Gilgamesh: The Search For Immortality

Imagine grasping eternal life in your hands just to watch it disappear

before your eyes. Or imagine that the hardest journey of your life is finally over
and you have failed to obtain the very thing you wanted most. Our story begins
in a land known as Mesopotamia about four thousand years ago. There one of
the earliest cities in history existed, called Uruk, which lies on the Euphrates river
near the Persian Gulf. This city became famous for being the site of one of the
earliest piece of literature ever created, The Epic of Gilgamesh. Although in this
story Gilgamesh, the hero, is the king of Uruk, he is also partly a god. He is one
part mortal and two parts divine, and as such, he was a being full of beauty and
courage, but also as terrifying as a wild bull.1 The Epic of Gilgamesh is an
adventure story with many exciting parts. However, one of the central themes of
the epic revolves around Gilgamesh’s search for immortality.2

Gilgamesh’s quest for everlasting life begins when his friend Enkidu
unexpectedly dies. The trauma from losing his dear friend scares Gilgamesh.
Enkidu isn’t just a dear friend to Gilgamesh, Enkidu is like a brother to him. The
gods had originally created Enkidu to help stop Gilgamesh from stirring up
trouble, but after they met, they got along so well that they became brothers
and went on countless journeys together. With Enkidu’s death, Gilgamesh is so
terrified by the idea of death that he goes on a long journey to beat the
inevitable. On this journey he meets several people who tell him that his journey
is pointless and that he won’t find what he is searching for. But Gilgamesh
doesn’t listen, and pushes forward regardless of what people say. He is so
determined to find Utnapishtim, the only human who had been made immortal,
but doing so he ignores what his body really desires, sleep. He completely
exhausted himself to the point where he was near dying.

After a long and dangerous journey, Gilgamesh finally meets Utnapishtim,

who tells Gilgamesh, “There is no permanence. Do we build a house to stand
forever, do we seal a contract to hold for all time?…. When the Anunnaki, the
judges, come together, and Mammetun the mother of destinies, together they
decree the fates of men. Life and death they allot but the day of death they do
not disclose.”3 Even with the wise information that Utnapishtim tells him,
Gilgamesh is still in pursuit of immortality, so Utnapishtim decides to put him up to
a test. The test requires him to stay awake for six days and seven nights, but
Gilgamesh ultimately fails the test. Utnapishtim had a kind heart and told him
that, instead of obtaining immortality, he might obtain youthfulness. There was a
plant in the sea that can restore one’s youth. So of course Gilgamesh doesn’t
hesitate in jumping in to find this plant. He finally gets the key to youthfulness,
and decides to rest and relax, because he believes his troubles are over. With his
guard down, a snake snatches the plant away from him and the plant is gone
forever.

Gilgamesh finally accepts this fate, and goes back to the land of Uruk.
Although he never got immortality, he did get what he needed. Throughout the
story the same line recurs about what is he supposed to do after Enkidu’s death,
which is just to live his normal, mortal life.4 Once he returns, he writes on a wall
the story of his long journey for immortality. The world may never know if there
was a real living, breathing ruler named Gilgamesh, but at least for now we
have a legendary one that will last forever.

Chansons de Geste

The chansons de geste ("songs of deeds") were Old French epic poems
centering around heroic historical figures. Dealing primarily with events of the
8th and 9th centuries, chansons de geste focused on real individuals, but with a
large infusion of legend.

Those chansons that survive in manuscript form, of which there are more
than 80, date to the 12th through 15th centuries. Whether they were composed
then or survived in oral tradition from the 8th and 9th centuries is under dispute.

The authors of only a few of the poems are known; the vast majority were
written by anonymous poets.

Poetic Form of the Chansons de Geste:

A chanson de geste was composed in lines of 10 or 12 syllables, grouped

into irregular rhyming stanzas called laisses. Earlier poems had more assonance
than rhyme. The length of the poems ranged from about 1,500 to 18,000 lines.

Chanson de Geste Style:

 The earliest poems are highly heroic in both theme and spirit, focusing on
feuds or epic battles and on the legal and moral aspects of loyalty and
allegiance. Elements of courtly love appeared after the 13th century, and
enfances (childhood adventures) and the exploits of ancestors and
descendants of the main characters were related, as well.

The Charlemagne Cycle:

A large proportion of the chansons de geste revolve around

Charlemagne. The emperor is depicted as the champion of Christendom
against pagans and Muslims, and he is accompanied by his court of Twelve
Noble Peers.

These include Oliver, Ogier the Dane, and Roland. The most well-known
chanson de geste, and possibly the most important, is the Chanson de Roland,
or "Song of Roland."

Charlemagne legends are known as "the matter of France."

Other Chanson Cycles:

In addition to the Charlemagne Cycle, there is a group of 24 poems

centering on Guillaume d'Orange, a supporter of Charlemagne's son Louis, and
another cycle about the wars of powerful French barons.

Influence of Chansons de Geste:

The chansons influenced medieval literary production throughout Europe.

Spanish epic poetry owed a clear debt to the chansons de geste, as is most
notably demonstrated by the 12th-century epic Cantar de mio Cid ("Song of my
Cid"). The incomplete epic Willehalm by the 13th-century German poet Wolfram
von Eschenbach was based on the stories told in the chansons of Guillaume
d'Orange.

In Italy, tales about Roland and Oliver (Orlando and Rinaldo) abounded,
culminating in the Renaissance epics Orlando innamorato by Matteo Boiardo
and Orlando furioso by Ludovico Ariosto.
 The matter of France was an essential element of French literature for
centuries, influencing both prose and poetry well beyond the Middle Ages.

EL CID

He was born Rodrigo (or Ruy) Díaz de Vivar. Vivar being the town where
he was born. It is near Burgos. He was born either in 1040 or 1043. Historians are
not sure of the date. He died in Valencia in 1099. His name, "El Cid" was given
to him by the Moors. In the mixture of the Spanish and Arabic language they
used, they called him "As-Sid" (Lord or Chief). This was pronounced by the
Spaniards as "El Cid", but they themselves actually called him "Campeador"
(Champion).

El Cid was brought up in the court of King Fernand I and he lived in the
household of the King's eldest son, who was to be the future Sancho II. In 1065
Fernand I died. He divided his kingdom among his three sons, Sancho, Alfonso
and Garcia, and his two daughters, Elvira and Urraca. (Unlike today, Spain was
not one kingdom, but ruled by many kings including some Arabics. The
kingdom that Fernand left his children was only a portion of modern day Spain.)

Fernand had hoped that his children would be happy with their lands.
Sancho being the eldest thought that he should have inherited all of his father's
lands. Sancho first needed to do battle with the Kingdom of Aragon which was
not under control of any of his family. El Cid proved to be such a help in
defeating the Kingdom of Aragon that he was named Commander of the Royal
Armies. At this time he was only about 23 years old.

About 1070 Sancho began his war against his brothers and sisters. He first
waged war against his brothers in Leon and Galicia. Both victories were
accomplished with the great assistance of El Cid who turned almost certain
defeats into victories. Sancho exiled his brothers to the city of Toledo. Sancho
then took the city of Toro which was the domain of his sister, Elvira. He then
began a battle with his sister Urraca and her city of Zamora in 1072. However
Sancho was killed by one of Urraca's soldiers right at the city gates. Upon
hearing of his brother's death, Alfonso rushed to Zamora to claim his brother's
lands and most importantly the throne. He became Alfonso VI.

El Cid became concerned for his life. He had after all helped Sancho
wage war against Alfonso who was now the King. But El Cid had a couple of
things in his favor. One he was a very good soldier. Alfonso knew that he would
need a leader like El Cid. Also the people in Castile were not happy that they
were being led by a king from Leon. El Cid was from Castile and was liked by
the people.

Although the Alfonso removed El Cid as Commander of the Royal Armies,

in 1074 he married El Cid to his niece, Jimena. El Cid was now related to
Alfonso. (Their house in Zamora is shown in the picture on the left.)

Alfonso did not really like El Cid. He was afraid that El Cid might attempt
to take the throne. Alfonso sent El Cid to the king of Seville to collect money.
When El Cid returned he accused El Cid of keeping some of the money. He
banished El Cid from his kingdom and from then on El Cid was not able to live
safely in any area ruled by Alfonso.

ferdosi.jpg (85410 bytes) El Cid now needed not only money, but also protection
of a king. He offered his services to the Ruler of Saragossa in northeastern Spain.
The Ruler of Saragossa was the arabic leader, al-Mu'tamin. Unlike Alfonso, al-
Mu'tamin was quite happy to have such as successful soldier as El Cid. El Cid
served al-Mu'tamin and his successor, al-Musta'in for nearly 10 years.

In 1082 he defeated the Moorish (arabic) king of Lérida and the king's ally, the
Count of Barcelona. In 1084 he defeated a large army lead by King Sancho
Ramírez of Aragon.

In 1086 Alfonso VI came under attack from the Almoravid armies from
North Africa. He suffered a great defeat at Sagrajas on October 23rd. Realizing
that he needed El Cid's help to save his Kingdom, Alfonso recalled El Cid from
exile.

El Cid returned to Alfonso, but now he had his own plans. He only stayed
a short while and returned to Saragossa. El Cid was content to let the Almoravid
armies and the armies of Alfonso fight without his help. Even when there was a
chance that the armies of Almoravid might defeat Alfonso and take over all of
Alfonso's lands. The reason El Cid did not want to fight was because he was
hoping that both armies would become weak. That would make it easier for
him to carry out his own plan which was to become ruler of the Kingdom of
Valencia.
 The first thing El Cid needed to do was to remove the influence of the
Count of Barcelona. Barcelona was the major city in the area and the Count
was a powerful man. He defeated the Count (Berenguer Ramón II) at the
battle of Tébar in May 1090. Valencia, however was stilled ruled by an Arabic
leader, al-Qadir. El Cid became lucky when in October 1092 al-Qadir was killed
by one of his noblemen, Ibn Jahhaf. The city of Valencia was thrown into
confusion. It was at this time that El Cid decided to attack. He surrounded the
city and began a long siege. In May, 1094 Ibn Jahhaf surrendered the city.

Although El Cid was a soldier he understood some of the politics of being

a ruler. Through his service to Sancho II and then Alfonso VI he learned about
Spanish politics. Through his service to al-Mu'tamin and al-Musta'in he learned
about Arabic politics. He knew that because Valencia contained a great
number of Moors (Arabs) that he would have to have the support of Ibn Jahhaf.
He forgave Ibn Jahhaf of all of his crimes including the killing of al-Qadir. Ibn
Jahhaf agreed to use his influence over the Moors so that they would accept El
Cid as their ruler. Once this was accomplished, El Cid decided that he did not
need Ibn Jahhaf and had him arrested and killed.

El Cid technically ruled Valencia for Alfonso. But, Alfonso was not about
to wage war against El Cid, so he let him rule with almost no control. El Cid
began to act as a king. He appointed a Bishop and he encouraged people to
settle in Valencia. He married one daughter, Cristina to a prince of Aragon,
Ramiro and his other daughter María to Count of Barcelona, Ramón Berenguer
III, whose father he had earlier defeated.

El Cid ruled Valencia until his death. After his death the Almoravids
attacked the city and Alfonso had to personally go there to save it. However,
he decided that he could not defend unless he kept a great number of soldiers
there permanently. So he decided to abandon the city and ordered it burned.
On May 5, 1102, the Almoravids occupied Valencia and ruled it until 1238.

The body of El Cid was returned to Burgos and buried in a monastery.

Almost immediately he became regarded as a national hero of Castile. In the
12th century a 3700 line poem "El Cantar de Mío Cid" (The Song of the Cid) was
written about him. The poem and later writings such as a play in 1637 made his
exploits almost legendary to the point that some people began to doubt that
whether El Cid was ever a real person. Unlike King Arthur of English legend, El
Cid really did exist. And the poem about him (although it does in some cases
stretch the truth), is considered to be the beginning of Spanish literature.

Nibelungenlied

The Story

The story has a long history and, as a result, contains a number of

disparate elements. For example, the word Nibelung itself presents difficulties. In
the first part of the poem, it appears as the name of Siegfried’s lands and
peoples and his treasure, but, throughout the second, it is an alternate name for
the Burgundians.

The poem’s content falls into two parts. It begins with two cantos
(aventiuren) that introduce, respectively, Kriemhild, a Burgundian princess of
Worms, and Siegfried, a prince from the lower Rhine. Siegfried is determined to
woo Kriemhild despite his parents’ warning. When he arrives in Worms, he is
identified by Hagen, a henchman of Kriemhild’s brother King Gunther. Hagen
then recounts Siegfried’s former heroic deeds, including the acquisition of a
treasure. When war is declared by the Danes and Saxons, Siegfried offers to lead
the Burgundians and distinguishes himself in battle. Upon his return, he meets
Kriemhild for the first time, and their affections develop during his residence at
court.

At this point a new element is introduced. News reaches the court that a
queen of outstanding strength and beauty may be won only by a man capable
of matching her athletic prowess. Gunther decides to woo Brunhild with the aid
of Siegfried, to whom he promises the hand of Kriemhild if successful. Siegfried
leads the expedition to Brunhild’s abode, where he presents himself as Gunther’s
vassal. In the ensuing contests, Gunther goes through the motions of deeds
actually performed by Siegfried in a cloak of invisibility. When Brunhild is
defeated, she accepts Gunther as her husband. Siegfried and Kriemhild are
then married as promised, but Brunhild remains suspicious and dissatisfied. Soon
the two queens quarrel; Brunhild ridicules Kriemhild for marrying a vassal, and
Kriemhild reveals Siegfried’s and Gunther’s deception.
 Now Hagen becomes a prominent figure as he sides with Brunhild and
takes the initiative in plotting vengeance. He wins Kriemhild’s confidence and
learns Siegfried’s one vulnerable spot and then strikes the fatal blow.

During these events, Brunhild drops almost unnoticed out of the story, and
the death of Siegfried does not appear to be so much vengeance on her part
as an execution by Hagen, who is suspicious of Siegfried’s growing power.
Siegfried’s funeral is conducted with great ceremony, and the grief-stricken
Kriemhild remains at Worms, though for a long time estranged from Gunther and
Hagen. Later they are reconciled in order to make use of Siegfried’s treasure,
which is brought to Worms. Kriemhild begins to distribute it, but Hagen, fearing
that her influence will grow, sinks the treasure in the Rhine.

The second part of the poem is much simpler in structure and deals
basically with the conflict between Hagen and Kriemhild and her vengeance
against the Burgundians. Etzel (Attila), king of the Huns, asks the hand of
Kriemhild, who accepts, seeing the possibilities of vengeance in such a union.
After many years, she persuades Etzel to invite her brothers and Hagen to his
court. Though Hagen is wary, they all go to Etzel’s court, where general combat
and complete carnage ensues. Kriemhild has Gunther killed and then, with
Siegfried’s sword, she slays the bound and defenseless Hagen, who to the last
has refused to reveal where Siegfried’s treasure is hidden. Kriemhild in turn is slain
by a knight named Hildebrand, who is outraged at the atrocities that she has
just committed.

Assessment

In the Nibelungenlied some elements of great antiquity are discernible.

The story of Brunhild appears in Old Norse literature. The brief references to the
heroic deeds of Siegfried allude to several ancient stories, many of which are
preserved in the Scandinavian Poetic Edda (see Edda), Vǫlsunga saga, and
Thidriks saga, in which Siegfried is called Sigurd. The entire second part of the
story, the fall of the Burgundians, appears in an older Eddaic poem, Atlakvida
(“Lay of Atli”; see Atli, Lay of). Yet the Nibelungenlied appears to be not a mere
joining of individual stories but rather an integration of component elements into
a meaningful whole.
 It is the second part of the poem that suggests the title “The Book of
Kriemhild.” The destruction of the Burgundians (Nibelungen) is her deliberate
purpose. The climax of the first part, the death of her husband, Siegfried,
prepares the ground for the story of her vengeance. Furthermore, Kriemhild is
the first person introduced in the story, which ends with her death; and all
through the story predominating attention is paid to Hagen. This concentration
on Kriemhild and on the enmity between her and Hagen would seem to suggest
that it was the poet’s intention to stress the theme of Kriemhild’s vengeance.

The Nibelungenlied was written at a time in medieval German literature

when the current emphasis was on the “courtly” virtues of moderation and
refinement of taste and behaviour. The Nibelungenlied, with its displays of
violent emotion and its uncompromising emphasis on vengeance and honour,
by contrast looks back to an earlier period and bears the mark of a different
origin—the heroic literature of the Teutonic peoples at the time of their great
migrations. The poem’s basic subject matter also goes back to that period, for it
is probable that the story of the destruction of the Burgundians was originally
inspired by the overthrow of the Burgundian kingdom at Worms by the Huns in
437 CE, and the story of Brunhild and Siegfried may have been inspired by
events in the history of the Merovingian dynasty of the Franks about 600 CE.
Much of the heroic quality of the original stories has remained in the poem,
particularly in the author’s conception of Hagen as the relentless protector of
King Gunther’s honour.

Probably no literary work has given more to Germanic arts than the
Nibelungenlied. Many variations and adaptations appeared in later centuries.
The most significant modern adaptation is Richard Wagner’s famous opera
cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen (1853–74).

Beowulf

OLD ENGLISH POEM

WRITTEN BY: The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

See Article History

Beowulf, heroic poem, the highest achievement of Old English literature and the
earliest European vernacular epic. It deals with events of the early 6th century
and is believed to have been composed between 700 and 750. Although
originally untitled, it was later named after the Scandinavian hero Beowulf,
whose exploits and character provide its connecting theme. There is no
evidence of a historical Beowulf, but some characters, sites, and events in the
poem can be historically verified. The poem did not appear in print until 1815. It
is preserved in a single manuscript that dates to circa 1000 and is known as the
Beowulf manuscript (Cotton MS Vitellius A XV) .

Beowulf

Beowulf preparing to cut off the head of the monster Grendel, illustration
from Hero-Myths & Legends of the British Race, 1910.

Beowulf falls into two parts. It opens in Denmark, where King Hrothgar’s
splendid mead hall, Heorot, has been ravaged for 12 years by nightly visits from
an evil monster, Grendel, who carries off Hrothgar’s warriors and devours them.
Unexpectedly, young Beowulf, a prince of the Geats of southern Sweden, arrives
with a small band of retainers and offers to cleanse Heorot of its monster.
Hrothgar is astonished at the little-known hero’s daring but welcomes him, and,
after an evening of feasting, much courtesy, and some discourtesy, the king
retires, leaving Beowulf in charge. During the night Grendel comes from the
moors, tears open the heavy doors, and devours one of the sleeping Geats. He
then grapples with Beowulf, whose powerful grip he cannot escape. He
wrenches himself free, tearing off his arm, and leaves, mortally wounded.

The next day is one of rejoicing in Heorot. But at night as the warriors sleep,
Grendel’s mother comes to avenge her son, killing one of Hrothgar’s men. In the
morning Beowulf seeks her out in her cave at the bottom of a mere and kills her.
He cuts the head from Grendel’s corpse and returns to Heorot. The Danes
rejoice once more. Hrothgar makes a farewell speech about the character of
the true hero, as Beowulf, enriched with honours and princely gifts, returns home
to King Hygelac of the Geats.

The second part passes rapidly over King Hygelac’s subsequent death in a
battle (of historical record), the death of his son, and Beowulf’s succession to the
kingship and his peaceful rule of 50 years. But now a fire-breathing dragon
ravages his land and the doughty but aging Beowulf engages it. The fight is long
and terrible and a painful contrast to the battles of his youth. Painful, too, is the
desertion of his retainers except for his young kinsman Wiglaf. Beowulf kills the
dragon but is mortally wounded. The poem ends with his funeral rites and a
lament.

Beowulf belongs metrically, stylistically, and thematically to a heroic

tradition grounded in Germanic religion and mythology. It is also part of the
broader tradition of heroic poetry. Many incidents, such as Beowulf’s tearing off
the monster’s arm and his descent into the mere, are familiar motifs from
folklore. The ethical values are manifestly the Germanic code of loyalty to chief
and tribe and vengeance to enemies. Yet the poem is so infused with a
Christian spirit that it lacks the grim fatality of many of the Eddaic lays or the
sagas of Icelandic literature. Beowulf himself seems more altruistic than other
Germanic heroes or the ancient Greek heroes of the Iliad. It is significant that his
three battles are not against men, which would entail the retaliation of the
blood feud, but against evil monsters, enemies of the whole community and of
civilization itself. Many critics have seen the poem as a Christian allegory, with
Beowulf the champion of goodness and light against the forces of evil and
darkness. His sacrificial death is not seen as tragic but as the fitting end of a
good (some would say “too good”) hero’s life.

That is not to say that Beowulf is an optimistic poem. The English critic J.R.R.
Tolkien suggests that its total effect is more like a long, lyrical elegy than an epic.
Even the earlier, happier section in Denmark is filled with ominous allusions that
were well understood by contemporary audiences. Thus, after Grendel’s death,
King Hrothgar speaks sanguinely of the future, which the audience knows will
end with the destruction of his line and the burning of Heorot. In the second part
the movement is slow and funereal: scenes from Beowulf’s youth are replayed in
a minor key as a counterpoint to his last battle, and the mood becomes
increasingly sombre as the wyrd (fate) that comes to all men closes in on him.

Beowulf has often been translated into modern English; renderings by

Seamus Heaney (1999) and Tolkien (completed 1926; published 2014) became
best sellers. It has also been the source for retellings in text—John Gardner’s
Grendel (1971), for example, which takes the point of view of the monster—and
as movies.
 OVERVIEW

The Saga of the Volsungs is one of the greatest tales of western

storytelling. The unknown Icelandic author who wrote the saga in the thirteenth
century based his prose epic on stories found in far older traditions of Norse
heroic poetry. Volsunga Saga, as it is often called, recounts the mythic deeds of
the dragon slayer, Sigurd the Volsung, and tells of runic knowledge. It is a story of
love, betrayal, the vengeance of a barbarian queen, and schemes of Attila the
Hun. The saga describes events from the ancient wars among the kings of the
Burgundians, the Huns, and the Goths and treats some of the same legends as
the Middle High German epic poem, the Nibelungenlied. In both accounts,
though in different ways, Sigurd (Siegfried in the German tradition) acquires the
Rhinegold and then becomes tragically entangled in a love triangle, involving a
supernatural woman. In the saga she is a Valkyrie, one of Odin's warrior-
maidens, the ones who choose the slain for Valhalla at the end of battle.

In Scandinavia, in the centuries after the Middle Ages, knowledge of the

Sigurd story never died out among the rural population. Full of supernatural
elements, including the schemes of one-eyed Odin, a ring of power, and the
sword that was reforged, the tale remained alive in oral tradition. In the
nineteenth century, as the Volsung story was rediscovered, becoming widely
known throughout Europe.

J.R.R TOLKIEN AND RICHARD WAGNER

Translated into many languages, Volsunga Saga became a primary

source for writers of fantasy and for those interested in oral legends of historical
events and the mythic past of northern Europe. The saga deeply influenced
William Morris in the nineteenth century and J. R. R. Tolkien in the twentieth.
Tolkien, in particular found great inspiration the The Saga of the Volsungs,
including the sword that was reforged, rings of power, the dragon on the hoard,
and the creature Gollum. So, too, Richard Wagner drew heavily upon the Norse
Volsung material in composing the Ring cycle as is discussed elsewhere in the
Introduction to this translation.

Among other subjects, the comprehensive Introduction to this translation

includes:

 Representations of the Volsung Story in Norse Art

 Myths, Heroes, and Social Realities
 History and Legend: Burgundians, Huns, Goths, and Sigurd the Dragon
Slayer
 A Note on Richard Wagner and the Saga of the Volsungs
 Jerusalem Delivered

AUTHOR: TORQUATO TASSO

“Jerusalem Deliveres” is an epic written by Torquato Tasso and divided

into 20 cantos. He strived for symmetrical harmony and that we can see in the
fact that he spent most of his life writing this epic.

The plot is settled into two basic spaces. There are places that the author
invented and the authentic locations where the crusade took place in 11th
century. All of that is blended into the plot.

The main motive of the book is the crusade and the blockade of
Jerusalem. The author interfered with the plot by inputting many digressions such
as the captivity of Tancred, Rinaldo’s departure and all about his arrival. The
author placed the episodes into the plot so he would avoid the tension while
reading.

“Jerusalem Delivered” contains many battle, weapon and army

descriptions and those are essential for epic poems.

The main plot of the epic happened by the end of the 11th century. The
main plot is the historic base of the epic and it concerns the taking over of
Jerusalem by Godfrey’s army. There are some events regarding the Medieval
and author gets involved with then popular questions about politics and religion.

An important aspect of this work is the religious one that is easy noticeable
in the theme of the book itself. Tasso tried to show the unity of Christians during
the crisis in the Catholic Church. Christianity was then endangered by the Turks
invading Europe and by the inner confrontations in the church.

Summary

The crusade has been going on for 7 years. The duke Godfrey decided to
talk to his soldiers and encourage them to keep on going with the war. Their final
destination was Jerusalem and the grave of Jesus. The soldiers decided that the
duke should lead their way.

In the meantime Jerusalem’s king Aladine plans how to defend the city
and Christ’s grave for the crusade. At the same time Virgin Marie’s photo was
stolen and Aladine believed that will help him defend the city. Sofronia and
Olindo, a young couple, was accused of stealing it. Clorinda managed to save
them and she was a warrior of the Muslims.

The crusade arrived to Emaus. Their camp was visited by the messengers
of Egyptian king. Godfrey rejected their peace offering and the war continued.
Soon after that the soldiers were approaching Jerusalem and they already had
a strategy on how to win it over.

The king of Damask was influenced by an evil archangel and sent his
beautiful niece Armida to the French. She was supposed to seduce Godfrey
and stop his soldiers. Armida told him her sad life story, that was a lie, to get his
sympathy and make his army weaker.

Godfrey rejected her because he was scared that it was a trick but his
brother believed her and got ten soldiers for her.

A battle occurs and Rinaldo kills the Norwegian prince. After that he has
to leave the camp because otherwise he would have to take full responsibility
for the murder. The soldiers that were about to leave with Armida were picked
and then they get some news about the Egyptian army.

Argante suggested that every army picks a hero that will take part in a
battle and that way they will decide how the war ends. Argante and Tancred
battled but night arrived so the battle was ended. They arranged a new place
and time where the battle will be held.

Tancred has deep feelings for Clorinda but Erminia is also in love with him.
Erminia decides to dress up as Clorinda and pay the wounded Tancred a visit.
She never gets to him because she gets ambushed.

Tancred goes to visit Clorinda but then he gets ambushed by Armida. He

also gets some fake news about Rinaldo being dead.

The Arabs decided to attack the crusade but they managed to defend
themselves. In the end even the soldiers that left with Armida return. A new
attack on Jerusalem occurred. Godfrey was wounded and Rinaldo killed
Clorinda because he did not recognize her.

Rinaldo is on the run and the Christian army is in crisis. The soldiers run
around and everyone believes it is impossible to stop them without Rinaldo.
Godfrey believes that it’s in everyone best interest if he gets Rinaldo back and
when he sends his messengers to get him he finds out that Rinaldo is with
Armida.

When the messengers got to Rinaldo they barely managed to convince

him to go with them because Armida was doing everything to keep him by her
side. When he decided to go back to the army she was furious. ARmida went to
Egypt and promised herself to anyone who will kill Rinaldo.

After Rinaldo was back with the army the crusade went to invade
Jerusalem. The battle between Argante and Tancred went on and Tancred
killed Argante. Erminia gave her help to reveal the conspiracy against Godfrey.

At the end of the story the crusade entered the city and they won. During
their victory they bowed down to the Holy Grave.

DIVINE COMEDY

At a Glance

In this epic poem, Dante's alter ego, the Pilgrim, travels through Hell and
Purgatory to reach Heaven. His journey is meant to impress upon readers the
consequences of sin and the glories of Heaven.

In the first section, commonly known as Dante's Inferno, the spirit of Roman
poet Virgil leads Dante's alter ego, the "Pilgrim," through the circles of Hell, where
they witness the horrible punishments that sinners have brought upon
themselves.

In the second section, Purgatory, Pilgrim meets the souls of those waiting
to ascend into Heaven. There, the souls of the saved make penance for their
sins, of which they must be cleansed before they can go to Heaven.

In the third section, Pilgrim reaches Heaven. On the way there, he sails
through space and sees the planets, which are inhabited by saints. Upon
witnessing the majesty of God in his true glory, Pilgrim returns to Earth to write this
very poem.

Summary

Dante’s The Divine Comedy is the beginning of Italian literature and the
single most significant work of the Middle Ages because its allegory emphasizes
the importance of salvation and divine love in a work that is inclusive and tightly
structured. It is so thoroughly infused with Christian ethics that any overview has
to touch on major Christian themes, beginning with the plot being set during
Easter week 1300.

The work is a complex narrative with many allusions to biblical stories,

classical myths, history, and contemporary politics; however, the plot’s
symbolism provides clarity in that it celebrates the ideal of universalism, where
everything has its place in God’s world, and its ultimate goal of salvation
triumphs over the contemporary reality of the power struggle between worldly
and religious leaders.

The structure of the entire work, as well as of its parts, is symbolic of the
story it tells, as the use of numbers shows. The number 3 (symbolic of the Trinity:
God as the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost) and the number 10 (the
“perfect” number: 3 × 3 + 1) are the most conspicuous examples. The Divine
Comedy has three “cantiche,” or parts (Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven). Each
cantica has thirty-three cantos, or songs, with the exception of the first cantica,
which has thirty-four cantos, adding up to a total of one hundred (the perfect
number squared: 10 × 10). Each canto is written in terza rima, that is, in tercets
that rhyme in an interlocking manner.

The first canto of Inferno, is considered to be an introduction to the whole

work (making the structure even more symmetric: 1 + 33 + 33 + 33 = 100)
because all three parts of The Divine Comedy are present in the first canto’s
symbolic landscape. Dante finds himself lost in a dark forest. Looking for
orientation, he decides to hike up a mountain, whose sunlit top represents
Purgatory, while the sky and the sun represent Heaven. However, Dante’s path is
blocked by three animals on the mountain’s slope: a leopard, a lion, and a she-
wolf, which represent the three main types of sin that correspond to the three
main divisions of Hell.
 The spirit of Virgil appears and promises to get Dante to salvation the long
way: through Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven. Dante’s doubts are assuaged
because Virgil has been sent by three heavenly ladies (the Virgin Mary, Saint
Lucy, and Beatrice); in the combination of human reason with divine grace,
Dante’s salvation may yet be achieved. After they enter Hell in the third canto,
Dante learns through conversations with Virgil and individual souls that each sin
is punished according to its severity, systematically going from the lighter sins of
incontinence (giving in to one’s desires) to the more severe sins of violence
(actively willing evil) and fraud (adding malice). Hell, which is presented as a
huge funnel-shaped underground cave, extends in ever-smaller and more-
constricting circles to the middle of the earth; there, in the pit of hell, sits Satan
himself, forever stuck frozen in the ice of the lake Cocytus, chewing on the three
worst human traitors: Judas, Brutus, and Cassius.

Climbing past Satan, Dante is headed toward salvation. While all sinners in
Hell will remain there forever to suffer their horrible punishments because they
did not admit their sins, souls in Purgatory are already saved and eventually will
go to Heaven because they confessed their sins before death. Therefore, the
mood has completely changed: The souls are not stuck in everlasting isolation
but learn in groups from examples of the virtue and vice that correspond to their
penance. Purgatory is presented as a huge cone-shaped mountain and the
only landmass in the southern hemisphere. Purgatory proper is organized in
seven rings according to the traditional seven deadly sins (pride, envy, wrath,
sloth, avarice, gluttony, and lust). At the top of the mountain is earthly paradise
(the Garden of Eden); this is as far as human reason can lead, so Virgil leaves
and Beatrice becomes Dante’s guide.

Cleansed of his own sins, Dante rises naturally toward Heaven. In keeping
with the Ptolemaic worldview, Heaven is organized in spheres with the earth in
the center. Dante identifies ten spheres that he relates to the so-called four
pagan virtues of fortitude, justice, temperance, and prudence in varying
degrees (first to seventh Heavens), the three Christian virtues of faith, hope, and
charity (eighth Heaven), the Primum Mobile (the ninth heaven, which moves all
others), and the Empyrean (the tenth Heaven outside of time and space, where
God dwells). The Empyrean as a state of being also contains the Celestial Rose,
where all blessed souls reside. The souls do not reside in the individual heavens
where Dante encounters them but are put there so that he may more easily
understand their place in the divine order. The blessed souls in Heaven form a
true, though strictly hierarchical, community that exists in an all-permeating
feeling of love and bliss, which comes from the joy and peace of being in the
proper place in God’s creation. Dante evokes in images of light what lies
beyond human experience, such as the radiance of the blessed souls and
Dante’s vision of God.

PARADISE LOST ~ A BRIEF SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

Paradise Lost is about Adam and Eve--how they came to be created and
how they came to lose their place in the Garden of Eden, also called Paradise.
It's the same story you find in the first pages of Genesis, expanded by Milton into
a very long, detailed, narrative poem. It also includes the story of the origin of
Satan. Originally, he was called Lucifer, an angel in heaven who led his followers
in a war against God, and was ultimately sent with them to hell. Thirst for
revenge led him to cause man's downfall by turning into a serpent and
tempting Eve to eat the forbidden fruit.

SUMMARY

The story opens in hell, where Satan and his followers are recovering from
defeat in a war they waged against God. They build a palace, called
Pandemonium, where they hold council to determine whether or not to return
to battle. Instead they decide to explore a new world prophecied to be
created, where a safer course of revenge can be planned. Satan undertakes
the mission alone. At the gate of hell, he meets his offspring, Sin and Death, who
unbar the gates for him. He journeys across chaos till he sees the new universe
floating near the larger globe which is heaven. God sees Satan flying towards
this world and foretells the fall of man. His Son, who sits at his right hand, offers to
sacrifice himself for man's salvation. Meanwhile, Satan enters the new universe.
He flies to the sun, where he tricks an angel, Uriel, into showing him the way to
man's home.

Satan gains entrance into the Garden of Eden, where he finds Adam and
Eve and becomes jealous of them. He overhears them speak of God's
commandment that they should not eat the forbidden fruit. Uriel warns Gabriel
and his angels, who are guarding the gate of Paradise, of Satan's presence.
Satan is apprehended by them and banished from Eden. God sends Raphael to
warn Adam and Eve about Satan. Raphael recounts to them how jealousy
against the Son of God led a once favored angel to wage war against God in
heaven, and how the Son, Messiah, cast him and his followers into hell. He
relates how the world was created so mankind could one day replace the fallen
angels in heaven.

Satan returns to earth, and enters a serpent. Finding Eve alone he induces
her to eat the fruit of the forbidden tree. Adam, resigned to join in her fate, eats
also. Their innocence is lost and they become aware of their nakedness. In
shame and despair, they become hostile to each other. The Son of God
descends to earth to judge the sinners, mercifully delaying their sentence of
death. Sin and Death, sensing Satan's success, build a highway to earth, their
new home. Upon his return to hell, instead of a celebration of victory, Satan and
his crew are turned into serpents as punishment. Adam reconciles with Eve. God
sends Michael to expel the pair from Paradise, but first to reveal to Adam future
events resulting from his sin. Adam is saddened by these visions, but ultimately
revived by revelations of the future coming of the Savior of mankind. In sadness,
mitigated with hope, Adam and Eve are sent away from the Garden of
Paradise.

Paradise Regained

Plot Summary

Paradise Regained by John Milton is an epic narrative poem that was

initially published in 1671. A widely-revered essayist, dramatist, and lyric poet,
Milton is perhaps best known for Paradise Lost, an epic poem he wrote in 1667.
Whereas Paradise Lost depicts Lucifer’s fall from Heaven and Adam and Eve’s
expulsion from the Garden of Eden, Paradise Regained centers on the
temptation of Christ, drawing on the Gospel of Luke for its inspiration.

Milton’s 1671 epic tells the following story: after Jesus of Nazareth was
baptized by John the Baptist, he went into the desert, where he fasted for forty
days and nights. During this fast, Satan came before Jesus multiple times to lure
him into temptation. First, Satan tried to sway the would-be savior with hedonism
by offering to satisfy his hunger. When that approach failed, Satan turned to
trying to manipulate Jesus’ ego. He failed yet again, and attempted to sway
Jesus by offering him kingdoms and wealth. Once more, Jesus turned Satan’s
temptations away. Described as lust of eyes, lust of body, and pride of life, these
temptations are meant to debase Jesus’ mind, soul, and heart.

By studying the differences between Paradise Lost and Paradise

Regained, one can learn much about Milton’s distinctive mode of poetic
composition. Both narratives are written in blank verse, or unrhymed iambic
pentameter. Made famous by William Shakespeare, iambic pentameter has
enjoyed wide usage because, of all the different types of meter, it most closely
resembles the natural rhythm of English speech. An iamb consists of a stressed
syllable followed by an unstressed syllable. The term “pentameter” indicates that
there are five such pairs (“pent–” meaning “five”), for a total of ten syllables per
line.

Both poems have an epic quality, although Paradise Regained is only

about one-fifth the length of Paradise Lost. (The latter has over 10,000 lines,
whereas Paradise Regained has just over 2,000.) On account of this difference,
Paradise Regained has become known as a brief epic. Epic poems typically
share a number of features: an epic typically begins in medias res, or in the
middle of the action, and usually takes place over a large swath of geographic
space, or in a vaster space—the universe. Epics typically involve an epic
invocation. The opening line of Homer’s Iliad, is often quoted as an example:
“Sing, goddess, the anger of Peleus’ son….” In terms of style and designation,
epics are known for the use of epithets, which are repeated descriptions. They
can contain long lists or catalogues, as well as equally long speeches. Epics
frequently involve divine intervention and address its effect on human lives, as
well as on heroswho represent the values of a particular society.

Understanding the differences between Milton’s two poems is as

important as understanding their similarities. Where Paradise Lost uses elegant
language and style, Paradise Regained is often thought of as more
approachable, with a plainer style. Milton uses fewer similes in Regained than he
does in Lost, a tactic which makes the delivery more direct. With the main idea
of Paradise Regained being to reverse the damage done in Paradise Lost—that
is, the expulsion from the Garden of Eden, or paradise—Regained is filled with
reversals.
 The Lusiads

The Lusiads, epic poem by Luís de Camões, published in 1572 as Os

Lusíadas. The work describes the discovery of a sea route to India by Vasco da
Gama. The 10 cantos of the poem are in ottava rima and amount to 1,102
stanzas.

The action of the poem begins after an introduction, an invocation, and a

dedication to King Sebastian. Da Gama’s ships are already under way in the
Indian Ocean, sailing up the coast of East Africa, and the gods of Greco-Roman
mythology gather to discuss the fate of the expedition (which is favoured by
Venus and attacked by Bacchus). The voyagers spend several days in Melinde
on the east coast of Africa, and, at the request of the king of Melinde, da Gama
recounts the entire history of Portugal, from its origins to the inception of their
great voyage (Cantos III, IV, and V). These cantos contain some of the most
compelling passages in the poem. When they reembark, Bacchus tries to
arrange the shipwreck of the Portuguese fleet but is prevented by Venus, and
da Gama is able to reach his destination, Calicut (Kozhikode, now in Kerala
state, southwestern India) on the Malabar Coast. On their homeward voyage
the mariners chance upon the island Venus has created for them, and the
nymphs reward them for their labours. One of the nymphs sings of the future
deeds of the Portuguese, and the entertainment ends with a description of the
universe given by da Gama and the Nereid Thetis. The sailors again set sail for
home.

BUOD NG OF BIAG NI LAM-ANG

(SUMMARY OF BIAG NI LAM-ANG)

Don Juan and his wife Namongan lived in Nalbuan, now part of La Union
in the northern part of the Philippines. They had a son named Lam-ang. Before
Lam-ang was born, Don Juan went to the mountains in order to punish a group
of their Igorot enemies. While he was away, his son Lam-ang was born. It took
four people to help Namongan give birth. As soon as the baby boy popped out,
he spoke and asked that he be given the name Lam-ang. He also chose his
godparents and asked where his father was.
 After nine months of waiting for his father to return, Lam-ang decided he
would go look for him. Namongan thought Lam-ang was up to the challenge
but she was sad to let him go.

During his exhausting journey, he decided to rest for awhile. He fell asleep
and had a dream about his father’s head being stuck on a pole by the Igorot.
Lam-ang was furious when he learned what had happened to his father. He
rushed to their village and killed them all, except for one whom he let go so that
he could tell other people about Lam-ang’s greatness.

Upon returning to Nalbuan in triumph, he was bathed by women in the

Amburayan river. All the fish died because of the dirt and odor from Lam-ang’s
body.

There was a young woman named Ines Kannoyan whom Lam-ang

wanted to woo. She lived in Calanutian and he brought along his white rooster
and gray dog to visit her. On the way, Lam-ang met his enemy Sumarang,
another suitor of Ines whom he fought and readily defeated.

Lam-ang found the house of Ines surrounded by many suitors all of whom
were trying to catch her attention. He had his rooster crow, which caused a
nearby house to fall. This made Ines look out. He had his dog bark and in an
instant the fallen house rose up again. The girl’s parents witnessed this and
called for him. The rooster expressed the love of Lam-ang. The parents agreed
to a marriage with their daughter if Lam-ang would give them a dowry valued
at double their wealth. Lam-ang had no problem fulfilling this condition and he
and Ines were married.

It was a tradition to have a newly married man swim in the river for the
rarang fish. Unfortunately, Lam-ang dove straight into the mouth of the water
monster Berkakan. Ines had Marcos get his bones, which she covered with a
piece of cloth. His rooster crowed and his dog barked and slowly the bones
started to move. Back alive, Lam-ang and his wife lived happily ever after with
his white rooster and gray dog.
 Ibalon

(Epikong Bicolano)

Ayon sa salaysay ni Pari Jose Castaño, batay sa narinig niyang kuwento

ng isang manlalakbay na mang-aawit na si Cadugnong, ang epikong Ibalon ay
tungkol sa kabayanihan ng tatlong magigiting na lalaki ng Ibalon na sina
Baltog, Handiong, at Bantong. Ibalon ang matandang pangalan ng Bikol.

Si Baltog ay nakarating sa lupain ng Ibalon dahil sa pagtugis niya sa isang

malaking baboy-ramo. Siya'y nanggaling pa sa lupain ng Batawara.
Mayaman ang lupain ng Ibalon at doon na siya nanirahan. Siya ang kinilalang
hari ng Ibalon. Naging maunlad ang pamumuhay ng mga tao. Subalit may
muling kinatakutan ang mga tao, isang malaki at mapaminsalang baboy-ramo
na tuwing sumasapit ang gabi ay namiminsala ng mga pananim. Si Baltog ay
matanda na upang makilaban. Tinulungan siya ng kanyang kaibigang si
Handiong.

Pinamunuan ni Handiong ang mga lalaki ng Ibalon upang kanilang lipulin

ang mga dambuhalang buwaya, mababangis na tamaraw at lumilipad na
mga pating at mga halimaw na kumakain ng tao. Napatay nila ang mga ito
maliban sa isang engkantadang nakapag-aanyong magandang dalaga na
may matamis na tinig. Ito ay si Oriol. Tumulong si Oriol sa paglipol ng iba pang
mga masasamang hayop sa Ibalon.

Naging payapa ang Ibalon. Ang mga tao ay umunlad. Tinuruan niya
ang mga tao ng maayos na pagsasaka. Ang mga piling tauhan ni Handiong
ay tumulong sa kanyang pamamahala at pagtuturo sa mga tao ng maraming
bagay.

Ang sistema ng pagsulat ay itinuro ni Sural. Itinuro ni Dinahong Pandak

ang paggawa ng palayok na Iluad at ng iba pang kagamitan sa pagluluto.

Si Hablon naman ay nagturo sa mga tao ng paghabi ng tela. Si

Ginantong ay gumawa ng kauna-unahang bangka, ng araro, itak at iba pang
kasangkapan sa bahay.

Naging lalong maunlad at masagana ang Ibalon. Subalit may isang

halimaw na namang sumipot. Ito ay kalahating tao at kalahating hayop. Siya
si Rabut. Nagagawa niyang bato ang mga tao o hayop na kanyang
maengkanto. May nagtangkang pumatay sa kanya subalit sinamang palad na
naging bato. Nabalitaan ito ni Bantong at inihandog niya ang sarili kay
Handiong upang siyang pumatay kay Rabut.

Nalaman ni Bantong na sa araw ay tulog na tulog si Rabut. Kaniya itong

pinatay habang natutulog.

Nagalit ang Diyos sa ginawang pataksil na pagpatay kay Rabut.

Diumano, masama man si Rabut, dapat ay binigyan ng pagkakataong
magtanggol sa sarili nito. Pinarusahan ng Diyos ang Ibalon sa pamamagitan ng
isang napakalaking baha.

Nasira ang mga bahay at pananim. Nalunod ang maraming tao.

Nakaligtas lamang ang ilang nakaakyat sa taluktok ng matataas na bundok.
Nang kumati ang tubig, iba na ang anyo ng Ibalon. Nagpanibagong buhay
ang mga tao ngayon ay sa pamumuno ni Bantong.

Summary of Hinilawod

Labaw Donggon, the eldest of the three, asked his mother to prepare his
magiccape, hat, belt and kampilan for he heard of a place called Handug
where abeautiful maiden named Angoy Ginbitinan lived.

Labaw Donggon proceeded home with his new bride.

The giant would not allow Labaw Donggon to go through without a fight.

Labaw Donggon won the hand of Abyang Durunuun and also took her
home.

The moment he set foot on the ground Saragnayan asked him, “Who are
youand why are you here?” To which he answered, “I am Labaw Donggon, son
ofDatu Paubari and goddess Alunsina of Halawod. I came for the
beautifulMalitong Yawa Sinagmaling Diwata.” Saragnayan laughed.

Labaw Donggon then challenged Saragnayan to a duel saying that

whoeverwins will have her.

Labaw Donggon submerged Saragnayan under water for seven years,

but whenhe let go of him, Saragnayan was still alive.
 The latter uprooted a coconut tree and started beating Labaw Donggon
with it.

He survived the beating but was not able to surpass the powers
ofSaragnayan’s pamlang and eventually he gave up and was imprisoned
bySaragnayan beneath his house.

They rode their sailboats through the region of eternal darkness, passed
theregion of the clouds and the land of stones, finally reaching Saragnayan’s
home.

Labaw Donggon’s defeat and subsequent imprisonment by the Lord of

Darknessalso angered his brothers.

Humadapnon was so enraged that he swore to the gods of Madya-as

that hewould wreak revenge on all of Saragnayan’s kinsmen and followers.

Humadapnon prepared to go to Saragnayan’s domain.

Right after Humadapnon left to seek Saragnayan’s followers and relatives

hisbrother Dumalapdap left for Burutlakan-ka-adlaw where the maiden Lubay-
Lubyok Hanginun si Mahuyokhuyokon lived.

Labaw Donggon went to the north, Humadapnon went south,

Dumalapdap tothe west and Datu Paubari remained in the east.

Agyu : The Ilianon Epic of Mindanao

Episode 1: The killing of the Moro Datu

In the country of Ayuman lived the heroes Banlak, Agyu, and Kuyasu. In
the Ilianon tradition these men were brothers, being the sons of Pamulaw. Agyu
had four sisters, but only Yanbungan and Ikawangan are mentioned in the epic.
Banlak's wife named Mungan was badly afflicted with a consuming disease.

One of the activities that the Ilianon people engaged in was the
gathering of beeswax which they traded with the Moro, securing from the latter
articles and goods that they needed in their daily lives. Although these goods
and articles are not mentioned in the epic, they have been identified as cloth,
blankets, bolos (especially "tabas" which are used in weeding), betel nut and
lime containers, salt, and coconut oil, these things being paid for with beeswax
and honey. One day Agyu sent nine "kamu" or lumps of beeswax to a Moro
datu, delivered by Kuyasu and Banlak. Angered by the small quantity of the
payment, the Moro datu hurled the beeswax at Kuyasu, hurting the latter's foot,
which had an ulcer. Kuyasu retaliated by spearing the Moro datu to death. He
must have been left behind, for it was Banlak who hurried to Ayuman to inform
Agyu and the others that Kuyasu had slain the Moro datu.

Episode 2: The battle with the Moros

Agyu predicted that there was going to be a war. Inasmuch as the Moro
datu had been killed, it was better for them to leave their homeland. They went
to Ilian mountain where Agyu ordered the building of a fort on its top. Agyu
asked his followers to gather big stones and to cut logs. Then they built houses
and shelters and lived peacefully there. But soon the Moro warriors came up the
Pulangi River and spotted the fort built by the Ilianon. When the Moro invaders
tried to scale the mountain, Agyu ordered the cutting of the rattan that held the
logs and loosening them on the attackers. The result was almost decimation of
the enemy. Those who escaped the slaughter fled.

Episode 3: Agyu leads his people to another country

After this victory, Agyu decided to move to another country. He chose to

go to Pinamatun mountain. They built houses and habitations there once more.
He left for Sandawa mountain to hunt. Lono' tried to cut a path on the side of
the mountain, while two women, Yambungan ang Ikwangan, were left behind
swinging on a vine from bank to bank over the stream. Something was stinging
their feet and they shouted for Lono' to come. Lono' found it was a bee and this
enabled him to locate beehives in the hollows of palm trees. Then Agyu came
back with a small wild pig. He asked Banlak to singe it, after which the animal
was divided, and the meat and honey were distributed among the people.

Then Agyu remembered Banlak's wife in Ayuman; she had been left
behind because of her afflicton. But Banlak refused to bring her share of the
meat and honey, for he had abandoned her. It was Lono' who volunteered to
bring Mungan her share. When he reached Ayuman, he found out that Mungan
was already well. She gave Lono' betel nut and young rice to distribute to the
people. Lono' returned to Pinamatun and told Agyu and the others the news
that Mungan had already recovered and had become a beautiful lady. When
Banlak heard that, he wanted to return to his wife but Agyu reproved him. Then
the betel nut and "pinipi" young rice were distributed.

Episode 4: Agyu and his people return to Ayuman

Because of Mungan's recovery, Agyu decided to return to Ayuman, and

this was done with his people following him. But when they arrived at Ayuman,
they found Mungan gone. Agyu then decided to continue their journey further
on until they reached the mouth of Tigyandang, at the junction of Mudan'udan.
They built houses and settled there.

Episode 5: The invasion of Agyu's country and the prowess of Agyu's youngest
son

In this country of Tigyandang, Agyu's people were attacked. Agyu's men

fought on the seashore of the bay of Linayagon, but it was a losing battle. When
only a few men were left, Agyu's youngest son, a mere boy, volunteered to fight
the enemy single-handed. In four days he defeated them. The leader of the
invaders invited Agyu's young son to go home with him but the boy refused.
When the leader reached home, however, he found the boy already there. The
datu told his wife to call their daughter and for her to dress up. The datu told her
to give chew to Tanagyaw, Agyu's son, and to consider him her husband.
Buy'anon invited him to sit on her lap, but Agyu's son refused, saying he was a
mere boy. Then he departed.

Episode 6: Agyu's son saves the country of Baklayon from invaders and gets
another marriage proposal; this time the maiden is persistent, accompanies him
to his home and finally succeeds in marrying him

Tanagyaw reached the country of Baklayon. There was consternation in

the place. He learned that the village was going to be attacked by invaders. He
was well received and was offered the young daughter of the datu in marriage.
She came out and offered him chew and asked him to be her husband, saying
he was going to be their savior. He fought the invaders and defeated them. The
datu had a son named Bagsili' who challenged him, but was killed in a man-to-
man combat. The defeated datu took his leave and departed.

Tanagyaw told the people to shout the cry of victory. He went up the
house and squatted. Paniguan, the datu's daughter, proposed marriage to him
for saving their country, but Tanagyaw said that he would help them even if
they did not get married. Then he said that he was going home. He departed,
but the girl accompanied him home. Agyu was surprised to see his son
accompanied by a young lady. He asked the maiden who she was; she
identified herself but insisted on marrying Tanagyaw. So the two were married.

Episode 7: Agyu's country is invaded but Tanagyaw successfully repulses the

invaders; Tanagyaw settles in Sunglawon with his wife

After some time, Agyu's country is again endangered by invaders coming

from across the sea. The men fought well but were overwhelmed. A counselor
foretold doom. But Tanagyaw reproved him. He put on his attire that was ten
times thick and of nine layers, and picked up his shield and spear which could
not be broken. Then he fought the invaders on the seashore. The dead piles up,
mountains and hills of them. The leader of the invaders invited Tanagyaw to his
country. But Tanagyaw said that the leader had been shamed. Upon hearing
this, the leader's son fought him, using a bar of gold. Tanagyaw in turn used his
golden cane called Tanigid and with it reduced the challenger to a pounded
mass. The leader returned defeated to his homeland.

When peace had been restored, Agyu assigned the country of

Sunglawon to his victorious son who settled there with his charming wife.
 Kudaman

(of Palawan)

By the river Tabunganan is a spring, which is the abode of an evil spirit.

Tuwan Putli, accompanied by her cousin Ambaynan, goes there to fish. As they
are about to leave, Tuwan Putli sees a river lobster with golden pincers.
Ambaynan waits for her, but Tuwan Putli disappears. There is blood in her fish
basket. Ambaynan goes home and reports the incident.

Tuwan Putli’s father, orders her husband (and son-in-law) Muta-Muta to

search for her, but the man disobeys. Muta-Muta finds help in the person of the
Young Man of the Clouds. It is agreed that if the Young Man of the Clouds can
find Tuwan Putli, she will be his. With the help of a crocodile, the Young Man of
the Clouds finds a fragment of Tuwan Putli’s toenail nestled inside a molar of an
old crocodile. The old crocodile had accidentally eaten Tuwan Putli. Retrieving
the nail, he sees Muta-Muta who tells him to bring home the nail fragment. The
young man puts the nail inside the golden chest. In the afternoon, Tuwan Putli’s
voice is heard inside the chest, pleading to be let out. The chest breaks open
like a bamboo, filling the house with golden light. Tuwan Putli emerges and asks
for a betel nut. Learning that the young man has recued her, she consents to
live with him.

Soon the Young Man falls in love with the Lady of the Sea-Beings, the wife
of Kudaman. The Young Man wins her love, forcing his wife, Tuwan Putli to leave
him. Kudaman decides to bring the Lady of the Sea-Beings to her father Surutan
Tamparan, the Sultan of the Seacoast. On his journey back aboard Linggisan,
the Purple Heron, Kudaman meets Tuwan Putli and offers her a betel nut. She
accepts, and she becomes his "puun" or principal wife. When Surutan Tamparan
discovers that his daughter has left Kudaman for the Young Man of the Clouds,
he beheads her at the place called Scissors of the World. But she emerges from
the ordeal lovelier than ever.

Muta-Muta, Tuwan Putli’s first husband, and his brother, the Datu of
Ligayan, visit Kudaman to offer a blood compact. Kudaman reminds Muta-
Muta that Tuwan Putli is now his wife. Having become blood brothers, Muta-
Muta asks to stay in Kudaman’s place. Kudaman agrees, and he has a big
house built. Kudaman gathers his relatives and friends and offers to host a big
feast of "tabad" rice beer.
 Kudaman goes on a journey to look for beautiful garments for Tuwan Putli
whom he entrusts to Muta-Muta. Riding on Linggisan, his pet bird, Kudaman
travels for seven years. The Lady of the Wild Green Pigeon falls in love with him.
The attraction is mutual, so Kudaman promises to return for her. Reaching the
house of the Sultan of the Seacoast, Kudaman buys the garments he wants. His
former wife expresses renewed yearning for him and his bird, so she is
transported to Kudaman’s house, where she is welcomed by Tuwan Putli as sister
and co-wife. As he has promised, Kudaman passes by the place of the Lady of
the Wild Green Pigeon on his way back. He asks for betel nut, and she offers him
her betel nut container. When she agrees to come with him, he puts her inside
betel container for safekeeping. Tuwan Putli meets him with the news that the
Lady of the Sea-Beings has come. Kudaman shows her what he has brought
home: a new sister.

Kudaman goes on another journey, entrusting the two women to his

principal wife. He encounters the Lady of the Ginnu Tree, who is gripped with
admiration for his magnificent bird. Kudaman obtains her, as he did the Lady of
the Wild Green Pigeon, but the Lady of the Ginnu Tree makes it clear to the
other women that she has no desire to win the hero away from them, and that
she has come with him only because she loves his bird.

Having put up his new "kalongbanwa" or big house, Kudaman wishes to

offer a celebration in honor of Ampu, the Master of the Rice. Muta-Muta, Datu
Ligayan, and the four "linamin" or ladies are in agreement. He lays his hands over
the mouths of the jars of tabad, and right away, the rice beer ferments. Muta-
Muta and Datu Ligayan play their gongs, for this is the music beloved of the
Master of the Rice, who bestows sweetness and fragrance to the rice beer. Clad
in wondrous garments and ornaments of gold, Kudaman’s four wives dance the
"tarok", and they prepare the betel chew for their guests. The Young Man of the
Clouds hears the music from the feast, and he hastens to join Kudaman. But far
away, the dreaded Ilanun also hear the gongs, and they decide to test the
mettle of Kudaman and get his wives. Informed through a dream, Kudaman
orders the gong music to stop. He does not want violence, for it is an affront
against Ampu, the Supreme Master, who is also Nagsalad, the Weaver of the
World. He is the picture of calmness as he awaits the Ilanun’s arrival, chewing
betel as he sits. He invites the Ilanun to come to the house, but they harshly
reject the offer.
 Muta-Muta loses his restraint and attacks. The Young Man of the Clouds
joins him. The leader of the Ilanun and the Young Man of the Clouds duel in the
heavens for seven years. Moved by Young Man’s spirirt, Kudaman joins the fray.
He entrusts to his grieving wives a bouquet of basil flowers whose wilting or
blossoming will signal his state. The ladies plead that Linggasan watch over its
master; the bird itself is anguished over Kudaman’s decision to fight. Up in the
clouds, astride of a ray of sunlight, Kudaman merely observes at first. But when
the Young Man of the Clouds falls, he comes to the Young Man’s rescue and
puts the Young Man inside his betel container. Then he confronts the Ilanun
leader, Apo Tugbu. A battle between them lasts for many years, taking them to
several levels of the worlds. Finally Kudaman wins. The Ilanun are wiped out.

On their way home, Kudaman and the Young Man of the Clouds pass by
the house of Limbuhanan, the hero’s first cousin. They meet the Lady of the
Agoho Tree, Limbuhanan’s wife. The couple apologize to Kudaman for having
gotten married without notifying him. The Young Man of the Clouds relates the
war he and Kudaman have just been through. The Lady of the Agoho Tree
offers to accompany the two back home.

Muta-Muta, Datu Ligayan, and the four wives are overjoyed when
Kudaman arrives. The interrupted feast resumes. A jural discussion is held,
regarding harmonious relationship in marriage, the duties of relatives, and other
points of the "adat" or custom law. Among the guest are the Datu and Lady of
the Edge of the World, the Datu and Lady of the Surrounding Worlds, the Datu
and Lady of Median Space, the Chief Judge Pinagsaran and his wife, the Lady
of the Atmosphere. The Sultan of the Seacoast arrives with his seven wives, and
he is offered the first sip of the tabad. The merriment lasts for three days, but no
violence or rowdiness occurs. Kudaman finds himself in a state of stupor. His
being is transported, it seems, to another universe, and the heavens have been
cindered by his drunkenness. But he is brought back to consciousness, and,
seeing the face of the Lady of the Hooks, he proposes to marry her. Revived,
Kudaman chews betel and spits at the dead army of the Ilanun. They are
resurrected, and they surrender their weapons as a sign of compact.

Earlier, during the start of the feast, an old conflict over Tuwan Putli
between Kudaman and the Chief Judge Pinagsaran took place. The Lady of
the Luray Tree, wife of Pinagsaran, proposed that Tuwan Putli be cut in two so
that the two men could each have half of her. Kudaman takes a blade and
slices her. Each half of her becomes a lovelier Tuwan Putli. The Sultan of the
Seacoast takes his leave, and the others follow suit, but not before everyone has
agreed that there must be another feast in the future.

The rest of the epic contains episodes about Kudaman’s odysseys to

distant lands and visitations of friends and relatives, during which great feasts
are held. In one of his drunken revelries, having gulped down 180 jars of "tabad",
Kudaman plummets into the navel of the world and wrestles with himself. In his
drunken state, he meets the Lady of the Young Men, who fans his face to bring
him back to his senses and offers him betel chew. She becomes his fifth wife.
Riding his heron to the ends of the world, Kudaman wins his other wives who are
all uniformly described as falling into a swoon at the sight of his magnificent bird.
They are the Lady of the Sandbar, who leaves her husband to go with the hero;
the Lady of the Last Level of the Universe; the Lady of the Oil of the World; the
Lady of the Maiden Space, also married; and the Lady of the Hooks, to whom
he had earlier proposed.

"Kudaman" ends with a final celebration of Kudaman’s marriage to ten

women. At the same time, the Young Man of the Clouds takes the sultan’s
seventh daughter in marriage, and the dowry he gives is a river which begins
from the skies and flows beside the Sultan’s house, while "macopa" tree and a
pomelo tree bear fruit the whole year round.

Darangan

(an epic of Maranao)

There was a king in a faraway kingdom in Mindanao who had two sons.
The elder was Prince Madali and the younger one was Prince Bantugan. At a
very early age, Prince Bantugan had shown superior qualities over his elder
brother Prince Madali. Their tutors would always tell their father that Prince
Bantugan was very intelligent. He was a fast learner, even in the use of sword
and bow and arrow. And he possessed such great strength that he could
subdue three to five men in a hand-to-hand combat.

The first indication that he would soon be a formidable soldier was seen
when he single-handedly killed a big and ferocious crocodile that had killed
several villagers. The villagers could not believe their eyes after the very short
struggle.
 He is so strong! an old man blurted out upon seeing the dead crocodile.

How could a man so young as he is can kill a killer crocodile? He must be

possessed by the gods! another villager said in awe.

Come on, let's thank the prince for killing the beast! the chieftain of the
place said to all the villagers.

As years passed, Prince Bantugan reached to his manhood, he became

the kingdom's number one soldier. He always led their soldiers to the battlefield.
And he always triumphed over their kingdom's enemies. His name became a
word of the mouth among the soldiers of the neighboring kingdoms. Soon no
kingdom ever dared to conquer or make war with their kingdom. No one would
want to fight him. Peace and progress reigned in their kingdom because they
had gained the respect and recognition of their neighbors.

When their father died of old age, his elder brother, Prince Madali was
named the new king. There were silent protests among the ranks and their
people. They wanted Prince Bantugan to be the new king. Even the ordinary
people were one in saying that Prince Bantugan was the better choice
between the two princes.

Prince Bantugan is brave and strong. He can really protect us from our
enemies! an old woman in the marketplace said to her listeners.

I agree with you, an old man answered.

This did not bother Prince Bantugan. He knew that his brother was the
legal heir to the throne because Prince Madali was the first sibling. He even
vouched for his brother.

My brother deserves to be our new king because he had studied how to

run the government, he told his fellow soldiers and the ministers of the kingdom.
He knows how to deal with foreign relations. And he has several good ideas on
how we can improve the life of everyone!
 The ministers and the soldiers just nodded in agreement. However, a rift
ensued between Prince Bantugan and King Madali. Because Prince Bantugan
was not only brave and strong but very handsome too, several beautiful and
young women in the kingdom fell in love for him, even the women whom his
brother, King Madali, wanted for himself, surrendered themselves under Prince
Bantugan's charm. Enraged and envious, King Madali proclaimed an order.

I don't want anybody talking to my brother, Prince Bantugan. Anyone

who is seen talking to him will be put in jail or be punished severely.

Prince Bantugan felt sad at his brother's order. He found himself like a
person with communicable disease. Everyone was staying away from him, even
his women. Even the people he loved. No one wanted to talk to him for fear of
being jailed or severely punished by the king. Unable to contain his grief, he
decided one day to leave the kingdom and settled to a faraway land where he
spent the rest of his life.