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6 The Science of Insulation

The science of insulation explained

How heat flows Convection

Convection occurs in gases and liquids. If a hot surface is in contact
To understand how insulation works, it is first with cooler air, heat is conducted to the air. This air then becomes
necessary to explain the different ways heat flows warmer and therefore less dense than the adjacent cooler air. The
warmer, lighter air rises upwards and is replaced by cooler air,
through a construction. Physically, heat always
causing a continuous flow of air by natural convection – gradually
moves from areas of high temperature to those removing heat from the hot surface to the air. The process is reversed
at a lower temperature, which is why, in the if warm air comes into contact with a cold surface.

cold external temperatures of winter, the warmth

inside a building will try to escape through walls,
windows, roof and floor.
This heat flow takes place by conduction,
convection and radiation.
Conduction
Conduction is the transmission of heat through a material, or from one
material to another, through direct contact. Conduction can take place
in solids, liquids and gases.

Metal conducts heat

rapidly

In constructions, the convective heat transfer we are interested in occurs

mainly in wall and roof cavities.

Radiation
Radiation is the transmission of infra-red radiant energy from a ‘hot’
surface to a ‘cold’ surface through air or a vacuum. Radiant energy
moves through space without heating anything in between – the energy
is only absorbed when its path is blocked by an object which absorbs
the energy and converts it to heat. All materials emit radiant energy to a
greater or lesser extent according to their surface characteristics and the
temperature of the surface. The higher the temperature of a surface the
greater the amount of radiant energy emitted.

The most common example of this is the radiant heat from the sun, which
travels millions of miles through space, and only has any effect when it is
blocked by an object, e.g. people, buildings or the earth itself.

Concrete or blockwork can

be efficient conductors of heat
Mineral wool is a poor conductor
of heat and therefore a highly
efficient insulant

In relation to construction materials, metals are the best conductors of

heat, followed by concrete and masonry. In contrast, wood and insulation
materials are poor conductors, as are air and other gases.

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 The Science of Insulation 1.6

1.6
How to reduce heat flow by the use of Thermal conductivity by material type
The graph below shows the classic curve type associated with the thermal
insulating materials in buildings
conductivity performance of traditional bulk insulation materials.
In order to perform effectively, an insulation material must reduce
heat flow.
Rock mineral wool
How conduction is reduced
Glass mineral wool
To reduce heat transfer by conduction, an insulating material should have
a very small amount of solid material in relation to void. Additionally, the λ Optimum density:thermal
conductivity range
solid material should consist of thin connecting walls, or discontinuous Value
fibres. Conduction across the voids can be further reduced if they are
filled by an inert gas rather than air.

How convection is reduced

To reduce heat transfer by convection, an insulating material should Density
contain small voids or air pockets within which air movement is minimised. Each type of material has its own classic curve
Similarly, within a construction, convection can be reduced by having Glass mineral wool is more efficient at normal building
temperatures than rock mineral wool
small self contained air spaces, rather than large ventilated air spaces.
This particular graph shows the curve for glass and rock mineral wool
products, as can be seen the thermal conductivity of the product is
Discontinuous fibres
improved as the density of the product increases, however the rate of
change diminishes as density increases and ultimately, at higher densities,
the thermal conductivity starts to increase.

The basic trend of this graph holds true for all bulk insulation materials,
and its shape is a function of the varying efficiency of the material at
Small voids with
minimal movement
restricting the three different methods of heat flow at different densities.

Thermal conductivity also varies with temperature. As temperature rises

then the thermal conductivity of materials generally increases. This is not
a phenomenon that is of concern in buildings because the variance only
becomes significant at temperatures which would not be experienced in
High ratio of void
to solid material normal conditions. It is a consideration when insulating building services
Foil facing and high temperature processes.

Measurement of thermal conductivity

How radiation is reduced
From May 2003, it became a legal requirement that thermal insulation
The transmission of heat by radiation is stopped when it is absorbed
products for buildings are tested to - and comply with - the Construction
into the surface of a material, this results in a rise in temperature of the
Products Regulations, as defined in United Kingdom law. One major
material. However that material will in turn emit radiant energy. The most
consequence of this is the change to the way that thermal conductivity
effective surface is a “low emissivity” surface that emits very little radiant
(lambda value) of thermal insulation products is measured and declared.
energy and absorbs a very small percentage of the radiant energy falling
on it. A “low emissivity” surface is characterised by a shiny metallic All insulation products have an inherent variability when it comes to
finish. In a building the transmission of heat by radiation from one internal thermal conductivity. This is basically dependent on the method by which
surface to another is not regarded as heat loss however the transmission the insulation is made and actually ‘works’. Put simply, the lambda value
of heat from external elements of the building away from the building is. for building insulation products must be such that 90% of the results
obtained are within 90% of the quoted value – hence ‘Lambda 90/90’.
Thermal conductivity (K value or l value)
The aim is to ensure that the values quoted for insulation performance are
The measure of a materials ability to transmit heat is known as thermal
consistent and give both users and building designers confidence in the
conductivity (units W/mK) it is also known as lambda value (l).
products and solutions that are being specified.

Lambda 90/90 effectively means that all thermal insulation products

manufactured in accordance with harmonised European Standards
have their lambda value tested and declared to the same methodology,
establishing a level playing field for all materials. Thermal conductivity is
determined by testing in accordance with BS EN 12667: 2001.

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 1.6 The Science of Insulation

The science of insulation explained

Thermal resistance (R-value) In its simplest form, a U-value is calculated by establishing the thermal
The measure of a material’s ability to resist the transfer of heat, it is resistance of each layer in the construction element and adding them
specific to a particular thickness of material. Units: m2K/W. together to provide a total resistance (TR) value. The U-value is calculated
from the reciprocal of the combined resistances of the materials in the
R-value = Thickness (m)
element, including any airspaces and surface resistance values.
Thermal conductivity (W/mK)

Thermal Resistance is the most important material characteristic that

should to be defined when specifying insulation. From the formula for
140mm mineral wool insulation (B)
calculating, it is apparent that there are two factors affecting the thermal
12.5mm plasterboard (C)
resistance: the thickness of the insulation and the thermal conductivity of
the material. Simply specifying thickness of material is not enough

Example: the designer requires an insulation material with a thermal

resistance of 2.25 m2K/W
This can be provided in a number of ways:

R-value of 100mm of Loft Roll 44 = 0.100

12.5mm plasterboard (A)
0.044
= 2.2727 = 2.25 m2K/W.*

R-value of 75mm of Rafter Roll = 0.075

0.032

= 2.3437 = 2.30 m2K/W.*

* R-values are required to be rounded down to the nearest 0.05 interval for CE marking TR = Rsi + Ra + Rb + Rc + Rso
purposes.

Earthwool® Loft Roll 44 has a higher thermal conductivity than Earthwool Rsi is the internal surface resistance
140mm mineral wool insulation (B)

Rafter Roll, but applied in a higher thickness it provides an almost equal

Rso is the outer surface
12.5 plasterboard (C) resistance
level of thermal resistance.
Therefore U-value = 1
The lower thermal conductivity of the Earthwool Rafter Roll is a function
TR
of higher density, therefore it requires a greater amount of material and
it would be more economic to satisfy the thermal resistance requirement For instance an external wall with a total thermal resistance of
with the Earthwool Loft Roll, provided the 100mm depth can be 3.50m2K/W would have a U-value of 1 or 0.29W/m2K.
accommodated. 3.50

To achieve a specific thermal resistance, increased product thickness is This method of calculating U-values, however, does not allow for non-
more economically efficient than using a product with a lower thermal uniformities that exist in real constructions and therefore will not enable
conductivity. Timber sheathing (A) a realistic model to be calculated. The non-uniformities require factors
to include allowance for the effect of repeating thermal bridges, (e.g.
Thermal transmittance (U-value)
timber studs in timber frame construction, mortar joints in lightweight
Commonly known as the U-value, it is a measure ofTimber
the studs
rateat of conductive
600mm centres
and aircrete masonry or metal rails and clips in twin metal skin
heat loss of a building element or component. Units: W/m2K.
constructions), fasteners that penetrate the construction and the possibility
The actual thermal transmittance of a building element is a function of the of the imperfection of fit of layers that might allow air movement around
thermal resistance of the materials that are used in the construction and insulation layers. These factors are included in more sophisticated
the way they are assembled. numerical and mathematical models. These methods are defined by
international standards such as BS EN ISO 6946 ‘Building components
U-values of building elements can be established by laboratory testing, and building elements – Thermal resistance and thermal transmittance
but the process is costly, time consuming and size limited. Furthermore, – calculation method’ and guidance is given regarding the suitability of
the result would only hold true for an identical construction or element. each method for the proposed construction. Additionally, reference should
Testing is widely used to establish the thermal transmittance of glazing also be made to BR443:2006 Conventions for U-value calculations 2006
and doors, but for other construction elements it is more normal to use edition which sets conventions for and gives guidance on the calculation
numerical and mathematical models to predict the U-value. of U-values. This document is referenced directly by the Approved
Documents for England and Wales, the Technical Standards in Scotland
and Technical Booklets in Northern Ireland.

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140mm mineral wool insulation (B)

12.5mm plasterboard (C)

The calculation methodology detailed in BS EN 6946 is commonly known Whole building approach
as the "combined method" and is generally suitable for most elements of The U-values of building elements are critical factors in the overall heat
construction except where there are metal repeating thermal bridges in
12.5mm plasterboard (A)
loss from buildings, but there are two other heat loss mechanisms that
the insulation layer. need to be included to establish the total heat loss from the building
If the example below is taken to be a timber frame panel, then it becomes fabric, these are: heat losses through non repeating thermal bridges such
apparent that the insulation is bridged by the timber studs. In these as window reveals, sills and lintels, and ventilation heat loss, whether
circumstances, the combined method is appropriate. intended or unintended (air leakage). All three heat loss mechanisms need
to be included in any model of the energy performance of a building.

Calculation methods exist to predict the energy consumption of

buildings and these are used both for modelling for building regulations
compliance. For dwellings the methodology used is SAP (Standard
140mm mineral wool insulation (B)
Assessment Procedure 2009) and for non dwellings it is SBEM (Simplified
12.5 plasterboard (C) Building Energy Model 2010).

SAP is the Government's standard for assessing the energy performance

of dwellings. SAP ratings are actually energy costs ratings with the energy
use for space heating, water heating, ventilation and lighting, minus any
cost savings from energy generation technologies incorporated into the
dwelling. However, it is also used to generate carbon emission ratings
used in the Building Regulation compliance process and to generate the
Energy Performance Certificate.

SBEM in simple terms is a SAP program for non dwellings, however it

Timber sheathing (A)
carries with it a far greater degree of complexity in use, and its purpose
is to calculate energy use and carbon emission ratings. Generally, non
Timber studs at 600mm centres dwellings are far larger than dwellings and there are often many differing
types (i.e. offices, shops, warehouses (and even accommodation) etc)
within a single building. The fabric of the building has to be carefully
When the combined U-value method is applied to the calculation of the defined including internal building elements and the use type of each
U-value of this construction, it becomes 0.32W/m2K as opposed to internal space also defined so the lighting, heating and cooling and hot
0.26W/m2K if the effect of the timber studs is ignored. water requirements can be calculated. The services within the building
In this calculation, the proportion of insulation replaced by timber is 15%. are defined and then the CO2 emissions rating is calculated for Building
This proportion is identified as the default timber fraction in BR443, and Regulation compliance. The SBEM calculation is also used to generate the
a level 0 correction for air gaps in the insulation layer has been applied Energy Performance Certificate for the building.
because mineral wool is deemed to be cut with a positive tolerance so Such is the importance of U-value calculations an industry leading U-value
that it has to be compressed between the timber studs to be fitted and and Condensation Calculation Competency Scheme has been created by
all joints in the insulation layer are closed. If a rigid foam board has the British Board of Agrèment in conjunction with the Thermal Insulation
been used, it might be considered necessary to apply a level 1 air gap Manufacturers and Suppliers Association (TIMSA). The primary purpose
correction because the board has to be cut with a negative tolerance to of the scheme is to promote and assist accurate, objective and consistent
enable fitting and there may well be air gaps greater than 5mm in width. calculation of U-values and condensation calculations within the UK
Clearly the accurate calculation of U-values requires detailed knowledge construction industry, the scheme was launched on the 1st April 2010.
of product characteristics, calculation methodologies and standards,
and construction techniques. The accurate calculation of U-values is a
fundamental building block in the development of whole building energy
models and Building Regulations submissions.

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