FRVPLF IXQFWLRQ
guards the gates of temples; –(d)VLODNNX³KHRIWKHDOOH\V?´DPRQJHQHPLHVRIWKH


Another type of exorcist, the kalû ZLWK KLV FKDUDFWHULVWLF PLWUH DQG D gamlu magic
wand), is shown in the upper register of a Neo-Assyrian seal amulet published in O.W. Mu-
VFDUHOODHGLadders to Heaven: Art Treasures from the Lands of the Bible, McClelland and
6WHZDUG7RURQWRQR
21
D. Frankfurter, The Binding of Antelopes: A Coptic Frieze and its Egyptian Religious
ContextLQ©-RXUQDORI1HDU(DVWHUQ6WXGLHVªSS

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 314 13/12/2011 15:51:16

 THE MESOPOTAMIAN PANDEMONIUM 
JRGVTXDOL¿HGDV³asakkuGHPRQVRQRI$QX´±ãDG€ ³PRXQWDLQSHUVRQL¿HG´
–GãDUUDEX diODGHGLQ³YDJDERQG6XPHULDQ³VSLULWRIWKHVWHSSH´´WKH³ORUG
RIDOOZDUIDUH´±GXOƗMD ³5LYHUUlaya´JXDUGLDQRIWKHFLW\

)DUPHUVFRPEDWWHGGHPRQL]HG¿HOGSHVWFROOHFWLYHO\GHVLJQDWHGDV
WKH³GRJVRI1LQNLOLP´1LQNLOLP³/RUG5RGHQW´ZDVWKH³ORUGRIZLOG
DQLPDOVD]DOXOXQDPPDãWX´DQGDVVXFKKDGSRZHURYHUWKH¿HOG
SHVWV7KH ULWXDOV DQG LQFDQWDWLRQV DUH FROOHFWHG LQ WKH ¿UVW PLOOHQQLXP
VHULHV³To seize (i. e. paralyze) the locust-tooth´22.
'HPRQL]HG ZLOG GRJV VQDNHV DQG VFRUSLRQV DUH WKH VXEMHFW RI D
relatively large number of early incantations. Some further demonic ani-
mals, large and small, are:
DEXUUL‫܈‬ƗQX ³DQLQVHFWDGHPRQ´±GELEEX ³ZLOGVKHHSDIHOLQH"DGHPRQ
RISODJXH´³EXWFKHU´‫ܒ‬ƗEL‫ې‬X) of the netherworld; – G‫ې‬DOOXOƗMD³FHQWLSHGH´D
demon and a protective spirit; –GLãTLSSX ³ELJZRUPDGLVHDVH´±NDWWLOOX
³DSUHGDWRUDGHPRQ´±NLOLOL³WKHRQHRIKDXQWHGSODFHVGHL¿HGRPLQRXV
owl?´HYLORZOGHPRQHVVWKH³TXHHQRIWKHZLQGRZV´RFFXSLHVKHUVHOIZLWK
³OHDQLQJLQWRZLQGRZV´DQGFDXVLQJWURXEOHLQVLGHDOVRFDOOHGPXãƯUWX; –ODEEX
³OLRQ´DP\WKRORJLFDOHQHP\RIGLYLQHUXOH±PXãƯUWX³VKHZKROHDQVLQWRWKH
KRXVHZLQGRZ´DQDPHDQGHSLWKHWRIkilili; –QLPUX ³OHRSDUG´±VDPƗQX³WKH
UHGRQH´DQR[LRXVLQVHFWDQGDGHPRQLFGLVHDVHRIPDQDQLPDOVDQGJUDLQ
GHVFHQGHGWRJHWKHUZLWKRWKHUGHPRQLFGLVHDVHVIURPWKH´WHDWVRIKHDYHQ´WKH
GHWDLOHGGHVFULSWLRQRIWKLV¿HOGSHVWLQDWKLUGPLOOHQQLXP incantation is poetical
OLRQ¶VPRXWKGUDJRQ¶VWRRWKHDJOH¶VFODZFUDE¶VWDLO

3HUVRQL¿HGWLPHSHULRGV

%HVLGHV WKH EDG UDUHO\ JRRG QHZV GHPRQ njPX ³'D\´ RQH RI WKH
enforcers of divine rule, various other time periods may be represented
by good or evil spirits:
EDUƯUƯWX³VKHZKRFRPHVDWGXVN´±PD‫܈܈‬DUWX³ZDWFK´WKHSHUVRQL¿HGWKUHH
ZDWFKHVRIWKHQLJKWEDUƗUƯWXTDEOƯWXãƗWXUUL); –PXãƯWX³QLJKWSHUVRQL¿HG´
WKH³YHLOHGkuttumtu, pussumtuEULGH´±GãƝUX ³PRUQLQJVWDUGDZQSHUVRQL-
¿HG´UHSUHVHQWHGE\DK\EULGJRLQJRQDOOIRXUVWKHWKURQHEHDUHURI Sîn; –
G
njPX³GD\SHUVRQL¿HG´$³'D\6SLULW´JHWVLWVJRRGRUHYLOFKDUDFWHUIURP
WKHGD\LWSHUVRQL¿HVDQGVLQFHZKDWKDSSHQVLQKLVWRU\FDQEHUHSUHVHQWHGDV
depending on divine decisions, a day-spirit can be represented as an instrument
RIGLYLQHUXOH³GD\V´DUHLPDJLQHGDVURDULQJOHRQLQHPRQVWHUVZKLFKDVGH-

22
$5 *HRUJH  -7DQLJXFKL The Dogs of Ninkilim, Part Two: Babylonian Rituals to
Counter Field PestsLQ©,UDTªSS7KHUHODWLRQRI1LQNLOLPWRWKHDQLPDOV
resembles that of Pazuzu to the lil-spirits.

F.A.M. Wiggermann, 6RPH'HPRQVRI7LPHDQGWKHLU)XQFWLRQVLQ0HVRSRWDPLDQ,FR-
nography LQ % *URQHEHUJ  + 6SLHFNHUPDQQ HGV Die Welt der Götterbilder, Walter de
*UX\WHU%HUOLQSS

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 315 13/12/2011 15:51:16

  FRANS A.M. WIGGERMANN
PRQLF SRZHUV EULQJ HYLO DQG DV IULJKWHQLQJDSRWURSDLF ¿JXUHV SURWHFW DJDLQVW
supernatural intruders; the element njPX in the names of the propituous seven
sages denotes the well-being, health, and prosperity which marked their time on
HDUWKDVH[HFXWLRQHURIGLYLQHZLOO³WKHGD\GHPRQLVWKHKHDUWRI$QX6XP
(QOLO WKDW KDV EHFRPH DQJU\´ RQH¶V GD\ RI GHDWK LV UHSUHVHQWHG E\ DQ ³HYLO
GD\GHPRQ´ LQ WKH VHUYLFH RI WKH QHWKHUZRUOG ,Q DUW WKH DSRWURSDLF Gugallu
³*UHDW'D\'HPRQ´LVUHSUHVHQWHGE\WKH/LRQ'HPRQDQG$GDG¶VPRXQWWKH
XNDGX‫€ېې‬³5RDULQJ'D\GHPRQ´E\WKH/LRQ'UDJRQ

3HUVRQL¿HGDEVWUDFWLRQVDQGUHODWHG

Certain aspects of human-human or human-divine interaction are re-

presented by anthropomorphic deities, hybrids, animals, or objects. Per-
VRQL¿HG DEVWUDFWLRQV DQG UHODWHG DUH D UHPLQGHU WKDW QRW HYHU\WKLQJ LQ
Mesopotamian iconography is to be taken at face value.
G
NLWWX ³7UXWK´IHPLQLQHDQGGPƯãDUX³-XVWLFH´PDVFXOLQHDUHWKHGDXJKWHUDQG
vizier of Šamaš respectively, and probably anthropomorphic; NƯQƗWX ³7UXWK´
and WDãP€ u PDJƗUX³/LVWLQJWRSUD\HUVDQG*UDQWLQJWKHP´PD\EHDQWKUR-
pomorphic as well; DGDPP€ ³6WULIH´ DQG LSSLUX ³6WUXJJOH´ DUH GHVFULEHG LQ
the Göttertypentext as two similar hybrids locked in perpetual battle; anantu
³%DWWOH´ৢDOWX³)LJKW´DQG G‫ܒ‬HUGX³3HUVHFXWLRQ´DUHSUREDEO\K\EULGVDVZHOO
QL]LTWX ³*ULHI´ LV GHVFULEHG LQ WKH Göttertypentext as a winged naked woman
with theriomorphic traits, winged probably because the emotion moves towards
the subject from an outside source; SXOX‫ې‬WX³)HDU´LVUHSUHVHQWHGE\DZLQJHG
K\EULGRUDELUGIRUWKHVDPHUHDVRQ GS€ u OLãƗQX³0RXWKDQG7RQJXHWKH
LQVWUXPHQWVRILQWHUFHVVLRQ´DUHFXOWLFREMHFWVWKDWWUDQVPLWSUD\HUVUHSUHVHQWHG
SHUKDSVE\V\PEROVRIWKHVHERG\SDUWVUHSODFLQJWKHHDUOLHUDQWKURSRPRUSKLF
¿JXUHVlamassu’s) with this function.

/DPDãWXDQG3D]X]XWZRH[FHSWLRQDOFDVHV)LJ

The two best known Mesopotamian demons, Lamaštu and Pazuzu,

are also the two most aberrant ones: contrary to all other evils they have
stable and explicit iconographies24. This difference between Pazuzu and
Lamaštu on the one hand, and the remainder of the pandemonium on the
other, requires an explanation.
3D]X]X WKH SHUVRQL¿HG :HVW :LQG LV WKH ³NLQJ RI WKH HYLO lil-de-
PRQV´ ZKR DV VXFK KDG SRZHU RYHU KLV XQVDWLV¿HG VXEMHFWV LQFOXGLQJ
Lamaštu, apparently in some respect – frustrated motherhood? – an un-

13+HH‰HOPazuzu%ULOODQG6W\[/HLGHQ)$0:LJJHUPDQQPazuzu, in «Re-
24

DOOH[LNRQGHU$VV\ULRORJLHªSS,G/DPDãWX'DXJKWHURI$QX$3UR¿OH,

in M. Stol, Birth in Babylonia and in the Bible6W\[*URQLQJHQSS

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 316 13/12/2011 15:51:16

 THE MESOPOTAMIAN PANDEMONIUM 
VDWLV¿HGlil-demon, too . First millennium ritual texts prescribe the man-


ufacture of Pazuzu heads, not to be destroyed during an exorcism like the

representations of other demons, but to be worn on the body, or hung in
the house. Representations of Pazuzu, just the heads or complete bodies,
could be made of terracotta, stone or metal, and thus emphatically were
not meant to be destroyed, but on the contrary, to remain in use for an
extended period of time. Pazuzu then, though a king of the demons, func-
tioned not like a demon to be exorcized, but like an apotropaic Monster
guarding a house or a person against aggressive lil-demons.

Fig. 7: First millennium amulet with apotropaic Monsters, Sages, Lamaštu, and Pazuzu.
Representation of a permanent Lamaštu exorcism, with images of the demoness herself, of
the gifts she receives, and of a donkey, a ship, and provisions for her journey back to the
netherworld. In the upper register the symbols of the gods are visible, which passively supervise
WKHSURFHHGLQJVIURPGLVWDQW+HDYHQWRWKHOHIWRIWKHGHPRQHVVDQGRQWRSRIWKHDPXOHW
Pazuzu appears, who’s threatening gesture ensures her obedience. The bedroom of the victim
in the middle of the amulet is protected by two primeval ugallu0RQVWHUVDQG/XODODPLQRU
apotropaic god), while two primeval Sages, the patrons of the human exorcist, are performing a
cleansing ritual on the victim in his bed.
Drawing F.A.M. Wiggermann, cf. Wiggermann, /DPDãWX'DXJKWHURI$QX$3UR¿OH, cit., Fig.
SKRWR


3D]X]X¶VUHODWLRQWRKLVHYLOVXEMHFWVLVFRPSDUDEOHWRWKDWRI1LQNLOLP³/RUG5RGHQW´
WKH³ORUGRIZLOGDQLPDOV´WRKLVHYLOVXEMHFWVWKH³GRJVRI1LQNLOLP´RU¿HOGSHVWV

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 317 13/12/2011 15:51:17

  FRANS A.M. WIGGERMANN
Since the protection afforded by king Pazuzu was not punctual but
durative, the threat posed by Lamaštu, his most dangerous subject, must
have been durative too, and indeed it was. Lamaštu attacks unborn babies
during pregnancy, and young children up to a certain age, and thus can be
active against the same human victim for an extended period of time. The
temporal extension of Lamaštu’s evil activities at once supplies a ground
for the existence of her iconography. The Lamaštu ¿JXULQHV or drawings,
manufactured during the exorcism, concerned an acute threat of the de-
moness, and were meant to be destroyed; the representations of Lamaštu
on terracotta, stone or metal amulets, on the other hand, which are the
source of her iconography, concerned the chronic threat of repeated fu-
ture attacks, and were meant to be permanently displayed. In other words,
the reason why Lamaštu and Pazuzu have iconographies is the temporal
extension of the former’s threat, and consequently of the need for the lat-
ter’s protection.
Lamaštu and Pazuzu are exceptional in other respects, too. The origi-
nally divine baby-snatching demoness Lamaštu, daughter of Anu, is an
outcast and a hybrid not by virtue of her origin in the pre-normal early
FRVPRVOLNHWKH0RQVWHUVDQGWKHODWHUutukku’s, but by virtue of her
evil and rebellious plan to have mankind for dinner, on account of which
VKHZDVGHPRWHGWRWKHUDQNRIGHPRQutukkat ³VKHLVDQutukku´SUR-
YLGHGZLWKD³GRJ¶VKHDG´E\(QOLODQGWKURZQRXWRI+HDYHQ7KXVWKH
mythology of Lamaštu makes two points of later Mesopotamian demon-
ology explicit: that hybridity, congenial or acquired, visually distinguish-
HVQHWKHUZRUOGGHPRQVRU0RQVWHUVIURPKHDYHQO\JRGVDQGWKDW
gods do not hatch destructive plans against mankind, while demons do.
7KH ¿UVW PLOOHQQLXP ZLQGGHPRQ ãƗUX 3D]X]X IXO¿OOV D IXQFWLRQ
in Mesopotamian magic, which did not exist before his introduction into
the pandemonium from a foreign, presumably Aramean, source. In tra-
ditional Mesopotamian magic the incantations against the demons origi-
nated with the gods of white magic, the protagonists of cosmic order,
while in the Pazuzu rituals they originate with Pazuzu himself, the king
of the evil lil-demons, who is bound by honor to keep his minions in
check. With this new arrangement Mesopotamian magic relegated the al-


Lamaštu is much older than Pazuzu, but the absence of a corpus of bilingual incantations
shows that the Akkadian exorcisms did not have a continuous history from the third millennium
onwards. The original Sumerian dGuPPHLVDPHPEHURIDJURXSRIVHYHQVLPLODUGHPRQV
and much less individualized than her Akkadian counterpart. Possibly the extant Sumerian
PDWHULDO RULJLQDWHV IURP WKH HDUO\ VHFRQG PLOOHQQLXP DQG ZDV LQÀXHQFHG E\ WKH$NNDGLDQ
concept of the baby-snatching demoness.

In his address to the demon in the incantation atta dannu³\RXVWURQJRQH´3D]X]XXVHV
phrases that in traditional magic were spoken by the exorcist as emissary or embodiment of the
gods of white magic.

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 318 13/12/2011 15:51:17

 THE MESOPOTAMIAN PANDEMONIUM 
ready distant heavenly gods to a passive role in the background, putting
its trust in a dubious but more earthly and more accessible demonic ally.
7KH/DPDãWXDPXOHWVUHÀHFWWKLVLQQRYDWLRQEHWWHUWKDQWKHFRQWHPSRUDU\
but more traditional Lamaštu ritual texts, where the neophyte Pazuzu is
VWLOOLJQRUHG)LJ
The Sumerian names of a number of linguistically unrelated Akka-
dian demons or spirits reveal the earlier existence of a class of male and
female demonic dime ³¿JXUHV´LQDODWHWKLUGPLOOHQQLXP6XPHULDQLQ-
FDQWDWLRQVXPPDUL]HGDVWKH³VHYHQdimeGHPRQV´(d)dìm(-me) / ODPDãWX
³dimeGHPRQHVV´± ddìm(-me)-aODED‫܈‬X³dimeGHPRQRIWKHZDWHUV´
a demon of disease; – dìm(-me)-a-ra-liJDãLUâDPDã³dime-demon of
WKH QHWKHUZRUOG´  ´6WURQJ RQH RI âDPDã´ GXELRXV ± ddìm(-me)-kù 
‫ې‬DOOXOƗMD ³SXUH dimeGHPRQ´  ³FHQWLSHGH´ D GHPRQ DQG D SURWHFWLYH
spirit; – dGuPPHƣL6  OLOƯWX ³dimeGHPRQHVV RI WKH QLJKW´ D W\SH RI
VH[XDOO\ XQVDWLV¿HG JKRVW DFWLYH DW QLJKW ± dGuPPHQtƣLQ  D‫ېې‬Ɨ]X
³HQFLUFOLQJ? dimeGHPRQ´³VHL]HU´DGHPRQRIGLVHDVH± ddìm(-me)-
tabELEƯWX³dimeGHPRQFDXVLQJIHYHU´DGHPRQL]HGGLVHDVH±dDÌM.
NUN.ME, an Anatolian mother goddess with demonic traits; – ddìme(-
me)
:pi-kù³dime-demon of pure understanding?´DWKLUGPLOOHQQLXPQHWK-
erworld god.
2QH RI WKH SURSHUWLHV RI VLPSOH XQTXDOL¿HG GGuPPH / ODPDãWX
should be valid for the whole group of GGuPPH ³¿JXUHV?´HDFKGLV-
tinguished from simple GGuPPH E\ LWV LQGLYLGXDO TXDOL¿FDWLRQ 'XH
WRDODFNRIHYLGHQFHRQWKHLQGLYLGXDO¿JXUHVLWUHPDLQVXQFOHDUKRZ-
HYHUZKDWSURSHUW\EHVLGHVKRUURULVVKDUHGE\DOOPHPEHUVRIWKHdime-
group, or what property distinguishes the dime-group from other groups
of demons such as that of the lil-spirits, with which the dime-group has
PHPEHUVLQFRPPRQODPDãWX, OLOƯWX).

Provisional list of Sumerian “equivalents” of Akkadian spirit and demon

names

a-lá see alû; – a-rá SKRQHWLF YDULDQW RI DODG VHH (d)UƗEL‫܈‬X ãƝGX
utukku; – iVjƣ see asakku; – (d)ab-ba-šú-šú ³VKH ZKR OHDQV LQWR ZLQ-
GRZV´VHHkilili; – dalad see ãƝGX; – dálad see ãƝGX; – dálad-edin see (d)
ãDUUDEX; – dallala-a-meš³SULPHYDOZRUNHUJRGV´VHHdallû; – ama-è-a
³DEVHQWHHPRWKHU´VHHOLOƯWX; – ama-lul(-la)³PRWKHURIDKXPDQEHLQJ´
see PXWWLOWXDPƗOX; –ama-lul(-la)³IDOVHPRWKHU´VHHmuttiltu; –ama-
uru³PRWKHURIDKXPDQEHLQJ´VHHDPƗOX; –amalu³PRWKHURIDKXPDQ
EHLQJ´VHHLãWDUXLãWDUWXDPƗOX; – an-ta-šub-ba³IDOOHQGRZQIURPXS
KLJK´ VHH (d)miqtu; – aš-ru see D‫ېې‬Ɨ]X; – iãপXO ³HYLO FXUVH´ VHH arrat
lemutti; –ba-an-za³FULSSOHGHIRUPHG´VHHpessû; – EDUƣLãUD³KHZKR
KLWV WKH ERG\´ VHH H¶ƝOX; – di-bi see GnjWX; – GLপ see OD¶EX OL¶EX; – (d)

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 319 13/12/2011 15:51:18

  FRANS A.M. WIGGERMANN
dìm(-me)³VXSHUQDWXUDO¿JXUH´VHHODPDãWX; – *dìm(-me)-a-ra-li³VX-
SHUQDWXUDO¿JXUHRIWKHQHWKHUZRUOG´VHHJDãLUâDPDã; –ddìm-kù³SXUH
VXSHUQDWXUDO¿JXUH´VHH‫ې‬DOOXOƗMD; – ddìm(-me)-a³VXSHUQDWXUDO¿JX-
UH RI WKH ZDWHUV´ VHH ODED‫܈‬X; – dGuPPHƣL6 ³VXSHUQDWXUDO ¿JXUH RI
WKHQLJKW´VHHOLOƯWX; – dGuPPHQtƣLQ³HQFLUFOLQJVXSHUQDWXUDO¿JX-
UH´VHHD‫ېې‬Ɨ]X; – ddìm(-me):nun see dime-demons; – ddìm(-me):pi:kù
see dime-demons; – ddìm-tab ³VXSHUQDWXUDO ¿JXUH FDXVLQJ IHYHU´ VHH
ELEƯWXELEL‫ې‬WX; – GLƣLU³SHUVRQDOJRGVSLULW´VHHiltu, ilu; –GLƣLUJXEED
³VWDQGLQJJRGV´VHHdingirgubbû; –GLƣLUNX4-ra³HQWHULQJJRGV´VHHdin-
girkurû; –GLƣLUWXãD³VHDWHGJRGV´VHHGLQJLUWXã€; –GLƣLUXJ7-ga³GHDG
JRGV´VHHdingiruggû; –(d)dù-dù see D‫ېې‬Ɨ]X; –dugud-da³WKHSRQGHURXV
RQH´ VHH (d)miqtu; – é-lá-a ³ZKR KDQJV RYHU KRXVHV´ VHH PXãƯUWX; – qপ
³FULSSOHG GHIRUPHG´ VHH pessû; – dHQƣL6-du-du ³WKH ORUG ZKR PDNHV
KLVUHJXODUQLJKWO\URXQGV´VHHdHQƣLGXGX; – pULQপXã³EDWWOH´VHHanan-
tu; – ƣDO5-lá ³FRQVWDEOH´ VHH gallû; – gidim ³JKRVW´ VHHH‫ܒ‬HPPX, ãƝGX;
– gig-ti-la³KHDOWK\GLVHDVH´VHHpessû, ãnjOX; – gudYDULDQWRIJLGLPVHH
H‫ܒ‬HPPX; – gud-an-na³EXOORIKHDYHQ´VHHalû; – ƣXUXãOtOOi³SKDQWRP
EULGHJURRP´ VHH H‫ܒ‬HO OLOv; – পXOGXEG~E ³HYLOO\ KLWWLQJ´ VHH ‫ې‬XOWXSSX
(d)
UƗEL‫܈‬X; – পXUVDƣ ³IRRWKLOOV´ VHH ãDG€; – díd ³ULYHU´ VHH QƗUX; – igi-
QLƣLQQD³ZKLUOLQJH\H´VHH (d)‫܈‬ƯGƗQX; – im³VSLULW´VHHãƗUX; – LPপXO
³HYLO ZLQG´ VHH LP‫ې‬XOOX; – inim-kúr-du11-du11 ³VKH ZKR VSHDNV KRVWL-
OH ZRUGV´ VHH EDUƯUƯWX; – dLQDQQDƣDOƣDVXG ³FRXQVHOORU JRGGHVV´ VHH
mal(i)katu; –izi³¿UH´VHH dummu; – izi-šub-ba³¿UHIDOOHQGRZQIURP
XSKLJK´VHH(d)miqtu; – NDGXপপD³RQHRSHQLQJLWVPRXWK´VHHQƗ¶LUX;
– ka-im-ma³PRXWKRIDVSLULW´VHHSƗãLWWX; – ka-muš-ì-kú-e³EHLQJFRQ-
VXPHG E\ ZRUPV´ VHH SƗãLWWX; – dka-ta-è ³RQH IDOOHQ IURP WKH PRXWK´
see kattillu; – dKAL see EDãWX; – kar-mud-da see (d)idiptu; – dki-du-du
³KHZKRPDNHVKLVUHJXODUURXQGVRIWKHSODFH´VHHdkidudu; – ki-sikil-líl-
lá(-en-na)³SKDQWRPEULGH´VHHDUGDWOLOvNLVNLOƯOXOLOƯWX; – ki-sikil-ud-
da-kar-ra³JLUODEGXFWHGE\DGD\GHPRQ´VHHDUGDWOLOv; – ki-ti-la see
lamassu; – NLƣJDOXGGD³GLUHFWRURIGD\GHPRQV´VHHmuttilu; – kum
³IHYHULVK´VHHdummu; – ODPDĜsee lamassu; – li-bi-ir³KHUDOG´VHHgallû;
– lil³PRURQ´VHHlillu; – líl(-lá)³SKDQWRP´VHHOLO€]DTƯTX; – líl-lá-en-
na see lilû; – líl-ud-tar-en-na see DUGDWOLOv; – líl-líl-ús-sa³VKHZKRIRO-
lows the lilGHPRQV´ VHH SƗãLWWX; – dlilx'8*4$%85 ³SRWWHU´ VHH G
lillu; – dO~পXãD ³DQJU\ PDQ´ VHH dOX‫ې‬Xã€; – lú-líl-lá ³PDOH SKDQWRP´
see lilû; – dlugal-amaš-pa-è-a see (d)bennu; – dOXJDOƣuUUD0$5., see
(d)
ãDUUDEX; – dlugal-me see (d)bennu; – d(lugal)-nam-en-na see (d)bennu; –
(d)
lugal-ùr-ra³ORUGRIWKHURRI´VHH(d)EƝOnjUL; – mar-gal³ELJZRUP´VHH
LãTLSSX; – maškim³GHSXW\DWWRUQH\´VHH(d)UƗEL‫܈‬X utukku; – (d)maškim-
ƣL6O~পDUUDDQQD ³QLJKW ZDWFKPDQ RI WKH WUDYHOOHU´ VHH ‫ې‬DOOXOƗMD
PXãWDEEDEEX; – me ³KLGGHQSRZHU´VHHGnjWX; –munus-líl-lá³IHPDOH
SKDQWRP´VHHOLOƯWX; – nam-érim³RDWKFXUVH´VHHPƗPƯWX; – (d)nam-tar

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 320 13/12/2011 15:51:18

 THE MESOPOTAMIAN PANDEMONIUM 
³IDWHGHFLVLRQ´VHHQDPWDUXãƯPWX; – nam-ug5 ³GHDWK´VHHPnjWX; – nar-
[mud]-a see (d)idiptu; – dQtƣJLQD³WUXWK´VHH (d)kittu; – dQtƣVLVi³MXVWL-
FH´VHH (d)PƯãDUX; – dQtƣ]LGD³WUXWK´VHH(d)kittu; – nìgin³SUHPDWXUH
VWLOOERUQFKLOG´VHHGNnjEXNXPPX; – dnin-ninna³JRGGHVVRIWKHRZO?´
see kilili; – dQLQSLULƣ785GD see (d)bibbu; – dnin-tu/tùr see ãDVVnjUX;
–nir-mu-da see (d)idiptu; – num-nim³VSULQJÀ\´VHHVDPƗQX; – dnun-
ùr-dù-dùODWHYDULDQWRILQLPN~UGX11-du11) see EDUƯUƯWX; – SLULƣSuULƣ
³OLRQ OHRQLQH GD\GHPRQ ZLQG´ VHH OƗEX (d)njPX; –dSLULƣNDWDEED
³OLRQZLWK¿HU\PRXWK´VHH kattillu; – dSLULƣWXUUD³OLWWOHOLRQ´VHH (d)
bibbu, nimru; – dSuULƣGLEELপXã³OLRQZKRVHSDVVLQJE\LVKRUURU´VHH
PXãWDEEDEEX; – VDDGQLƣLQYDULDQWRIVDƣQLƣLQVHH(d)‫܈‬ƯGƗQX; – sa-ad-
numYDULDQWRIVDƣQXPVHHVDPƗQX; – VDDOপDE³DW\SHRIQHW´see
DOOX‫ې‬DSSX; – sa-ma-ná³WKHUHGRQH´VHHVDPƗQX; – VDƣED³RDWK´VHH
PƗPƯWX; – VDƣGLƣLU see ‫ې‬XUãƗQX; – VDƣJLJ ³KHDG DFKH´ VHH GL¶X; –
VDƣপXOপD]D ³DWWHQGDQW RI HYLO´ VHH PXNLO UƝã OHPXWWL VDJ‫ې‬XO‫ې‬D]€;
– dVDƣNDO³WKHIRUHPRVWRQH´VHHkattillu; – VDƣQLƣLQ³ZKLUOLQJKHDG´
see (d)‫܈‬ƯGƗQX; – VDƣQXPYDULDQWRIVDPDQiVHHVDPƗQX; – VDƣWXNX
³VXSSRUWHU´ VHH (d)UƗEL‫܈‬X; – si-si-ig ³EUHH]H´ VHH ]DTƯTX; – sìg-sìg-ga
³EUHH]H´VHH]DTƯTX; – sumug³SRFNPDUN´VHHãnjOX; – dšà-tùr³PRWKHU
JRGGHVVZRPE´VHHãDVVnjUX; – šár-ra-ab-du/dù³EDLOLII´VHHãDUUDEW
‫ – ;€ܒ‬dše-en-tu see ãDVVnjUX; –šed7-dè³FROG´VHHOL¶EX; – šir-en-na see
lilû; – dšul-pa-è-ta-ri-a³VSDZQRIâXOSDH¶VHHUL‫€ې‬WdãXOSDH; – téš³SX-
GHQGXP´VHHEDãWX; – (d)PXXQপXãপXO³HYLOORUG´VHHãnjOX; – (d)ud
³GD\GHPRQ´VHH (d)njPX; – dud-ug³OHRQLQHGD\GHPRQ´VHH (d)njPX;
– dud-zal³PRUQLQJ´VHH(d)ãƝUX; – (d)udu-idim³ZLOGVKHHS´VHH(d)bibbu;
– udug³VSLULWGHPRQ´VHH(d)UƗEL‫܈‬X, ãƝGXXWXNNX; – (d)ug³OHRQLQHGD\
GHPRQ´VHH (d)njPX; – dXJNDGXপD³OHRQLQHGD\GHPRQRSHQLQJLWV
PRXWK´VHHQƗ¶LUX; – ug5(-ga)³GHDWK´VHHPnjWX; – ul seealû; –ur-me(-
me)³GRJRI0HPH´seeVDPƗQX; – ùlulu seealû; – úš ³GHDWK´VHHPnjWX;
– x-šub-baseeDEXUUL‫܈‬ƗQX; – dza-gàr seed]DJJDU]DTƯTX; – dzag-gar
seed]DJJDU]DTƯTX.

ABSTRACT

,O SDQWKHRQ GHOO¶DQWLFD 0HVRSRWDPLD q EHQ QRWR LO SDQGHPRQLXP

molto meno. Un rapido spoglio delle voci del Chicago Assyrian Dictiona-
U\IRUQLVFHLQRPLGLFLUFDGHPRQLFKHVLGLVWLQJXRQRO¶XQRGDOO¶DOWUR
LQGLYHUVLPRGLDOFXQLHUDQRPDOH¿FLSHUQDWXUDDOWULDJLYDQRLQWDOVHQ-
VRVRORSHUOHIXQ]LRQLORURDWWULEXLWHQHOFRVPRRUGLQDWRGDJOLGqLDOFXQL
erano invisibili, altri orribilmente composti da parti umane e animali;
DOFXQLDYHYDQRXQ¶LFRQRJUD¿DDOWULQR$LGHPRQLPDOH¿FLFRUULVSRQGH-
vano due gruppi di spiriti ibridi ausiliari, i Saggi e i Mostri, che gioca-
vano un importante ruolo nella magia apotropaica del primo millennio.

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 321 13/12/2011 15:51:18

  FRANS A.M. WIGGERMANN
The pantheon of Ancient Mesopotamia is well known, its pandemo-
nium much less. A run through the Chicago Assyrian Dictionary revealed
the names of some 119 demons, who differed among themselves in various
ways: some were evil by nature, others feared only because of the fun-
FWLRQVWKH\IXO¿OOHGLQWKHGLYLQHO\RUGHUHGFRVPRVVRPHZHUHLQYLVLEOH
others dreadful composites of human and animal parts; some had icono-
graphies, others had not. The evil demons were matched by two groups of
hybrid helper spirits, the Sages and the Monsters, who played an impor-
WDQWUROHLQ¿UVWPLOOHQQLXPDSRWURSDLFPDJLF

4. Wiggermann 298-322.indd 322 13/12/2011 15:51:18