Review Article

Crush Syndrome in Disaster

JMAJ 48(7): 341–352, 2005

Junichiro Yokota*1

Abstract
Crush syndrome is a condition observed in patients who have been buried under collapsed buildings or rubble.
It is characterized by rhabdomyolysis developing shortly after rescue and subsequent hyperkalemia, shock, acute
renal failure, and other systemic symptoms. The development of acute renal failure can be avoided if fluid therapy
is initiated early and diuresis can be induced. In severe cases, intensive care including hemodialysis, prevention
of compartment syndrome, and infection control is effective in reducing the mortality. However, actual treatment
involves considerable difficulties because we must deal with a large number of patients at the time of a disaster.
Even in such demanding situations, we should be able to save the lives of as many patients as possible by
predicting the development of crush syndrome, initiating fluid therapy as part of confined space medicine,
practicing appropriate triage, and transporting patients to high-level medical institutions.

Key words Traumatic rhabdomyolysis, Ischemia reperfusion syndrome, Acute renal failure, Fluid therapy,
Hemodialysis, Compartment syndrome

such as earthquakes when prompt treatment is

Introduction often difficult. Therefore, we need to have not
only a full understanding of the pathophysiology
The Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake (also called and treatment of this condition, but also to be
the Kobe Earthquake) in 1995 caused a great prepared to treat numerous patients at the time
many cases of crush syndrome, which we rarely of a massive disaster.
encounter in daily clinical practice.1 Patients who
had been rescued in apparently good condition Definition of Crush Syndrome
suddenly died or gradually developed severe
systemic symptoms, to the astonishment of many Crush syndrome (CS) is a condition in which
healthcare workers. In fact, most physicians in rhabdomyolysis develops rapidly after the skeletal
Japan at that time lacked sufficient understanding muscles are released from prolonged pressure,
of this syndrome, as well as of its pathophysiology resulting in shock, acute renal failure, and other
and treatment options. After this experience, systemic symptoms. CS develops when the limbs
they have become aware of this syndrome are subjected to prolonged pressure or tightly
through seminars on disaster medicine, academic restrained and the patient is rescued alive. This
meetings, and publications. Management of syndrome is sometimes referred to as “traumatic
injuries leading to this syndrome is not always rhabdomyolysis” in English language papers. In
difficult, provided that adequate care is initiated Japanese translation, the old term, “zametsu”
early. Rather, factors arising between rescue and syndrome for CS has been replaced by the new
transportation and initial treatment determine term, “atsuza” syndrome, because the former
the outcome. The problem is that numerous cases implies association with highly destructive crush
of this syndrome occur at the time of disaster injury, which is not consistent with the clinical

*1 Sakai Municipal Hospital, Osaka

Correspondence to: Junichiro Yokota MD, PhD, Sakai Municipal Hospital, 1-1-1 Minamiyasui-cho, Sakai-city, Osaka 590-0064, Japan.
Tel: 81-72-221-1700, Fax: 81-72-225-3404, E-mail: [email protected]

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appearance of injury leading to crush syndrome.

While “crush injury” refers to wounds caused
by or showing signs of crushing of the human
body, this does not necessarily describe the
clinical appearance of injury leading to crush
syndrome.

Historical Overview and Epidemiology

The earliest description of CS is considered to

have appeared in the German language literature
in 1910, which reported “rhabdomyolysis with
the triple symptoms of myalgia, loss of muscle
power, and dark brown urine” observed following
the Sicily Earthquake in 1909.2,3 German medical
books contain descriptions of similar symptoms
observed in World War I soldiers who were
buried under debris or confined in bomb shelters
and then rescued. Bywaters in the U.K. first used
the English term “crush syndrome” in his 1941
paper that delineated the pathogenesis of CS
and established guidelines for the management
of casualties.4 He observed many civilian victims
of the London Blitz, who were rescued from
collapsed houses but presented remarkable
swelling of wounded limbs and died from acute
renal failure. He treated nearly 200 patients with Fig. 1 Annual publication in the literature on
“crush syndrome”
CS before the end of the war.5 Analyzing clinical Articles on crush syndrome were searched with PubMed
cases and studies on myonecrosis and acute renal and cited reference. Remarkable disasters in relation to
failure, he established a largely complete clinical crush syndrome are listed chronologically.
picture of this syndrome after the war.6–8
Clinical cases of CS related to the Vietnam
War9 and coalmine accidents10 appeared in
the literature in the latter half of the 1960s. torture involving hitting with blunt instruments,24
Later reports related to earthquakes,11,12 local comatose patients,25 patients receiving surgery in
conflicts,13,14 mine accidents,15 railway accidents,16 tight body positions,26 difficult rescue cases in
collapse of old houses17 occasionally appeared traffic accidents,27 complications with the use of
following disasters.18 When the earthquake in MAST suits,28 injury from using immobilizing
Armenia in 1989 caused about 300 cases of CS, bandaging,29 and injury due to automatically
case reports and results of animal experiments cycled blood pressure cuff.30 The occurrence of
were published,19,20 but we do not have access CS is not clear, because it frequently occurs
to the details, because the reports were mostly in disasters where accurate medical statistics
written in Russian. After the Hanshin-Awaji are difficult to obtain. CS is reported to have
Earthquake in Japan, there have been increasing occurred in 7.6% of all traumatic cases in the
numbers of English language papers dealing Spitak Earthquake,31 13.7% of all traumatic
with casualties in the Marmara Earthquake21 and hospitalized patients in the Kobe Earthquake,32
the Bingol Earthquake22 in Turkey, the Chi-Chi and 1.4% of all hospitalized patients in the
Earthquake in Taiwan,23 etc. (Fig. 1). Marmara Earthquake.21 The development of CS
Although a majority of reported CS cases is considered to vary depending on the structure
are associated with disasters involving large of the building, injury conditions, and rescue
numbers of victims, CS may also be seen situation. A study on the Kobe Earthquake
in daily practice in various situations, such as showed a significant positive correlation between

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a) Compression injury to the skeletal muscles:

Stretch myopathy
Stretching of the cell membranes may initiate
injury to the skeletal muscles. When the cell
membranes are stretched, Ca channels are
opened. The cell tries to maintain the potential
difference by temporarily allowing the outflow of
K, which maintains the cell volume. On the other
hand, the inflowing Ca is buffered by adsorption
to the organelles and the pumping function of the
cell membranes. This process consumes ATP not
only by the activation of Ca-ATPase but also by
the reuptake of K that has been lost as a result of
Na influx due to Ca/Na exchange. The increase
in intracellular Ca level causes the activation of
protease, phospholipase, and a wide variety of
other enzymes, and furthermore, the deposition
of Ca to mitochondria weakens their activity.37
The cascade of these events causes shortage
of energy in the cell and attenuation of the Na
gradient, resulting in the development of cellular
edema.
b) Ischemic injury to skeletal muscles
The parts of the limbs located peripheral to
the sites of pressure naturally become ischemic.
Fig. 2 Pathophysiology of the crush syndrome
Skeletal muscles in complete ischemia develop
edema and lysosome degranulation within about
30 min, and undergo irreversible morphological
changes leading to necrosis within 4 to 6 hours
the number of collapsed houses and the number at normal temperature.38 Although such necrosis
of CS patients.1 may be partially present in limbs receiving
external crushing force, most parts of the limbs
Pathology remain in a condition of incomplete ischemia
because of the presence of collateral circulation
Locally, CS presents signs of compartment or weakness of compression. While intracellular
syndrome and anesthekinesia.33 Systemically, energy flow may be barely maintained by
the central pathological feature is acute renal anaerobic metabolism, the Na permeability of
failure34 arising from rhabdomyolysis35 (Fig. 2). the cell membranes is increased and Na-K-AT-
This clinical picture resembles the systemic Pase is activated to enhance the pumping out of
symptoms observed following the reperfusion of Na, resulting in accelerated ATP consumption.
an ischemic limb. Gradually, Ca flows into the cell with the
development of cellular edema due to ATP
Damage to skeletal muscles from shortage. Such damage to the cell membranes
compression tends to occur more readily in incomplete ischemia
In discussing the pathophysiology of CS, it than in complete ischemia.39 In summary, the
is important to consider what triggers the progression of membrane damage is promoted
breakdown of the skeletal muscles. There are by the temporal contiguity or concurrence of
different theories based on similarities with other ischemia and reperfusion taking place in the
diseases; one considers that partial ischemia may compressed parts of the muscles and their vicinity
be the cause, and another postulates injury to the due to the presence of collateral circulation,
cell membranes of the skeletal muscles due to accompanied by the mechanism of reperfusion
physical force.36 injury discussed below.40

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c) Propagation of intracompartment pressure ischemia reperfusion is further enhanced. Cellular

Skeletal muscles are covered with fasciae and edema and the increase in vascular permeability
bones to form muscle compartments. Because of causes the rapid rise in ICP, and compartment
this peculiar anatomy of skeletal muscles, even syndrome develops in the parts that have not
localized compression or unnatural posture may shown overt signs of injury.
cause a substantial increase in intracompart-
mental pressure (ICP) leading to widespread Systemic changes after release of pressure
muscle injury.41 When edema develops in myocytes (rescue)
for the above-mentioned reasons, elevation in a) Fluid shift and hyperkalemia
ICP may result and all skeletal muscles in As water and various substances flow into
the same compartment are affected. If ICP is and out of the damaged myocytes (Table 1),47
elevated to 30–50 mmHg or higher, this factor blood flow in the vicinity promotes the rapid
alone causes skeletal muscle ischemia within 4 to development of systemic symptoms. We need
8 hours, resulting in the so-called compartment to pay particular attention to the nonfunctional
syndrome.42 In compartment syndrome due to extracellular fluid and K outflow occurring
ordinary trauma, muscle damage is caused relatively early following reperfusion, because
by factors outside the muscle, such as bone hypovolemic shock and hyperkalemia are major
fracture, hematoma, and circulation impairment. causes of early death. Analysis of fatal CS cases
In contrast, muscle damage in CS is caused by following the Kobe Earthquake showed that
edema in the muscle itself.43 70% of the 27 fatalities from circulatory failure
took place within 3 days. While there were 11
Local changes after release of pressure fatalities from hyperkalemia, 8 of them occurred
(rescue) within 3 days.1 It has also been demonstrated that
Following the release of pressure, the myocytes severe cases with a peak CK value of 75,000 U/L
damaged from being stretched and by ischemia or more show abnormal values (Hct 52%, BE
rapidly develop edema and gradually necrotize. ⳮ10.2 mEq/L, and K 6.4 mEq/L) at the time
This process involves reperfusion injury at of initial examination.48 There is a case report
the level of microcirculation and compartment providing detailed description of cardiac arrest
syndrome specific to skeletal muscles. due to hyperkalemia.17 Experiments suggest the
a) Ischemia reperfusion injury factors causing circulatory failure include not
The rapid reestablishment of blood circulation only dehydration and hyperkalemia but also
following release of pressure may impair micro- loss of cardiac function. In addition, sympathetic
circulation and cause tissue injury. This condition, hypertonia and sudden electrolyte abnormalities
called ischemia reperfusion injury, expands cause functional and organic changes in the
ischemic damage through interaction between myocardium.49
the leukocytes and endothelial cells. Many b) Development of acute renal failure
researchers have pointed out the involvement Multiple factors including a drop in renal blood
of reactive oxygen species in this condition.44 flow and renal tubular ischemia due to dehy-
Reactive oxygen species impair skeletal muscles dration,7 myoglobin,50 acidosis,51 tension of the
and vascular endothelial cells through peroxi- renal nerves,8 azotemia and hyperphosphatemia47
dation of the cell membranes and the membranes contribute to the development of acute renal
of organelles.45 Leukocytes adhere to the damaged failure. While myoglobinuria is certainly a central
endothelial cells and impair microcirculation, factor, few consider that it is the sole cause.
aggravating the hypoxic condition of myocytes. When human myoglobin is injected into rabbits,
There is evidence suggesting that reactive oxygen renal failure may not be induced without the
species may damage myocyte cell membranes presence of dehydration and acidosis.51 This fact
even before the shortage of intracellular energy provides the basis for advocating the importance
occurs.46 of body fluid control and alkalizer treatment.
b) Involvement of compartment syndrome In addition to tubular obstruction and tubular
Reperfusion increases the volume of the parts toxicity caused by myoglobin, iron ions derived
affected by pressure and ischemia. In addition, from myoglobin are considered to promote the
edema of the skeletal muscles resulting from generation of reactive oxygen species and inhibit

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Table 1 Flow of solutes and water across skeletal-muscle-cell membrane in rhabdomyolysis

Consequence

Influx from extracellular

compartment into muscle cells
Water, sodium chloride, and calcium Hypovolemia and hypodynamic shock, prerenal and later acute renal failure;
hypocalcemia, aggravated hyperkalemic cardiotoxicity;
increased cytosolic calcium; activation of cytotoxic proteases

Efflux from damaged muscle cell

Potassium Hyperkalemia and cardiotoxicity aggravated by hypocalcemia and hypotension
Purines from disintegrating cell nuclei Hyperuricemia, nephrotoxicity
Phosphate Hyperphosphatemia, aggravation of hypocalcemia, and matastatic
calcification, including the kidney
Lactic and other organic acids Metabolic acidosis and aciduria
Myoglobin Nephrotoxicity, particularly with coexisting oliguria, aciduria, and
hyperuricosuria
Thromboplastin Disseminated intravascular coagulation
Creatine kinase Extreme elevation of serum creatine kinase level
Creatinine Increased serum creatinine-urea ratio

(From Better OS47)

the action of vasodilator factors.52 However, one study reported the lack of
c) Changes in serum calcium and phosphorus significant differences in TNF-alpha and IL-1
The phosphorus flowing out of the cells tends to beta compared with healthy persons, and there is
combine with calcium and be deposited in the no evidence supporting this possibility.55 Studies
body as a result of lowered renal function, in the former USSR include a paper stating
and this sometimes appears as calcification in that early hypercatecholaminemia is involved in
X-ray observation.53 This deposition is reported shock, organ failure, and depression of immunity.56
to appear more clearly on CT images of Extreme tension of the sympathetic nerves due to
affected limbs.54 Combined with the influx of pain and mental stress has already developed when
Ca into the damaged cells, Ca deposition causes the body is being compressed. Catecholamine
remarkable hypocalcemia during the oliguric suppresses tissue perfusion, promoting tissue
phase. In contrast, hypercalcemia develops when damage and depressing the monocytic phagocyte
the patient enters the diuretic phase. system and immune system. The author of the
d) SIRS or sepsis above paper discusses decompression after rescue
This syndrome causes gradual strengthening leading to hypercatecholaminemia, fluid shift,
of systemic inflammatory response in addition and intoxication with myolysis and pathogenic
to body fluid movement and renal failure. microflora products, resulting in shock, organ
Leukocytosis, CRP increase, and fever are impairment, infection, DIC, etc. On the other
observed when no infection foci are expected to hand, it has been pointed out that fasciotomy
occur, and the patient often presents the remote for compartment syndrome tends to be a cause
organ failure such as DIC, respiratory failure, or of infection and sepsis.57
liver impairment. While the most significant cause
of death during the initial 2 weeks is acute renal Disaster Medicine to Cope with Crush
failure, later deaths are caused chiefly by multiple Syndrome
organ failure.48 Considering the recent concept of
systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), Rescue and on-the-spot treatment
it is possible that the condition involves various It is important to expect that a patient buried
mediators derived from leukocyte activation. under debris or a collapsed house to develop CS

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Table 2 Clinical manifestation of crush syndrome

Immediately following extrication (on the spot)

1. Stable vital sign

2. Clear conciousness, unless head injury
3. Emotional complaint, but no physical complaint
4. Numbness of the involved limbs, exception for a short time of pain after extrication
5. Flaccid paralysis of the injured limb
6. A patchy pattern of sensory loss, mainly to pain and touch
7. Patches of erythematous skin, delineating accurately the areas of compression
8. No limb edema initially

Several hours to a couple of days after extrication (e.g. on admission)

1. Hypovolemia and hypodynamic shock; hemoconcentration
2. Hyperkalemic cardiotoxity
3. Metabolic acidosis
4. Oliguria, myoglobinuria; prerenal and later acute renal failure
5. Insensitive and paralyzed limbs
6. Compartment syndrome following gross edema of the injured limb
7. Present distal pulses of the edematous limb
8. Blister formation of the erythematous skin, mistaken for burns
Following fluid therapy

1. Hemodilution
2. Weight gain and sequestration of external cellular fluid
3. Congestive lung, ARDS
4. DIC
5. SIRS
6. Sepsis

from the rescue stage. Table 2 summarizes the been used to describe the extrication of victims
physical findings to be examined as the basis for confined in closed or small spaces, and medical
diagnosis. Unless complicated by other injury, practice conducted in such situations is called
the patient is fully conscious and vital signs are “confined space medicine”.3 Confined space
stable at the time of rescue. Therefore, severity medicine is not a pure medical discipline, but a
evaluation and triage based on vital signs alone form of practical medicine striving to incorporate
tend to result in underestimation of the patient’s medical treatment into the process of difficult
condition, and much attention must be paid to rescue. Confined space rescue is characterized
the injury mechanism and physical findings in the by risk involved in rescue activities arising from
limbs.43 Even if the affected limb has no swelling the presence of hazardous substances (carbon
or skin damage, motor paralysis and paresthesia monoxide, toxic gas, etc.), oxygen-depleted air, the
are always observed. Paresthesia often presents possibility of explosion, the collapse of housing
an irregular map-like appearance. While the structures, etc. As a result, rescue activities may
skin is sometimes intact, cases of protracted take long time to complete, and only limited,
compression show pale skin at the center with basic medical care can be provided in the process.
circulation impairment, and blisters are observed. Victims of disasters with a high probability of
Cases with accompanying head and trunk developing CS are in fact confined in such
injury or bone fracture in the limbs present dangerous situations.
complicated clinical symptoms. In addition, it is Efforts to rescue victims should not be
important to understand that clinical symptoms abandoned for at least the first 5 days.58 In the
change depending on the time after rescue. case of the Marmara Earthquake, the longest
Recently, the term “confined space rescue” has time before the rescue of live victims was 135

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Table 3 Infusion therapy

On the spot

1. Normal saline should be infused at 1.5 liters/h.

2. Continuous infusion should be secured by the time of arrival at a hospital.

In the hospital

1. A standard solution of 75 mEq/L NaCl in 5% dextrose*1 should be started at 500 mL/h.

2. If a diuretic response of more than 300 mL/h is not achieved, and CVP rises by more than 5 cm H2O, the infusion should
be stopped and manitol, 1 g/kg of body weight, as a 20% solution should be administered IV.
3. Once a diuresis of more 300 mL is established, fluids excreted in the urine should be replaced with a solution of 5%
dextrose with the sodium and potassium content adjusted, on the basis of measurements made on the previous six-hour
urinary collection.
4. Sodium bicarbonate, 44 mEq/L, should be added to every other 500 mL bottle of the standard NaCl in 5% dextrose
solution.*2 The dose of sodium bicarbonate will be adjusted to maintain urinary pH above 6.5.
5. Acetazolamide (Diamox) should be administered in a dose of 250 mg IV if plasma pH approaches 7.45.
6. Disappearance of visible myoglobinuria and a leveling off of the negative potassium balance will indicate a cessation of
this treatment protocol.
(The urinary pH is measured hourly. Six hourly collections of urine should be assayed for sodium content, potassium content.
Blood gases, plasma pH, and serum electrolytes are similarly measured every six hours.)

This protocol 35 is modified from D. Ron.13

*1: Solution with a similar composition in Japan is KN1A.
*2: The solution will contain of 150 mEq/L of NaⳭ, 69 mEq/L of Clⳮ, and 81 mEq/L of HCO3ⳮ.
A solution with a similar composition in Japan will be equivalent to 40 mL of sodium bicarbonate added to a 500 mL bottle of
KN1A. It will contain of 145 mEq/L of NaⳭ, 71 mEq/L of Clⳮ, and 74 mEq/L of HCO3ⳮ.

hours, and victims with less severe injury are to the risk of infection, it should be replaced
expected to withstand longer before rescue and soon after rescue. Due to the risk of inadvertent
survive. aspiration, oral feeding is now considered an
option to be selected only when infusion is
Initiation of fluid therapy impossible.
Fluid therapy is the first choice in the The purposes of fluid therapy in CS are: (1)
management of CS, because the development of to replenish the shortage of extracellular fluid:
shock and acute renal failure can be avoided by (2) to promote the renal excretion of potassium;
the early provision of fluid resuscitation, such as and (3) to avoid acute renal failure. On the
the initiation of fluid infusion on the spot before spot of disaster, the rapid administration of
rescue. As early as 1943, the UK Department of physiological saline is conducted at a rate of
Health directed that air-raid victims be given 1.5 L/h (10–20 mL/kg/h for children), and an
large quantities of water containing sodium infusion cocktail containing sodium bicarbonate
bicarbonate before rescue.5 The importance of 1 A and mannitol 10 g per 1 L of infused fluid
pre-rescue and on-the-spot fluid therapy was is recommended (3). No consensus has been
later emphasized by the US armed forces during reached concerning the use of lactate Ringer
the Vietnam War,9 urologists in former East solution or acetate Ringer solution.
Germany,59 a review in Australia,60 those by a Mannitol is effective in improving blood
group in Israel,61,62 and study reports on the pressure through the increase in extracellular
Kobe Earthquake63 and the Bingol Earthquake fluid and strengthening of the contracting power
in Turkey.22 The initiation of infusion before of the myocardium. It also protects the kidneys
rescue is particularly recommended, but the through various mechanisms such as dilation
decision should be made considering the safety of glomerular blood vessels, enhancement of
of activity in a confined space. Since the infusion filtration pressure, increase in tubular flow,
route established on the spot of disaster is liable and inhibition of damage from reactive oxygen

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species.64 In addition, it retards the progression of will be eventually needed, we need appropriate
compartment syndrome via an action resembling triage criteria to avoid the preventable death of
the mechanism for the suppression of brain CS patients. For this purpose, we need to improve
edema.65 In addition to the osmotic effect, this Step 2 anatomical criteria and Step 3 mechanistic
efficacy is considered to involve the action of criteria in secondary triage. Specifically, “paralysis
mannitol as a scavenger for reactive oxygen of limbs” should be added to the anatomical
species involved in cell membrane impairment.66 criteria and “confinement in a closed space or
Sodium bicarbonate improves hyperkalemia burial under debris” should be added to the
and metabolic acidosis, and prevents myoglobin mechanistic criteria, and patients meeting these
and uric acid deposition in the renal tubules.62 criteria should be considered as having CS.
However, alkalosis tends to cause ectopic According to an experimental study, the
calcification (deposition of calcium phosphate), severity of CS is proportional to the time of
and this must be corrected by the use of compression and the amount of injured muscles.67
acetazolamide. However, in actual disasters, no correlation is
If fluid therapy is performed in a medical found between the time to rescue and severity.68
institution equipped for drug preparation, a This may reflect the fact that less severe cases
protocol modified from the formula of Ron et withstand longer before rescue. There is certainly
al.13 may be considered (Table 3). The principle a correlation between the volume of injured
of this protocol is the use of a starting fluid muscles and severity. The extent of injury can
to avoid potassium load and the use of an be evaluated by CK level,1 blood myoglobin
alkaline isotonic electrolyte fluid with sodium level,69 the number of parts with compartment
bicarbonate adjustment. The goals of fluid syndrome,33 and the number of limbs affected
therapy are stabilization of circulation, hourly by compression.48 Oda et al. found that patients
urine volume of 200 to 300 mL, blood pH⬍7.5, with a larger number of injured parts had higher
and urine pH between 6 and 7. CK levels, and the CK level was higher than
If fluid therapy is not initiated early, the 250,000 U/L when injury involved both lower
patient may suddenly die from shock and limbs and the trunk. The CK level is elevated
hyperkalemia. Avoidance of acute renal failure is by approximately 50,000 U/L for each affected
usually difficult unless fluid therapy is initiated limb. Therefore, it is reasonable to evaluate
within 6 hours. Even if the patient does not severity based on the number of affected limbs
develop severe conditions, the patient presents on the spot of disaster.
dark brown urine (mainly myoglobinuria) due
to oliguria several hours after rescue, and gradu- Establishment of hemodialysis
ally develops hyperkalemia, hyperphosphatemia, In the Kobe Earthquake, only 25% of the
hypocalcemia, azotemia, metabolic acidosis, and patients who received infusion within 40 hours
high CK blood levels. after disaster developed renal failure, while all
patients in which infusion was initiated more than
Triage and severity evaluation 40 hours after disaster developed renal failure.63
Unless complicated by other injury, the patient Early fluid therapy increases the frequency of
shows relatively stable vital signs at the time cases not requiring hemodialysis, but even with
of rescue. In fact, a review of CS cases such efforts, about 40% of patients with CS
following the Kobe Earthquake showed that following a disaster need hemodialysis. Of the
initial measurements of blood pressure and 639 patients with CS following the Marmara
heart rate indicated no abnormalities predicting Earthquake, 477 (74.6%) needed hemodialysis.21
circulatory failure.1 Therefore, patients are rarely During treatment, patients with CS often develop
classified as having an immediate life threat (red) multiple organ impairment and sepsis in addition
at initial triage using START (Simple Triage to acute renal failure. Surgical treatment of
and Rapid Treatment) or the UK Triage Sieve, compartment syndrome and necrotic tissues
and they are likely to be undertriaged. Because may also become necessary. Therefore, many
patients with CS are likely to take a sudden turn hospitals with hemodialysis, intensive care, and
for the worse at any time from immediately after orthopedic surgery capability must be made
rescue and management of acute renal failure available, and casualties must be transported to

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such hospitals. If diuresis is not achieved by fluid In this condition, wound closure is impossible,
therapy, precautions should be taken during and the wound eventually becomes the focus of
transportation to prevent congestive heart failure, septic infection, necessitating radical debridement
pulmonary edema, and hyperkalemia due to and amputation.74 Fedorov et al. warned that
excessive infusion. Portable analyzers are useful inadequate surgical treatment in the early periods
for monitoring electrolytes and other parameters (complete closure of open wounds, failure to
at first-aid stations and during transportation.70 perform the debridement of fat and soft tissues,
However, the strategy based on the transpor- etc.) leads to severe wound infection.75 Zimina et
tation of casualties has limitations both in the al. identified decompressing wounds as a cause
capacity of transportation and in the availability of death from sepsis or infection, in addition to
of medical facilities providing hemodialysis. shunts and catheters.76 Decompressing incision
Following the Spitak Earthquake in Armenia was performed in 49 (13%) of 372 cases following
in 1988, many patients requiring hemodialysis the Kobe Earthquake. Wound infection occurred
were transported to hospitals, but some patients in 12 cases (24%) and 2 patients died from sepsis.
were unable to receive treatment because of Following the Chi-Chi Earthquake in Taiwan in
the limited number of hemodialyzers. Learning 1999, fasciotomy was performed in 35 patients,
from this incident, the International Society of resulting in wound infection in 8 cases, deep
Nephrology (ISN) in Europe established the infection in 16 cases, and amputation of affected
Renal Disaster Relief Task Force (RDRTF) in limbs in 6 cases.23 Of the 639 cases treated
1995.71 RDRTF launched a program to send a following the Marmara Earthquake, infection
team of medical staff specializing in hemodialysis occurred in 223 cases (34.9%) and sepsis devel-
and hemodialysis equipment. In fact, the team oped in 121 cases (18.9%). An analysis of the
began operation within 6 hours after the Marmara correlation between sepsis and fasciotomy showed
Earthquake and treated 462 cases of acute renal a significant difference (P⬍0.01) between the
failure. The mortality rate among these patients 24.8% (80/323) and 13.0% (41/316) occurrence
was 19%. Thus, we need activities following rate among fasciotomized and non-fasciotomized
the example of RDRTF in parallel with the cases, respectively. Erek et al. also concluded that
transportation of patients to non-disaster areas. fasciotomy was a factor inducing sepsis.21
Selecting blood purification methods other The fact that most neurologic symptoms
than hemodialysis is still controversial. Because improve after follow-up observation without
the clearance of myoglobin is not affected even incision provides the basis for rejecting aggressive
by the use of methods other than HD, such treatment. In particular, as paresthesia resolves
as PE and CHDF, blood purification in CS almost completely, conservative treatment is
should be regarded as the means for treating expected to achieve higher quality in ADL than
acute renal failure rather than the elimination fasciotomy or amputation, although some ROM
of myoglobin.72 restriction due to contracture may remain.13,14
With some victims of the Kobe Earthquake, there
Treatment of compartment syndrome were some cases in which it was difficult to
No consensus has been reached concerning conclude whether peripheral paralysis of the
whether or not fasciotomy should be performed lower limps was caused by ischemic injury due to
to treat compartment syndrome in CS. Early compression of the nerves or by complications
treatment certainly improves chances of preser- with compartment syndrome. These patients
vation of the functions of affected limbs and showed remarkable recovery of muscle power
avoidance of amputation, but the inevitable within 8 to 9 months without decompressing
development of infection worsens life prog- incision, although recovery in the area around
nosis.36,43,73 Many reports have pointed out the the peroneal nerve was retarded.77 Matsuoka et
risk of uncontrollable hemorrhage and infection al. studied the 2-year functional outcome of the
associated with fasciotomy in CS. Incision 58 limbs affected by compartment syndrome
causes hemorrhage from muscles even in parts of the victims of the Kobe Earthquake with
considered necrotic, and physicians often hesitate CS. They obtained no evidence that fasciotomy
to conduct debridement, resulting in further improves outcome. Delayed rescue, delayed
progression of necrosis due to increased swelling. decompression, and radical debridement after

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Yokota J

fasciotomy were identified as negative factors. complications with sepsis, thrombocytopenia, DIC,
They concluded that fasciotomy is indicated acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS),
for patients that have been rescued early, and and thoracoabdominal trauma, emphasizing the
surgical treatment in the acute phase should importance of the clinical capacity to treat
be as minimal as possible.78 Fasciotomy requires these injuries and organ impairment. A study of
measurement of intracompartmental pressure, the 6,107 patients hospitalized in 95 hospitals
but hygienic manipulation is difficult to perform over 15 days following the Kobe Earthquake
on the spot of disaster or at first-aid stations. For compared treatment outcome among patients
the reasons discussed above, many physicians treated in hospitals in disaster areas and those
are cautious about the use of fasciotomy for in non-disaster areas.32 The patients treated in
compartment syndrome in CS patients following hospitals in disaster areas showed a higher
a disaster. mortality rate from CS and trauma than the
other group of patients. This suggests the need
Treatment after transportation to hospital for treatment at high-level medical institutions.
Fluid therapy and hemodialysis for acute renal
failure are the central part of treatment in Conclusion
the early periods after injury. However, severe
cases require intensive care to cope with various CS is not a serious disease, provided that it occurs
complications such as ARDS, DIC, infection, sporadically at ordinary times. However, the
and sepsis. Patients with open wounds, those with large number of patients and the limited medical
ischemic necrosis in the soft tissues, and those treatment available in major disasters make
receiving fasciotomy inevitably develop infection, the treatment of this syndrome a considerable
requiring repeated debridement and often challenge. Even in such demanding situations,
amputation of the affected limb. As discussed we should be able to save the lives of as many
above, we need to remember that late deaths are patients as possible by predicting the development
caused by sepsis and multiple organ impairment. of CS, initiating fluid therapy as part of confined
A review of the 97 fatalities following the Marmara space medicine, practicing appropriate triage,
Earthquake (mortality rate 15.2%⳱97/639) also and transporting patients to high-level medical
demonstrated that the main causes of death were institutions.

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