Volume 6 4th Edition

CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Design

1.1. Given that 1 in = 25.4 mm; 1 lbm = 0.4536 kg; 1 °F D 0.556 °C; 1 cal = 4.1868 J; g = 9.807 m s-2, calculate
conversion factors to SI units

ANS.
 1 ft = 0.305 m  1 lb ft s-1 = 1.49 N s m-2
 1 lbm = 0.454 kg  1 poise = 0.1 N s m-2
 1 lbf = 4.45 N  1 Btu = 1.056 kJ
 1 HP = 746 W  1 CHU = 2.79 kJ
 1 psi = 6.9 kN m-2  1 Btu ft-2 h-1 oF-1 = 5.678 W m-2 K-1
1.2. Determine the degrees of freedom available in the design of a simple heat exchanger. Take the exchanger as a
double-pipe exchanger transferring heat between two single-phase streams. ANS. 5

1.3. A separator divides a process stream into three phases: a liquid organic stream, a liquid aqueous stream, and a
gas stream. The feed stream contains three components, all of which are present to some extent in the separated
steams. The composition and flowrate of the feed stream are known. All the streams will be at the same temperature
and pressure. The phase equilibria for the three phases are available. How many design variables need to be
specified in order to calculate the output stream compositions and flow rates? ANS. 2

1.4. A rectangular tank with a square base is constructed from 5 mm steel plates. If the capacity required is eight
cubic metres determine the optimum dimensions if the tank has:

𝒍
i. a closed top ANS. 𝒉 =
𝟐

ii. An open top. ANS. 𝒉 = 𝒍

1.5 and 1.6. Estimate the optimum thickness of insulation for the roof of a house, given the following information. The
insulation will be installed flat on the attic floor. Overall heat transfer coefficient for the insulation as a function of
thickness, values (see Chapter 12):

Thickness, mm 0 25 50 100 150 200 250

U, W m-2 C-1 20 0.9 0.7 0.3 0.25 0.20 0.15

Average temperature difference between inside and outside of house 10 °C; heating period 200 days in a year.

Cost of insulation, including installation, £70/m3. Capital charges 15 per cent per year. Cost of fuel, allowing for the
efficiency of the heating system, P6/MJ.

Note: the rate at which heat is being lost is given by U x ΔT, W/m2, where U is the overall coefficient and ΔT the
temperature difference; see Chapter 12. ANS. 100 mm

1.7. What is the optimum practical shape for a dwelling, to minimize the heat losses through the building fabric?
Why is this optimum shape seldom used? What people do use the optimum shape for their winter dwellings? Is heat
retention their only consideration in their selection of this shape?

ANS.
The optimum shape will be that having the lowest surface to volume ratio.
A sphere would be impractical to live in an so a hemisphere would be used.
The Inuit build their snow igloos in a roughly hemispherical shape.
Another factor that determines the shape of an igloo is the method of construction.
 Any cross-section is in the shape of an arch; the optimum shape to use for a material that is weak in tension
but strong in compression
CHAPTER 2
Fundamentals of Material Balances

2.1. The composition of a gas derived by the gasification of coal is, volume percentage: carbon dioxide 4, carbon
monoxide 16, hydrogen 50, methane 15, ethane 3,benzene 2, balance nitrogen. If the gas is burnt in a furnace with
20 per cent excess air, calculate:

(a) The amount of air required per 100 kmol of gas,

ANS. Air for combustion = 505.7 kmol
(b) The amount of flue gas produced per 100 kmol of gas,
ANS. Flue Gas produced = 575.2 kmol
(c) The composition of the flue gases, on a dry basis. Assume complete combustion.
ANS. N2 409.5 kmol 85.3 mol %
CO2 53.0 kmol 11.0 mol %
O2 17.7 kmol 3.7 mol %
480.2 kmol 100.0 mol %

2.2. Ammonia is removed from a stream of air by absorption in water in a packed column. The air entering the column
is at 760 mmHg pressure and 20 ŽC. The air contains 5.0 per cent v/v ammonia. Only ammonia is absorbed in the
column. If the flow rate of the ammonia air mixture to the column is 200 m3/s and the stream leaving the column
contains 0.05 per cent v/v ammonia, calculate:

(a) The flow-rate of gas leaving the column.

ANS. Flow rate of gas leaving column = 190.1 m3 s-1
(b) The mass of ammonia absorbed.
ANS. Mass Flow = 7.00 kg s-1
(c) The flow-rate of water to the column, if the exit water contains 1% w/w ammonia.
ANS. W = 693 kg s-1

2.3. The off-gases from a gasoline stabilizer are fed to a reforming plant to produce hydrogen. The composition of the
off-gas, molar per cent, is: CH4 77.5%, C2H6 9.5%, C3H8 8.5% ,C4H10 4.5%. The gases entering the reformer are
at a pressure of 2 bar and 35 °C and the feed rate is 2000 m3/h.
The reactions in the reformer are:

1. C2H2n+2 + n (H20)  n(CO) + (2n + 1)H2

2. CO + H2O  CO2 + H2
The molar conversion of C2H2nC2 in reaction (1) is 96 per cent and of CO in reaction (2) 92 per cent.
Calculate:
(a) the average molecular mass of the off-gas,
Ans. average molecular mass = 21.6 kg kmol-1
(b) the mass of gas fed to the reformer, kg/h,
Ans. Mass flow rate = 3375 kg h-1
(c) the mass of hydrogen produced, kg/h.
Ans. H2 produced =1526 kg h-1

2.4. Allyl alcohol can be produced by the hydrolysis of allyl chloride. Together with the main product, allyl alcohol, di-
ally ether is produced as a by-product. The conversion of allyl chloride is typically 97 per cent and the yield to alcohol
90 per cent, both on a molar basis. Assuming that there are no other significant side reactions, calculate masses of
alcohol and ether produced, per 1000 kg of allyl chloride fed to the reactor.
ANS. Mass of allyl-alcohol produced= 661.8 kg
Mass of di-ally ether produced = 124.5 kg
2.5. Aniline is produced by the hydrogenation of nitrobenzene. A small amount of
cyclo-hexylamine is produced as a by-product. The reactions are:
1. C6H5NO2 + 3H2  C6H5NH2 + 2H2O
2. C6H5NO2 + 6H2  C6H11NH2 + 2H2O
Nitrobenzene is fed to the reactor as a vapour, with three times the stoichiometric quantity of hydrogen. The
conversion of the nitrobenzene, to all products, is 96 per cent and the yield to aniline 95 per cent.
The unreacted hydrogen is separated from the reactor products and recycled to the reactor. A purge is taken from the
recycle stream to maintain the inerts in the recycle stream below 5 per cent. The fresh hydrogen feed is 99.5 per cent
pure, the remainder being inerts. All percentages are molar. For a feed rate of 100 kmol/h of nitrobenzene, calculate:
(a) the fresh hydrogen feed,
ANS. 321.71 kmol
(b) the purge rate required,
ANS. 32.33 kmol per 100 kmol nitrobenzene feed
(c) the composition of the reactor outlet stream.
ANS.
Composition: kmol mol %
Aniline 95 10.73
Cyclo-hexalymine 1 0.11
H2O 192 21.68
H2 564 63.69
Inerts 29.60 3.34
Nitrobenzene 4 0.45
885.6 100.00

CHAPTER 3
Fundamentals of Energy Balances
(and Energy Utilisation)

3.1. A liquid stream leaves a reactor at a pressure of 100 bar. If the pressure is reduced to 3 bar in a turbine, estimate
the maximum theoretical power that could be obtained from a flow-rate of 1000 kg/h. The density of the liquid is 850
kg/m3.
ANS. P = 3170 W

3.2. Calculate the specific enthalpy of water at a pressure of 1 bar and temperature of 200 °C. Check your value
using steam tables. The specific heat capacity of water can be calculated from the equation:
Cp = 4.2 – 2 x10 -3 t ; where t is in °C and Cp in kJ/kg.
ANS. ΔHvap = 2778 kJ kg-1

3.3. A gas produced as a by-product from the carbonization of coal has the following composition, mol per cent:
carbon dioxide 4, carbon monoxide 15, hydrogen 50, methane 12, ethane 2, ethylene 4, benzene 2, balance nitrogen.
Calculate the gross and net calorific values of the gas.
ANS . Gross CV (kJ m-3) = 18,071 kJ m-3 (= 485 BTU ft-3)

3.4. In the manufacture of aniline, liquid nitrobenzene at 20 ŽC is fed to a vaporizer where it is vaporized in a stream
of hydrogen. The hydrogen stream is at 30 ŽC, and the vaporizer operates at 20 bar. For feed-rates of 2500 kg/h
nitrobenzene and 366 kg/h hydrogen, estimate the heat input required. The nitrobenzene vapour is not superheated.
ANS. ΔH = 1229 Kw

3.7. A supply of nitrogen is required as an inert gas for blanketing and purging vessels. After generation, the nitrogen
is compressed and stored in a bank of cylinders, at a pressure of 5 barg. The inlet pressure to the compressor is 0.5
barg, and temperature 20 ŽC. Calculate the maximum power required to compress 100 m3/h.
A single-stage reciprocating compressor will be used.
ANS. P = 9.6 k
CHAPTER 5
Piping and Instrumentation

5.4. A process fluid is pumped from the bottom of one distillation column to another, using a centrifugal pump. The
line is standard commercial steel pipe 75 mm internal diameter. From the column to the pump inlet the line is 25 m
long and contains six standard elbows and a fully open gate valve. From the pump outlet to the second column the
line is 250 m long and contains ten standard elbows, four gate valves (operated fully open) and a flow-control valve.
The fluid level in the first column is 4 m above the pump inlet. The feed point of the second column is 6 m above the
pump inlet. The operating pressure in the first column is 1.05 bara and that of the second column 0.3 barg.
Determine the operating point on the pump characteristic curve when the flow is such that the pressure drop across
the control valve is 35 kN/m2. The physical properties of the fluid are: density 875 kg/m3, viscosity 1.46 mN m_2s.
Also, determine the NPSH, at this flow-rate, if the vapour pressure of the fluid at
the pump suction is 25 kN/m2.
Pump characteristic
Flow-rate, m3/h 0.0 18.2 27.3 36.3 45.4 54.5 63.6
Head, m of liquid 32.0 31.4 30.8 29.0 26.5 23.2 18.3

ANS. NPSH = 10.7 m

CHAPTER 6
Costing and Project Evaluation

6.2. The process used in the manufacture of aniline involves six significant stages:
1) Vaporisation of the nitrobenzene
2) Hydrogenation of the nitrobenzene
3) Separation of the reactor products by condensation
4) Recovery of crude aniline by distillation
5) Purification of the crude nitrobenzene
6) Recovery of aniline from waste water streams
Estimate the capital cost of a plant to produce 20,000 tonne per year.
ANS. C = £34,453,080

CHAPTER 7
Materials of Construction

7.2. The pipeline described in question 7.1 was used to carry wastewater to a hold-up tank. The effluent is not
hazardous. A decision has to be made on what material to use to replace the pipe. Three suggestion have been
made:
1. Replace with the same schedule carbon steel pipe and accept renewal at 3-year intervals.
2. Replace with a thicker pipe, schedule 80, outside diameter 114.3 mm (4.5 in), inside diameter 97.2 mm
(3.826 in).
3. Use stainless steel pipe, which will not corrode.
The estimated cost of the pipes, per unit length is: schedule 40 carbon steel £3 ($5), schedule 80 carbon steel £5
($8.3), stainless steel (304) schedule 40 £15 ($24.8). Installation and fittings for all the materials adds £10 ($16.5) per
unit length. The downtime required to replace the pipe does not result in a loss of production. If the expected future
life of the plant is 7 years, recommend which pipe to use.

ANS. the best choice is stainless steel.

CHAPTER 8
Design Information and Data

8.1. Estimate the liquid density at boiling point of 2-butanol,

ANS. ρb = 714 kg m-3

8.2. Estimate the density of the following gases at the conditions given:
Water at 100 bara and 500 °C. Check your answer using steam tables,
ANS. ρ = 31.1 kg m-3
8.4. Make a rough estimate of the thermal conductivity of n-butane both as a liquid at 20 °C and as a gas at 5 bara
and 200 °C. Take the viscosity of the gaseous n-butane as 0.012 mN m-2 s.
ANS. k = 0.096 W m-1 °C-1

CHAPTER 10
Equipment Selection, Specification
and Design

10.2. Dissolved solids in the tar from the bottom of a distillation column are precipitated by quenching the hot tar in
oil. The solids are then separated from the oil and burnt. The density of the solids is 1100 kg/m3. The density of the
liquid phase after addition of the tar is 860 kg/m3 and its viscosity, at the temperature of the mixture, 1.7 mN m_2s.
The solid content of the oil and tar mixture is 10 per cent and the flow-rate of the liquid phase leaving the separator
will be 1000 kg/h. The cut-off particle size required is 0.1 mm.
List the types of separator that could be considered for separating the solids from the liquid. Bearing mind the nature
of the process, what type of separator would you recommend for this duty?

ANS. From table 10.6 a solid bowl/basket centrifuge should be satisfactory. A Continuous discharge type
should be selected. The centrifuge could be housed in a casing purged with nitrogen.

CHAPTER 11
Separation Columns
(Distillation, Absorption and Extraction)

11.2. The feed to a distillation column has the following composition, mol per cent: propane 5.0, isobutane 15, n-
butane 25, isopentane 20, n-pentane 35. The feed is preheated to a temperature of 90 ŽC, at 8.3 bar pressure.
Estimate the proportion of the feed which is vapour. The equilibrium K factors are given in Example 11.9.
ANS. L/V = 4.40

11.3. Propane is separated from propylene by distillation. The compounds have close boiling points and the relative
volatility will be low. For a feed composition of 10 per cent w/w propane, 90 per cent w/w propylene, estimate the
number of theoretical plates needed to produce propylene overhead with a minimum purity of 99.5 mol per cent. The
column will operate with a reflux ratio of 20. The feed will be at its boiling point. Take the relative volatility as constant
at 1.1.
ANS. N = 185
11.7. In the manufacture of methyl ethyl ketone from butanol, the product is separated from unreacted butanol by
distillation. The feed to the column consists of a mixture of 0.90 mol fraction MEK, 0.10 mol fraction 2-butanol, with a
trace of trichloroethane. The feed rate to the column is 20 kmol/h and the feed temperature 35 ŽC. The specifications
required are: top product 0.99 mol fraction MEK; bottom product 0.99 mol fraction butanol.
Design a column for this separation. The column will operate at essentially atmospheric pressure. Use a reflux ratio
1.5 times the minimum.
(a) determine the minimum reflux ratio,
(b) determine the number of theoretical stages,
ans. 16 stages
(c) estimate the stage efficiency,
(d) determine the number of actual stages needed,
Ans. 20 stages
(e) design a suitable sieve plate for conditions below the feed point.
Ans. cross flow plates
CHAPTER 12
Heat-transfer Equipment

A solution of sodium hydroxide leaves a dissolver at 80ŽC and is to be cooled to 40°C, using cooling water. The
maximum flow-rate of the solution will be 8000 kg/h. The maximum inlet temperature of the cooling water will be 20°C
and the temperature rise is limited to 20°C. Design a double-pipe exchanger for this duty, using standard carbon steel
pipe and fittings. Use pipe of 50 mm inside diameter, 55 mm outside diameter for the inner pipe, and 75 mm inside
diameter pipe for the outer. Make each section 5 m long.

The physical properties of the caustic solution are:

temperature, °C 40 80
specific heat, kJ/ kg C_ 3.84 3.85
density, kg/m3 992.2 971.8
thermal conductivity, W m-1 C-1 0.63 0.67
viscosity, mN m-2 s 1.40 0.43

Ans.

Cross-section of pipe = 1.963 x 10-3 m

h = 2895 Wm-2 C-1
Uo = 1627 Wm-2 C-1
Number of lengths = 8 (rounded up)

12.3. In a food processing plant there is a requirement to heat 50,000 kg/h of towns water from 10 to 70ŽC. Steam at
2.7 bar is available for heating the water. An existing heat exchanger is available, with the following specification:

Shell inside diameter 337 mm, E type.

Baffles 25 per cent cut, set at a spacing of 106 mm.
Tubes 15 mm inside diameter, 19 mm outside diameter, 4094 mm long.
Tube pitch 24 mm, triangular.
Number of tubes 124, arranged in a single pass.

Would this exchanger be suitable for the specified duty?

ANS .Exchanger should be capable of fulfilling the duty required, providing the water in put
through the shell.

12.4. Design a shell and tube exchanger to heat 50,000 kg/h of liquid ethanol from 20°C to 80°C. Steam at 1.5 bar is
available for heating. Assign the ethanol to the tube-side. The total pressure drop must not exceed 0.7 bar for the
alcohol stream. Plant practice requires the use of carbon steel tubes, 25 mm inside diameter, 29 mm outside
diameter, 4 m long. Set out your design on a data sheet and make a rough sketch of the heat exchanger.
The physical properties of ethanol can be readily found in the literature.

ANS.

Duty = 2236 Kw
Thermal conductivity of carbon steel = 50 W m-1 C-1
Surface area of one tube = 0.364 m2 (based on the o.d.)
Cross-sectional area of one tube = 4.91 x 10-4 m2
Cross-sectional area per pass = 0.0182/1 = 0.0182 m2
Number of passes = 2.9 take as 4 passes.
number of tubes =120 ( 30 tubes per pass)
Use E type shell
CHAPTER 13
Mechanical Design of Process
Equipment

13.2. Compare the thickness required for a 2 m diameter flat plate, designed to resist a uniform distributed load of 10
kN/m2, if the plate edge is:
(a) completely rigid, (rigid constant C = 0.43)
(b) free to rotate.( free to rotate, C = 0.56)
Take the allowable design stress for the material as 100 MN/m2 and Poisson’s ratio for the material as 0.3.

13.4. The thermal design of a heat exchanger to recover heat from a kerosene stream by transfer to a crude oil
stream was carried in Chapter 12, Example 12.2. Make a preliminary mechanical design for this exchanger. Base
your design on the specification obtained from the CAD design procedure used in the example. All material of
construction to be carbon steel (semi-killed or silicon killed). Your design should cover:

(a) choice of design pressure and temperature,

ANS.
Design pressures: take as 10% greater than operating pressures
Design temperature: maximum operating temperature = 200 C.

(b) choice of the required corrosion allowances,

ANS.
Take the kerosene allowance as 2 mm and the crude as 4 mm

(c) choice of the type of end covers,

ANS.
End covers: shell and floating head use torispherical, header- cover flat plate.;

(d) determination of the minimum wall thickness for the shell, headers and ends,
ANS.
Shell: e = 2.8 mm
Header: e = 5.1 mm
Shell end-cover, torispherical; e = 3.5 mm
Floating-head cover, torispherical: e = 6.1 mm
Flat plate (header cover): e = 20.7 mm

(e) a check on the pressure rating of the tubes,

ANS.
Thickness required, e =0.005 mm
Actual wall thickness = 2.1 mm.
 Ample margin for corrosion.

(f) a suggested thickness for the tube sheets detailed stressing is not required,
ANS.
thickness = 20 mm

(g) selection the flange types and dimensions use standard flanges,
ANS.
weld neck flanges;
Shell od = 397 mm, say, 400 mm
Design pressure = 4.05 x 105 N/m2
design temperature = 200°C
6 bar rating would be satisfactory
Floating head od = 350 mm,
design pressure = 6.05 x 105 N/m2,
design temperature 200 °C.
Use a 10 bar rated flange

(h) design of the exchanger supports

ANS.
 saddle supports,
Diameter = 0.4 m,
length = 10 m
Shell and header,
volume of steel = 0.063 m3
Volume of shell head, take as flat, ( /4 x 0.42 x 3.5 x 10-3) = 0.0004 m3
Volume of floating head, take as flat = 0.0005 m 3
Volume of flat plate end cover = 0.0026 m3
Volume of tube-sheet = 0.0026 m3, ignoring the holes
Volume of tubes = 0.115 m3
Number of baffles = 77
Taking baffles as 3 mm thick and ignore the baffle cut,
Maximum load on supports = 16 + 12 = 28 kN

13.7. A jacketed vessel is to be used as a reactor. The vessel has an internal diameter of 2 m and is fitted with a
jacket over a straight section 1.5 m long. Both the vessel and jacket walls are 25 mm thick. The spacing between the
vessel and jacket is 75 mm. The vessel and jacket are made of carbon steel. The vessel will operate at atmospheric
pressure and the jacket will be supplied with steam at 20 bar. Check if the thickness of the vessel and jacket is
adequate for this duty. Take the allowable design stress as 100 N/mm2 and the value of Young’s modulus at the
operating temperature as 180,000 N/mm2.
ANS.
Jacket, required thickness, e = 21 mm ( the specified thickness of 25 mm should be OK,
with adequate margin of safety.)

13.9. A storage tank for concentrated nitric acid will be constructed from aluminium to resist corrosion. The tank is to
have an inside diameter of 6 m and a height of 17 m. The maximum liquid level in the tank will be at 16 m. Estimate
the plate thickness required at the base of the tank. Take the allowable design stress for aluminium as 90 N/mm2.
ANS.
e = 0.0114 m , Say 12 mm