Elevated Temperature and Reactive Ground Cop Edition 4

Australian Explosives Industry And Safety Group Inc.
Code of Practice
ELEVATED TEMPERATURE AND
REACTIVE GROUND
Edition 4
March 2017
About the AEISG
The Australian Explosives Industry and Safety Group (AEISG) is an incorporated association of Australasian explosives
manufacturers and suppliers originally formed in 1994. Since then, AEISG membership has grown and currently includes:
 Applied Explosives Technology Pty Ltd

 Davey Bickford Australia Pty Ltd
 Downer EDI Mining – Blasting Services Pty Ltd
 Dyno Nobel Asia Pacific Pty Limited
 Johnex Explosives
 Maxam Explosives (Australia) Pty Ltd
 Nitro Sibir Australia Pty Ltd
 Orica Australia Limited
 Platinum Blasting Services
 Redbull Powder Company Ltd
 Thales Australia
The goal of AEISG is to continuously improve the level of safety and security throughout our industry in the manufacture,
transport, storage, handling and use of explosives and related materials throughout Australasia.
One of the strategies adopted by AEISG in this regard is to identify areas where improved standards of operation need to be
consistently applied and then develop and issue appropriate codes of practice which capture industry best practice in these
areas.
AEISG codes of practice are adopted by members for the benefit of their employees, their customers and the general
community. They are also made available free of charge on the AEISG website, www.aeisg.org.au, for use by any interested
parties.
To keep abreast of technological advancements, industry progress and regulatory changes, AEISG Codes of Practice are
subject to regular review and updated through the issue of amendments or revised editions as necessary. It is important that
users ensure they are in possession of the latest edition and any amendments. References to superseded versions should be
updated accordingly.
Contact Details: [email protected]
Copyright © AEISG Inc. 2017

ISBN 978-1-921308-18-5
This document is subject to copyright. No parts of it should be reproduced without the written consent of AEISG Inc.
Disclaimer
AEISG Inc has taken reasonable care in the preparation of the information contained in this Code and believes it to be
accurate. However, AEISG Inc does not guarantee or warrant the accuracy, completeness or currency of the information
contained in this Code. As AEISG Inc cannot anticipate or control the conditions under which this information may be used,
each user should review the information in the specific context of the intended application. Under no circumstances will
AEISG Inc or any of its members be responsible for, or accept liability for, any loss, expense, cost or damage of any nature
resulting from the use of or reliance upon the information contained in this Code. To the fullest extent permitted by law,
AEISG Inc disclaims all warranties, whether express, implied, statutory or otherwise, in relation to the information contained
in this Code.
PREAMBLE
The use of explosives to break rock is an intrinsically hazardous process. These hazards have been studied
over the years and modern mining methods have evolved to minimise the inherent risks of blasting under
most conditions.
This Code has been developed to assist the safe use of explosives in situations where a specific additional
hazard may exist due to the possible unwanted reaction between an explosive and the rock being blasted.
In such situations the unwanted reactions may result in premature detonations with potentially fatal
results. The reactions can be caused by rock chemistry or temperature or a combination of both.
The purpose of this Code is to provide a scientific and objective basis for predicting the potential unwanted
explosive/rock reaction and to provide practical advice on preventive mechanisms available.
The information is provided in good faith and without warranty.

Australian Explosives Industry and Safety Group Inc
Contents
ABOUT THE AEISG ............................................................................................................................................ 3
PREAMBLE ....................................................................................................................................................... 5
SECTION 1 SCOPE AND DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................................ 8
1.1 SCOPE AND INTERPRETATION OF THE CODE ..................................................................................................... 8

1.2 DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................................................................. 8
1.3 LIST OF STANDARDS, AND REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 9
SECTION 2 REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS .................................................................................................. 11
SECTION 3 BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................................... 12
3.1 CASE HISTORIES ....................................................................................................................................... 12
SECTION 4 RISK ASSESSMENT – INDICATORS OF REACTIVE GROUND ......................................................... 15
SECTION 5 ELEVATED TEMPERATURE BLASTING......................................................................................... 16
5.1 PRINCIPLES FOR ELEVATED TEMPERATURE MANAGEMENT ............................................................................... 16

5.2 CAUSES OF ELEVATED TEMPERATURE GROUND .............................................................................................. 16
5.3 RISKS AND HAZARDS OF BLASTING IN ELEVATED TEMPERATURE GROUND ........................................................... 16
5.4 RISK MANAGEMENT THROUGH OPERATING PRACTICES ................................................................................... 16
5.4.1 Site Specific Operating Procedures ................................................................................................. 16
5.4.2 Training ........................................................................................................................................... 17
5.4.3 Sleep Time ....................................................................................................................................... 17
5.4.4 Hole Temperature Monitoring ........................................................................................................ 17
5.4.5 Hole Loading Sequence ................................................................................................................... 18
5.4.6 Occupational Health and Safety Considerations ............................................................................. 18
5.4.7 Delineation of Zones ....................................................................................................................... 18
5.4.8 Spillages .......................................................................................................................................... 18
5.5 RISK MANAGEMENT THROUGH PHYSICAL SEPARATION .................................................................................... 18
5.6 RISK MANAGEMENT THROUGH PRODUCT SELECTION ...................................................................................... 18
SECTION 6 REACTIVE GROUND BLASTING .................................................................................................. 19
6.1 PRINCIPLES FOR REACTIVE GROUND MANAGEMENT ....................................................................................... 19

6.2 CHEMISTRY OF REACTIVE GROUND .............................................................................................................. 19
6.3 RISKS AND HAZARDS – BLASTING IN REACTIVE GROUND .................................................................................. 20
6.4 RISK MANAGEMENT THROUGH OPERATING PRACTICES ................................................................................... 20
6.4.1 Site Specific Operating Procedures ................................................................................................. 20
6.4.2 Training ........................................................................................................................................... 20
6.4.3 Sleep Time ....................................................................................................................................... 21
6.4.4 Hole Temperature Monitoring ........................................................................................................ 21
6.4.5 Shot Design in Reactive Ground Blasting ........................................................................................ 21
6.4.6 Hole Loading Sequence ................................................................................................................... 21
6.4.7 Stemming Material ......................................................................................................................... 21
6.4.8 Product Spillage .............................................................................................................................. 22
6.4.9 Overfilling of Holes .......................................................................................................................... 22
6.4.10 Occupational Health and Safety Considerations ............................................................................. 22
6.4.11 Ongoing Review of Risk Assessment ............................................................................................... 22

6.4.12 Delineation of Zones ....................................................................................................................... 23
6.4.13 Emergency plans ............................................................................................................................. 23
6.5 RISK MANAGEMENT THROUGH PHYSICAL SEPARATION .................................................................................... 24
6.5.1 Blast Hole Liners .............................................................................................................................. 24
6.5.2 Packaged Explosives ....................................................................................................................... 24
6.6 RISK MANAGEMENT THROUGH EXPLOSIVE PRODUCT SELECTION ....................................................................... 25
SECTION 7 SAMPLING FOR REACTIVITY TESTING ........................................................................................ 26
7.1 SAMPLE SELECTION .................................................................................................................................. 26

7.2 HANDLING OF SAMPLES............................................................................................................................. 26
7.2.1 Sample Size ..................................................................................................................................... 26
7.2.2 Sample Identification ...................................................................................................................... 26
7.2.3 Sample Packaging ........................................................................................................................... 26
7.2.4 Sample Timing ................................................................................................................................ 27
7.3 SAMPLING FOR INITIAL SCREENING .............................................................................................................. 27
7.4 SAMPLING FOR ONGOING TESTING .............................................................................................................. 27
7.4.1 Existing site – No previous reactivity .............................................................................................. 27
7.4.2 Existing site – Reactive ground site ................................................................................................. 28
SECTION 8 REACTIVE GROUND TESTING AND PRODUCT SELECTION .......................................................... 29
8.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 29

8.2 REACTIVITY SCREENING ............................................................................................................................. 29
8.2.1 Isothermal Reactive Ground Test .................................................................................................... 29
8.2.2 Temperature Ramping Test ............................................................................................................ 30
8.3 PRODUCT SELECTION TEST ......................................................................................................................... 30
8.3.1 Sleep Time Testing .......................................................................................................................... 30
8.3.2 Additional Product Testing .............................................................................................................. 31
8.4 LARGE SCALE TESTING............................................................................................................................... 31
8.5 RECOMMENDED TESTING AGENCIES ............................................................................................................ 31
SECTION 9 ELEVATED TEMPERATURE AND REACTIVE GROUND BLASTING .............................................. 33
9.1 IMPLEMENTATION OF ELEVATED TEMPERATURE AND REACTIVE GROUND PRODUCTS ............................................ 33

9.2 SHOT DESIGN IN ELEVATED TEMPERATURE AND REACTIVE GROUND BLASTING .................................................... 33
SECTION 10 SELECTION OF ACCESSORIES ................................................................................................. 35
SECTION 11 PROCEDURES FOR MISFIRES & EXTENDING SLEEP TIME........................................................ 36
11.1 MISFIRES IN ELEVATED TEMPERATURE GROUND ............................................................................................ 36

11.2 MISFIRES IN REACTIVE GROUND.................................................................................................................. 36
11.3 EXTENDING SLEEP TIME IN HOT AND/OR REACTIVE GROUND............................................................................ 37
SECTION 12 MANAGEMENT OF PREMATURE REACTION/DETONATION EVENTS ...................................... 38
SECTION 13. ACTIVITY SEQUENCE – MANAGEMENT FLOWCHARTS ........................................................... 39
13.1 IDENTIfiCATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE RISK OF REACTIVITY AT GREEN FIELD SITES ................................................ 39
13.2 IDENTIfiCATION AND ANALYSIS FOR THE RISK OF REACTIVITY AT EXISTING SITES .................................................... 40
SECTION 14 TRAINING.............................................................................................................................. 41
Edition 4 March 2017 Code of Practice Elevated Temperature and Reactive Ground Page 6
APPENDICES................................................................................................................................................... 42
APPENDIX 1 TYPICAL REACTIVE GROUND INDICATOR RISK ASSESSMENT CHECKLIST ....................................................... 42

APPENDIX 2 BASIS FOR THE ISOTHERMAL TEST METHOD IN DETERMINING REACTIVE GROUND........................................ 43
APPENDIX 3 ISOTHERMAL REACTIVE GROUND TEST................................................................................................. 46
APPENDIX 4 BUCKET TEST FOR REACTIVE GROUND ................................................................................................. 53
APPENDIX 5 SAMPLE AUDIT GUIDELINES FOR THE INSPECTION OF LABORATORIES ......................................................... 55
APPENDIX 6 GROUND TEMPERATURE TESTING ....................................................................................................... 58
Section 1 Scope and Definitions

1.1 Scope and Interpretation of the Code
The aim of this Code is to enhance the safety of explosive suppliers and their customers when handling
explosives and charging in elevated temperature and/or reactive ground conditions.
The Code covers the following:
• Outlines the nature of elevated temperature and reactivity, and the current understanding on the
mechanisms of elevated temperature and reactive ground chemistry.
• Summarises the hazards and risks associated with blasting in elevated temperature and/or reactive
ground.
• Provides recommended risk assessment methods including sampling and testing for reactivity and
measuring elevated temperature conditions at new and existing sites
• Provides guidelines for the risk management of operations at elevated temperature and/or reactive
ground sites including blasting methods and systems.
• Provides guidelines for managing misfires and premature detonations in elevated temperature
and/or reactive ground.
The customer must establish whether there is elevated temperature and/or reactive ground, as detailed in
this Code, on their site. In so doing the customer may request assistance from its explosives supplier to
conduct appropriate risk assessments and to make recommendations as to the appropriate risk
management procedures for the handling of explosives to ensure the safety and well-being of all personnel
working on the site. The responsibility for implementing these procedures will always remain with the
customer, and an explosives supplier may withhold supply of product for use in situations where the risk
assessments undertaken based on the guidelines of this Code indicate that the risks are unacceptable. The
customer has the responsibility of disclosing to its explosives supplier any history or suspected history of
elevated temperature and/or reactive ground on the site, and must reveal any changes in geological
conditions that may indicate the presence of elevated temperature and/or reactive ground.
Should a customer carry out his own assessment of elevated temperature and/or reactive ground the
explosives supplier will always have the right to review this assessment or to carry out their own
assessment based on this Code, and decide whether there are appropriate controls in place by the
customer to ensure that the supply of explosive products can be made to an acceptable and agreed level
of risk. Explosives suppliers have a responsibility to ensure that employees are always offered a safe place
of work to carry out their defined duties.
It is the ‘duty of care’ of explosives suppliers to advise customers of the risks associated with elevated
temperature and/or reactive ground and to offer products appropriate to the site application. If the
customer chooses to operate contrary to this advice, explosives suppliers reserve the right to withdraw
their products and services. If a request is received from a regulator, the explosives supplier will inform the
regulator of sites that have elevated temperature and/or reactive ground conditions as assessed by this
Code.
1.2 Definitions
“Customer” – the person with direct management responsibility for the design of blasting practices in any
blasting situation including the selection of explosive products.
“Elevated temperature” – material that is above 55°C and includes both hot ground and high temperature
ground conditions as defined in AS2187.2-2006.
“Elevated temperature products” – explosive products that have been formulated and/or packaged and
tested to withstand a nominated higher than ambient temperature for a recommended period of time
before they will deteriorate or become unstable and possibly decompose violently or explode.
“High temperature ground” – High temperature blasting is defined as the blasting of material at 100°C or
greater [AS 2187.2-2006 – Section 12.7]
“Hot ground” – material shall be defined as hot if it’s temperature is 55°C or more but less than 100°C [AS
2187.2-2006 – Section 12.6.1]
“Inhibited product” – explosive product that chemically suppresses the reaction between nitrates and
sulphides.
“Reactive ground” – ground that undergoes a spontaneous exothermic reaction after it comes into contact
with nitrates. The reaction of concern involves the chemical oxidation of sulphides (usually of iron or
copper) by nitrates and the liberation of potentially large amounts of heat. The process is unpredictable
and can be so violent that it results in premature or unplanned initiation of explosives.
“Reactivity” – this term may be defined in two ways:
• The induction time for the sulphide/nitrate reaction in a constant temperature situation (i.e.
a short induction time indicates a higher level of reactivity); or
• The onset temperature for the sulphide/nitrate exotherm in a temperature ramping situation
(i.e. a lower onset temperature indicates a higher level of reactivity).
“Shall/should” - For the purpose of this Code ‘shall’ is understood as mandatory and the word ‘should’ is
advisory.
“Site Operator” – definition as for “Customer”.
“Sleep time” – the period of time that an explosive is left in a blast hole until it is fired. The time is measured
from the time of the beginning of loading until the time of firing.
“Start-up product” – explosive product that is produced in the change-over from manufacturing non-
reactive and reactive ground explosive products or precursors.
1.3 List of Standards, and References

In the development of this Code a number of relevant references were consulted and are listed. These
references may be useful to the reader in gaining a further understanding of the issues associated with the
use of explosives in elevated temperature and/or reactive ground situations.
*****
• AS 2187.2 – 2006 Explosives – Storage and Use. Part 2: Use of Explosives.
• AS/NZ ISO 31000:2009 – Risk Management – Principals and Guidelines.
*****
• P Bellairs, “Explosive Ground Reactivity Indicators And Strategies To Overcome This Phenomena”,
International Society Of Explosives Engineers, 1997
• M Littlefair, R Rounsley, F Beach, D Jazzini and G Pugh, “Reactive Ground and Ammonium Nitrate
Explosive Interactions”, Proceedings 5th Large Open Pit Conference 2003, p15-21.
• G M Lukaszewski, “The Reaction of ANFO Explosives with Mineral Sulfides”, Proc.Aust.Inst. Min.Met
228, December 1968, p61-70.
• B J Kennedy and N Tyson, “Blasting in Reactive Ground”, Proceedings EXPLO 2001, p55-61.
• Y Miron, T C Ruhe, R W Watson, “Reactivity of ANFO with Pyrite containing weathering products”,
US Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations 8373 (1979).
• Y. Miron, T C Ruhe and J E Hay, US Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations 8727 (1982).
• John Alfred Rumball, “The Interaction of Partially Weathered Sulphides in the Mt McRae Shale
Formation with Ammonium Nitrate”, PhD Thesis, Murdoch University, 1991
• D Tunaley, “An Emulsion explosive system for blasting in reactive volcanic conditions”, Proceedings
Fragblast 1999, South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, p313-319.
• Paul W Cooper, “Explosives Engineering”, Wiley-VCH, New York, 1996; p 303
• TJ Briggs, IJ Kelso, “Ammonium Nitrate-Sulfide Reactivity at the Century Zn-Pb-Ag Mine, Northwest
Queensland, Australia”, 2002
• JC Miller and JN Miller, “Statististics for Analytical Chemistry”, John Wiley and Sons, 1988
 P Priyananda, A M Djerdjev, J Gore, C Neto, J K Beattie, B S Hawkett, “Premature detonation of an
NH4NO3 emulsion in reactive ground”, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 283 (2015) 314 – 320.
SECTION 2 Regulatory Requirements

The Regulatory requirements for blasting in elevated temperature and/or reactive ground vary significantly
from state to state. Some guidance is given in Sections 12.7 to 12.9, AS2187.2 but this does not adequately
address how elevated temperature and reactive ground are determined and the precautions that need to
be taken in the use of explosives in such ground. This Code attempts to address these short comings.
SECTION 3 Background
When dealing with the issue of elevated temperature ground and reactive ground, there are four main
ground conditions that can apply:
Reactive Ground Reactive Ground

Ambient Temperature Elevated Temperature
Reactivity
Non-reactive Ground Non-reactive Ground

Ambient Temperature Elevated Temperature
Temperature
Within this Code, elevated temperature ground conditions will be covered first, followed by reactive
ground conditions. For the case of both elevated temperature and reactive ground conditions, the risks
associated with both conditions need to be considered during product selection and in determining
operational requirements.
3.1 Case Histories
There have been a number of incidents that have occurred across the mining industry that have been
associated with elevated temperature and/or reactive ground. Some examples are listed below:
Table 1 Examples of known incidents caused by elevated temperature and/or reactive ground
Date Location Type Details of Incident
2016 Indonesia H Melted Booster
2014 Indonesia HR Premature Detonation
2014 Qld, Australia U Post blast detonation
2014 Chile R Premature Detonation
2014 Canada H Mass Detonation
2014 Qld, Australia HR Melted Downlines
2013 Chile R Premature Detonation
2013 NSW, Australia H Premature Detonation
2013 Qld, Australia H Melted Downlines
2012 Russia R Unknown
2011 Mongolia HR Premature Detonation
2010 NSW, Australia HR Premature detonation
2010 South Africa H Mass Premature Detonation
2010 NSW, Australia H Smoking Holes
2009 China H Mass Premature Detonation
2009 Qld, Australia H Premature Detonation
2009 South Africa H Premature Detonation
2009 Russia R NOx fume emanating from blasthole soon after charging
2008 Mt Gordon R Two hole deflagration
2007 Donaldson Coal R Spillage fire
2007 Canada R Premature Detonation
2007 Russia R Premature Detonation
2006 Curragh H Premature Detonation
2006 NSW, Australia H Melted Downline
2006 Mexico R Premature Detonation (ANFO)
2005 Black Star HR Premature Detonation
2005 Moura H Melted Primer
2003 Ernest Henry R Melted lead lines (2 leads in one hole)
2003 Drayton H Detonating cord caught fire on bench surface
2002 Collinsville R Melted primer
2000 Parkes R Spillage fire
1998 Century R AN spillage fire
1998 Ok Tedi HR Drill cuttings caught fire
1998 Sons of Gwalia R Smoking holes
1998 Southern Cross R ANFO spillage fire
1998 Collinsville R A hole loaded with sawdust/ANFO detonated prematurely
1997 Minahasa U Premature detonation
1995 Saraji R Spillage reaction
1995 Collinsville R Holes containing emulsion (heavy ANFO) caught fire
1994 New Hope H Premature Detonation
1992 Mt Leyshon R Premature Detonation
1991 USA U Premature Detonation with ANFO
1990 Dominican Republic U Heavy ANFO caused burning and premature detonation
1989 Mt Lyell U Premature Detonation
1989 USA U Battle Mountain Gold – premature detonations with ANFO
1989/90 Faro, Canada U Premature detonation
1987 Mt Whaleback R Premature Detonation with ANFO (hole liner split)
1983 Mt Whaleback R A hole loaded with ANFO detonated prematurely
1968 Russia R Premature Detonation with AN explosives
1963/
Mount Isa R Premature Detonations with ANFO
64/65
Note: H = Elevated temperature ground only.

R = Reactive ground only.
HR = Elevated temperature AND reactive ground.
U = Information unavailable.
SECTION 4 Risk Assessment – Indicators of Reactive Ground

Due to the serious nature and high risk of unexpected detonations associated with the use of explosives in
elevated temperature and/or reactive ground there are a number of strong indicators that mine and quarry
operators (at both proposed and existing sites) should monitor. If any of these indicators are found then a
detailed risk assessment of the use of explosives on the sites shall be carried out (including sampling and
screen testing, refer to Sections 7 & 8) and, as the site develops, the reactive ground indicator risk
assessment shall be reviewed at least annually or when conditions change within the mine (e.g. geology,
mining methods, etc.) with due consideration given to all the indicators.
As well as historical data, indicators for the presence of reactive ground include: -
 the presence of sulphides;
 the presence of black sulphide bearing sediments;
 sulphides within mineralised rock;
 the presence of white or yellow salts on rock. This is an indication that oxidation is taking place;
 acidic conditions (generally resulting from oxidation) which may be indicated by the colour of run-
off water, usually yellow-red brown in colour;
 significant corrosion of rock bolts, safety meshing and fixed equipment associated with the mining
operation;
 the spontaneous combustion of overburden or waste rock/ore either in dumps or in the pit,
especially as it is exposed to the air;
 the acrid smell of sulphur dioxide caused by the naturally occurring sulphide oxidation reaction;
 elevated blast hole temperatures;
 elevated ground temperatures.
It should be noted that a change in explosive provider does not mitigate the need to conduct a thorough
review of past operations. Mine managers must notify the next explosives provider if the mine has been
identified as having reactive and/or elevated temperature ground.
SECTION 5 Elevated Temperature Blasting

5.1 Principles for Elevated Temperature Management
The preferred approach to elevated temperature ground management is to mitigate the risks highlighted
in the risk assessment process by quantifying the hazards and selecting the most appropriate mitigation
measures. This will be achieved through a combination of suitable procedures and product selection.
Elevated temperature may be caused by reactive ground, however this section deals with ground that is at
an elevated temperature but is NOT reactive.
5.2 Causes of Elevated Temperature Ground

Elevated temperature ground can exist due to one of the following conditions:
 geothermal heating – e.g. volcanic activity;
 geothermal gradients;
 burning coal seams;
 cement fills in stopes;
 thermal heating of ground surfaces by solar radiation.;
 sulphide oxidation – reactive ground is a special case of elevated temperature ground.
5.3 Risks and Hazards of Blasting in Elevated Temperature Ground

Elevated temperatures (i.e. temperatures above 55°C) will affect bulk, packaged and initiating explosives
products over time, increasing the rate of degradation and potential failure which may lead to a misfire or
an explosion.
Some of the major hazards associated with elevated temperature ground can be summarised as follows:
 exposure of operators to high temperatures;
 exposure of operators to toxic vapours;
 ignition of vapours associated with emulsion and ANFO type products;
 softening of plastic components of initiating products;
 melting and decomposition of bulk, packaged and initiating products;
 detonation following decomposition.
5.4 Risk Management through Operating Practices

Once a site has been identified as having elevated temperature ground conditions, the operating
procedures and on-bench practices need to be adjusted accordingly to minimise the hazards outlined
above. These should include:
5.4.1 Site Specific Operating Procedures

Site specific operating procedures need to be developed involving all key stakeholders based on a
risk assessment and including all appropriate control measures. Documented control and change
management procedures must be put in place to ensure all key stakeholders are formally notified
of any intention to change these procedures and agreement reached on the changes.
Areas to be included in site specific operating procedures include:

• training;
• sleep time;
• hole temperature monitoring;
• hole loading sequence;
• delineation of zones;
• product selection;
• spillages.
5.4.2 Training
The customer is responsible for ensuring that training in blasting in elevated temperature
procedures occurs. Training is to extend to all personnel operating on the bench or involved in the
management of these personnel. Training shall also include regular reassessment. (See also
Section 14.)
5.4.3 Sleep Time

The sleep time of products in elevated temperature ground shall be minimised to prevent
unnecessary heating of products, which may lead to product deterioration and a possible
unplanned event. Reference should be made to the Technical Data Sheet for the explosive
product, or to a technical representative of the explosives provider.
Note: Hole temperature is often linked with the recommended sleep times (the higher the
temperature, the shorter the sleep time).
5.4.4 Hole Temperature Monitoring

Hole temperature monitoring is a critical part of the risk management process for the following
reasons:
• it allows for hole-by-hole classification of temperature – not all holes may be hot and
hence different products may be suitable for different areas;
• identifies if hole temperature is changing with time;
• identifies holes with temperatures in excess of the allowable loading temperature, so
that they can be left uncharged or backfilled.
The temperature logging procedure, including the frequency of measurement, shall be recorded
in the site-specific procedures. Key principles for effective temperature logging include:
• selection of a measurement device with a suitable temperature range and a measuring
system suitable to the conditions (e.g. infra-red may not be effective in wet holes or
steaming holes);
• hole-by-hole logging;
• recording maximum hole temperature;
• frequency of measurement;
• recommendations on how to act on the temperature information.
Refer to appendix 6 for more information and a discussion of current measurement techniques.
5.4.5 Hole Loading Sequence

When working in elevated temperature areas, it is preferable that loading occurs near the
initiation point first (i.e. load in the sequence in which the blast will be fired). This is to allow the
pattern to be quickly tied in and fired in the event of a change in conditions (e.g. weather or
approaching maximum allowable sleep time). Where practical, allow for the hottest holes to be
loaded last.
5.4.6 Occupational Health and Safety Considerations

Areas of elevated temperature ground may lead to exposure of personnel to scalding from steam
or hot water. Toxic gas such as hydrogen sulphide and carbon monoxide may also be generated
under these conditions.
5.4.7 Delineation of Zones

Delineation of ground into elevated temperature and non-elevated temperature zones can occur
after multiple hole-by-hole temperature measurements. Delineation allows for the choice of
different explosive products, the setting of sleep time and if necessary the backfill of holes on a
hole-by-hole basis.
5.4.8 Spillages
During charging of blast holes there is a possibility that spilt explosives may react where benches
are at an elevated temperature. Procedures for minimising spillages of explosives need to be
developed and where possible spillages must be cleaned up immediately. The procedures should
also ensure that initiating systems do not come into contact with the spilt explosives as the
possible decomposition of the explosive may cause the initiation system to degrade or detonate.
5.5 Risk Management through Physical Separation

Generally, the use of physical separation to insulate explosives from elevated temperature ground is not
recommended. If this approach is taken then the associated risk assessment must take into account all
hazards and all likely failure modes to ensure that an appropriate level of safety is achieved and can be
maintained. (Note: Details in Section 6.5 should also be considered.)
5.6 Risk Management through Product Selection

Choice of bulk, packaged and initiating explosive product can be a particularly effective way of addressing
the risks associated with elevated temperatures. All products must be used in applications stated as per
their Technical Data Sheets which shall indicate whether or not products are suitable in elevated
temperature applications.
Where a site is known to have elevated temperature ground conditions, the following products may be
suitable for use:
• bulk products – these need to be formulated to withstand elevated temperatures; and
• initiating and packaged products – these need to be formulated and/or packaged to withstand
elevated temperatures.
SECTION 6 Reactive Ground Blasting

6.1 Principles for Reactive Ground Management
Reactive ground is a condition specific to individual sites. Case histories (see Section 3.1) indicate that in
the past this type of condition has only been identified following an incident. The preferred approach to
reactive ground management is to be as pro-active as possible, by identifying and minimising the
recognised risks rather than responding post incident. It is not possible to completely eliminate all risks as
it is not possible to account for the characteristics of every section of rock. However, there are risk
management approaches that can be and have been successfully adopted that provide acceptable safety
margins thus preventing incidents occurring. This Section of the Code covers a number of recommended
risk management approaches.
6.2 Chemistry of Reactive Ground

The reaction of nitrates with sulphide containing minerals is an auto-catalysed process that can, after some
induction time, lead to a runaway exothermic decomposition even if the starting temperature of the
mixture is ambient. Typical nitrates used in the explosives industry include (but are not limited to)
ammonium nitrate, calcium nitrate and sodium nitrate. The reaction scheme developed over the last 30
years of research by groups such as the US Bureau of Mines (USBM) and others is described in a simplified
form below (reference - John Rumball’s thesis, “The Interaction of Partially Weathered Sulphides in the Mt
McRae Shale Formation with Ammonium Nitrate”).
Natural oxidative weathering of iron sulphides such as pyrites by atmospheric oxygen and microbes,
generate solutions of ferrous ions and acid. This process occurs whenever the sulphides are exposed to air
along cracks, in drilled holes, in the muck pile after blasting, on pit walls and in old stopes. No nitrates are
required for this to occur.
Iron Sulphides + Oxygen + Water  Ferrous Ions + Sulphuric Acid
This reaction is exothermic and can lead to hot blast holes for particularly reactive ores. This temperature
increase can be minimal or as much as several hundred degrees.
On contact with ammonium nitrate, the ferrous and acid species from weathering can begin to catalyse
the breakdown of nitrate. The breakdown process is auto-catalytic in that it generates its own catalysts as
it proceeds.
Nitrates + Iron Sulphides + Ferrous Ions + Sulphuric Acid  Nitric Oxide + Ferric Ions + HEAT
The nitric oxide and ferric ions produced in this stage react with more pyrites, generating more ferrous ions
and sulphuric acid.
Iron Sulphides + Nitric Oxide + Ferric Ions  Ferrous Ions + Sulphuric Acid
Although these reactions are exothermic, their rate may be initially so slow that little or no temperature
rise is detectable. This is due to the time taken for the concentration of the catalytic species to build up to
some critical level. The time taken for this to occur is often referred to as the induction period. When
sufficient catalysing species have built up, the reaction rate increases sharply and the heat generated
causes the temperature to become so high that a rapid, potentially violent decomposition of the remaining
ammonium nitrate is inevitable.
Nitrates + Fuels (sulphides, diesel etc) + Heat  EXPLOSION
Reactive ground incidents have occurred at many sites which had previously operated for considerable
periods of time loading uninhibited product. For this reason, a history of loading uninhibited products
without incident is not a valid control for use as a basis for safety for blasting safely in reactive or potentially
reactive ground.
6.3 Risks and Hazards – Blasting in Reactive Ground

The hazards associated with blasting reactive ground can be summarised as follows:
• sudden violent decomposition of nitrates;
• evolution of toxic NOx and SOx fumes;
• unexpected detonation of detonators due to the heat generated;
• mass detonations:
- deflagration-to-detonation in single holes (heat generated causes the contents of the hole
to catch fire and then to detonate);
- communication to other holes via initiating systems
6.4 Risk Management through Operating Practices

Once a site has been identified as having reactive ground conditions, the operating procedures and on-
bench practices need to be adjusted accordingly to minimise the risks outlined in Section 6.3. These should
include the issues outlined hereunder.
6.4.1 Site Specific Operating Procedures

The customer is responsible for ensuring that site specific operating procedures are developed
involving all key stakeholders. Appropriate document control procedures shall be put in place to
ensure all key stakeholders are formally notified of any intention to change the procedures and
agreement is reached on these changes. Areas to be included in site specific operating procedures
may include:
• training;
• sleep time;
• hole temperature monitoring;
• shot design in reactive ground blasting;
• hole loading sequence;
• stemming material;
• product spillage;
• overfilling of holes;
• occupational health and safety considerations;
• ongoing review of risk assessment;
• delineation of zones;
 emergency plan (or specific inclusion for reactive ground in general site emergency
plan).
6.4.2 Training
The customer is responsible for ensuring that training in reactive ground blasting procedures
occurs. Training is to extend to all personnel operating on the bench or involved in the
management of these personnel. Training shall also include regular reassessment. (See also
Section 14.)
6.4.3 Sleep Time

The sleep time of product in reactive ground should be kept to a minimum to reduce the exposure
time of nitrate based products in potentially reactive material. The maximum sleep time is
determined by the explosives supplier based on testing of site specific reactive ground to ensure
suitable inhibition time is achieved. (See also Section 8.3.)
6.4.4 Hole Temperature Monitoring

In reactive ground, there is a risk that after drilling holes, the hole temperature may rise above
ambient conditions due to oxidation of the ground material with air. It is important to monitor
hole temperatures to confirm that the ground does not rise above a temperature in which the
selected product is appropriate for use in both elevated temperatures and reactivity conditions.
Where it can be shown, through an extensive measurement campaign, that in hole temperatures
in reactive ground do not exceed those considered ambient, it may not be necessary to monitor
hole temperature on an ongoing basis. However areas may heat over the lifetime of the mine,
therefore campaign testing and ongoing review and risk assessment of the site temperature
monitoring procedures should be carried out. The requirement for monitoring of hole
temperature (or not) shall be specified in site specific procedures. These procedures may specify
suitable methods for rapid detection of hot holes, such as thermocouples, IR guns and/or thermal
imaging equipment however the procedures shall ensure that the maximum temperatures are
recorded. The equipment used shall be tested for accuracy prior to use. Note – Equipment
suitability must be considered, for example, IR guns cannot be used for holes that contain water.
Refer to appendix 6 for more information and a discussion of temperature measurement
techniques.
6.4.5 Shot Design in Reactive Ground Blasting

When blasting in reactive ground, consideration must be given to designing shots to minimise the
risk of hole dislocation during blasting, i.e. maximise the use of free face where possible and avoid
box cut type designs. Hole dislocation can potentially lead to misfires or bulk product remaining
in the ground for longer than the recommended sleep time.
If decked shots are required in reactive ground areas, an additional risk assessment should be
completed to identify any additional risks (potential for increased dislocation of charges) with the
appropriate risk mitigation being put in place prior to the shot. Consideration should also be given
to plans to dig out misfires within the recommended sleep time of the product.
6.4.6 Hole Loading Sequence

When working in reactive ground areas, it is preferable that loading occur near the initiation point
first (i.e. load in the sequence in which the blast will be fired). This is to allow the pattern to be
quickly tied in and fired in the event of a change in conditions (e.g. weather, approaching
maximum allowable sleep time, or signs of reaction).
6.4.7 Stemming Material

When blasting in reactive ground applications it is highly recommended that stemming is carried
out with non-reactive materials. In particular stemming with drill cuttings is to be avoided. This is
because the fine particle sizes associated with drill cuttings maximises the surface area available
for contact with the explosives resulting in an increased likelihood of reaction.
It is a well established principle that increasing the surface area of contact between two potentially
reactive materials significantly increases the probability and rate of reaction.
6.4.8 Product Spillage

At all times the spillage of explosives on the bench should be minimised and eliminated if possible.
This is due to the possible interaction of the explosive and potential or proven reactive surface
rock/drill cuttings.
6.4.9 Overfilling of Holes

At all times the overloading of holes in reactive ground should be avoided. To prevent overloaded
holes, ensure loading takes place with enough manning to have someone dipping holes while
loading. An overloaded hole should not be washed out.
6.4.10 Occupational Health and Safety Considerations

Areas of reactive ground may generate sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid which may affect people
operating in the area as well as process equipment. Site specific procedures need to include
guidelines for:
• evacuation procedures when sulphur dioxide reaches a critical limit;
• personnel to wear appropriate gas monitoring equipment and breathing apparatus
when necessary.
6.4.11 Ongoing Review of Risk Assessment

Sites shall be assessed for indicators of reactive ground annually or when any of the following
changes occur:
• changes in geology – e.g. different levels of sulphides;
• changes to blasting practices – e.g. sleep time requirements;
• changes in explosive product;
• changes in explosives provider;
• change in the degree of oxidation/reaction.
Reactive ground sampling and testing shall be conducted from those areas which show indicators
of reactivity, to ensure the following:
• ground conditions at the site are monitored to understand ongoing conditions as
production moves into different areas – this applies to both known reactive ground
areas and also areas that have not been classified as such;
• for reactive ground sites, to determine product selection appropriate to the current
level of reactivity in order to reduce the risk of a reaction;
• to increase understanding of the critical areas of reactivity on the site or to uncover
reactivity in areas that have not previously been identified.
Refer to Section 8 for frequency of ongoing reactive ground testing based on the risk profile of the
site.
6.4.12 Delineation of Zones

Delineation of a site into reactive and non-reactive ground shall only occur after significant
research into the nature and extent of reactivity has been carried out. In some cases it may not be
possible to delineate and the entire site should be classified as reactive.
Delineation requires close cooperation between those with geotechnical expertise and explosive
providers based on reactive ground sampling and testing.
Delineation of a site should not occur if there are no clear indicators as to what ground is reactive
and what is not. This particularly applies to so called ‘vertical delineation’ of mines, or sections of
mines. In addition to risks identified with delineation, knowing when operations are entering or
approaching the transition zone (oxidised to partially oxidised sulphides) as the mining progresses
is very important. Another potential risk could be associated with the leaking of dissolved nitrates
through the ground from the shot above into the reactive area below.
Consideration should be given to the possible sources of contamination of reactive material to
non reactive areas and ensure suitable controls are in place.
Delineation may be possible if there are:
• clear zones of geological type;
• clear zones based on sulphide levels;
• drill cuttings that are geologically logged for the presence of sulphides and a procedure
is in place for utilising this information to determine what product is to be loaded into
the reactive and non reactive holes;
If delineation is established across a site appropriate buffer zones between reactive and non-
reactive areas must be established and rigorously managed. Procedures for the loading of
explosives into the two areas needs to be developed, and must include a detailed emergency
action plan should uninhibited product be loaded into reactive ground.
Communication procedures should be developed to ensure all departments and contractors
involved in the drill and blast process on a delineated site have clear lines of communication to
ensure the correct product is loaded into reactive ground.
Products should be easily identifiable to reduce the risk of loading uninhibited product into
reactive ground.
6.4.13 Emergency plans

It is recommended that reactive ground sites have a reactive ground emergency plan, or include
the management of reactive ground incidents as a part of their site emergency plan.
The emergency plan should include controls to manage misfires and premature
reaction/detonation events in reactive ground, with further information found in Sections 11 and
12 respectively.
Additionally, for sites that load both inhibited and uninhibited products, it is recommended to have
a procedure in place should uninhibited (or insufficiently inhibited) product be loaded into reactive
ground. This may include washing bulk products out immediately, tying in the shot immediately
to be fired, or removal of the product.
6.5 Risk Management through Physical Separation

Barriers which prevent explosive products coming into contact with reactive ground have been used in the
past for reactive ground applications. Such barriers include the use of blast hole liners for bulk explosives
and the use of cartridge explosives. However, for reactive ground applications, the use of blast-hole liners
(with uninhibited bulk explosives) and uninhibited packaged products should be discouraged. The use of
barriers is not industry ‘best practice’ and has led to unacceptable incidents of uninhibited products being
exposed to reactive ground at an extremely high risk.
6.5.1 Blast Hole Liners

Blast hole liners may prevent uninhibited bulk explosives coming into contact with reactive ground
but have severe limitations which may impose a significant increase in risk, such as:
• Liners may split exposing uninhibited product to reactive ground;
• Overall strength and suitability of the liners may not be applicable for all conditions or
to changes in conditions that may occur (e.g. variations in temperature with time) on
the bench to which they are being subjected;
• Liners do not prevent material that is spilt on the bench from reacting;
• Bulk explosives may be spilt down the side of the liner potentially allowing uninhibited
product to contact reactive ground;
• If a primer misfires damaging the liner but leaving bulk product unfired, uninhibited
product would be left to potentially react;
• Loading times may increase due to handling issues associated with liners on the bench.
Using liners and standard uninhibited explosive products, and assessing the associated increased
risks at a particular site will be a decision that the site operator will need to determine through
risk assessment.
6.5.2 Packaged Explosives

The use of packaged explosive products where the outer casing (e.g. plastic, paper or cardboard)
acts as a physical barrier is also an option. The outer casing may prevent the explosive content
coming into contact with reactive ground but like blast hole liners have limitations such as:
• Generally only suitable for small blasts as costs may become prohibitive;
• The loading of packaged product may involve the splitting of the casing (for the
insertion of the initiators or damaged during charging) which will compromise the layer
of protection;
• The outer casing may not be ground water or tear resistant leading to the casing being
breached;
• Damaged or misfired cartridges could be left in the muck pile with the potential to
react.
The use of uninhibited packaged explosive products and assessing the associated increased risks
at a particular site will be a decision that the site operator will need to determine through risk
assessment.
6.6 Risk Management through Explosive Product Selection

The use of suitably inhibited products has been shown to be the most effective method of addressing the
risks associated with reactive ground. All explosive products must be used in applications stated as per
their Technical Data Sheets and through compatibility testing with the ground in question (see Section 8
for further details). Explosives providers shall indicate in Technical Data Sheets whether or not explosives
products are suitable in reactive ground applications.
Where reactive ground conditions exist within a site, the following products may be suitable for use:
• bulk products – inhibited products with recommended sleep times based on compatibility testing
with reactive ground;
• initiating products – products suitable for reactive applications;
• packaged products – inhibited products with recommended sleep times based on compatibility
testing with reactive ground.
Following explosive product selection, and during loading, the use of “start-up” and “clean out” product
shall be carefully monitored. This start-up and clean out product should be loaded into non-reactive blast
holes wherever possible. Alternately, the product should be manufactured into a bucket for later disposal
as active stemming in non-reactive blast holes. In situations where this is not possible, then the product
should be manufactured in an emulsion-rich state by the MPU operator.
Variation in explosive product selection should also be considered in the event of having to extend sleep
time beyond current limits. For example, when machine breakdown occurs on bench or in an electrical
storm. A higher emulsion content product will have more inhibitor (if the inhibitor is contained within the
emulsion), and therefore a greater safety margin.
SECTION 7 Sampling for Reactivity Testing

7.1 Sample Selection
Reactivity sampling and testing is a crucial component of reactive ground management. It must be noted
that it is rarely possible to statistically take enough rock samples to fully characterise the geology and hence
the reactivity of a site. Testing, and in particular screening for reactivity, needs to be targeted to analyse
the rocks containing sulphides in order to identify the “worst case” reactive rock samples and hence to
minimise the risk of incidents. Other indicators listed in Section 4 may be used to identify the most likely
locations from where rock samples should be taken.
The role of geotechnologists (e.g. site and consulting geologists) is essential for the identification of samples
with a high potential for reactivity. Where possible, the expertise of site geotechnologists shall be
employed and geological knowledge (targeting sulphides) shall be used to implement safety margins and
to compensate for the limited numbers of representative samples. The sampling method requires selection
of “worst-case” samples present on the site at that point in time
Samples should be taken so that their exact location is known. Samples picked from a wall or drill core
samples are the most useful for screening purposes. Samples picked up from the floor may have fallen from
a much higher point or been moved from a different location and hence are less useful when it comes to
identifying risk zones. Drill cuttings can result in “diluted” rock samples and allow for some oxidation to
occur before testing – hence the best samples are whole rocks from known locations.
7.2 Handling of Samples

In order to obtain accurate results, testing shall occur just prior to explosive supply commencing using fresh
samples (i.e. newly exposed rock rather than old core drill samples). This is to ensure that the effects of
oxidation do not “hide” potentially reactive samples.
7.2.1 Sample Size

Sample size should be appropriate for the testing that is to be carried out. For standard laboratory
scale screen testing or verification work, a minimum of 0.5kg with the maximum rock size
approximately “fist-size” (i.e. 50mm diameter).
7.2.2 Sample Identification

To ensure the traceability of samples back to their location on the site, records are to be kept of
sample identifications, collection points and date of collection.
7.2.3 Sample Packaging

The following considerations shall be made when packaging:
• packaging can easily be linked with a sample (e.g. indelible markings);
• packaging is to be robust enough to prevent rupture (and potential mixing) of samples;
• where it is not possible to collect whole rock samples (e.g. when only rock chips or drill
cuttings are available), samples are to be taken immediately after drilling and stored in
sealed plastic bags to minimise oxidation through exposure to oxygen (vacuum sealing is
preferred where available).
7.2.4 Sample Timing

Allow a suitable time between the collection of samples and the time frame in which the area is
to be blasted. A suitable time may vary depending upon the explosives provider and the length of
sleep time test required. However, 3 months would generally be a reasonable time.
7.3 Sampling for Initial Screening

A “green field” site refers to the following scenarios:
• new site that has never been excavated;
• excavation commencing in a new development on an existing site;
• excavation commencing in an area of untested geology;
• where this Code has not been applied.
Before site development commences a risk assessment of the site should be carried out based on Section
4. If no indicators are present then it may be assumed that the site is non-reactive.
If the risk assessment indicates the likelihood of reactive ground, the ground shall be tested for reactivity
as per the Isothermal Reactive Ground Test. The role of site geotechnologists is essential when identifying
high potential samples that characterise the most potentially reactive ground. At this initial stage, sulphide
analysis can be used to target areas (as a minimum) to eliminate the need to take samples from areas that
contain no sulphides.
The minimum recommended number of samples selected and collected for testing is 12. The most suitable
number is difficult to quantify but they should be a well-chosen set of samples (i.e. obtained with assistance
from geotechnologists), following a documented risk assessment procedure. Best practice is to take
samples from each region of the site and from each strata within that region that contain sulphides. If the
sulphide content is unknown, then samples must be taken.
Refer to Flowchart in Section 13 for further information.
7.4 Sampling for Ongoing Testing

Periodic testing at a known reactive ground site is an important part of the reactive ground risk
management process for the following reasons:
• to clarify the extent of reactivity at a known reactive site;
• to confirm that the level of chemical inhibitor used at the site remains sufficient to continue to
inhibit a reaction within the recommended site sleep times;
• to allow for extensions of sleep time to meet the needs of the customer;
• to assess whether changes in raw material sourcing effects the ongoing suitability of the
explosive product for the established conditions.
7.4.1 Existing site – No previous reactivity

Even if sites have shown no previous signs of reactivity, ongoing testing shall continue on a regular
basis according to the risk profile of the site (if there is no major excursion from the initial risk
assessment, then retesting may not be required). The level of ongoing testing, based on the risk
profile, may need to be agreed between the site operator and the explosive supplier.
Site geologists shall initiate retesting if entering a “green field” zone or an area that is yet to be
blasted and contains geology that has not been tested for reactivity. Retesting, however, is not
required if the indicators as detailed in Section 4 are absent from the geology of the specific
zone/area.
The minimum recommended number of samples is 12. Samples are to be selected based on
records of core sampling and mineral analysis or ore body mapping.
7.4.2 Existing site – Reactive ground site

For sites that have shown evidence of reactivity (through either incidents or positive reactive
ground testing results), a suitable ongoing sampling program shall be set up and included in site
operating procedures. At a minimum, retesting shall occur every 12 months. A qualified site
geologist shall select at least 12 samples in order to try and obtain the most reactive samples.
The aim of this testing is to ensure that the recommended products are still sufficient to prevent
a reaction and hence maintain the basis of safety.
Table 2 Frequency of Sampling Summary – Based on a Risk Profile of the Site
Type of Site or Scenario Frequency of Testing No. of Samples
Screening at “Green Field” sites: Before commencing Recommended minimum of

development in the new 12.
• New site that has never been
area.
excavated. (Number of samples to be
determined between
• Excavation commencing in a new
explosives provider and
development on an existing site.
customer).
• Blasting commencing in an area of
Best practice is to take
untested geology (identified by on-site
samples from each region
geology).
of the site and from each
• Where this Code has not been strata within that region
applied. that contain sulphides
Ongoing testing at: Annual testing. Minimum of 12.

• Non-Reactive sites (non- inhibited
products in use).
• Reactive ground sites (inhibited
products in use, no change in
geology).
Ongoing testing at: Testing required prior to Minimum of 12.

blasting in area
• Reactive ground sites (inhibited
products in use, change in geology).
SECTION 8 Reactive Ground Testing and Product Selection

8.1 Introduction
In order to identify reactive ground and to determine the effectiveness of inhibited product in preventing
reactions, laboratory scale test methods have been developed. There are two separate steps that need to
be considered when discussing testing procedures:
• Reactivity Screening – this test method is used to identify whether ground samples are reactive
toward ammonium nitrate;
• Product Selection Testing – this test method is used to confirm whether an inhibited product is
suitable for a specific reactive application.
It may also be appropriate on some sites to carry out additional large scale testing for reactivity and to
ensure the ongoing suitability of selected bulk explosive products for use in reactive ground. This form of
testing should not be used as a replacement for the laboratory Isothermal Reactive Ground Test, however,
it may give customers the opportunity to carry out their own evaluations of products under local site
conditions.
The procedure for Reactive Ground Testing and Product Selection is detailed in the Isothermal Test Method
in Appendix 3.
8.2 Reactivity Screening

Reactivity Screening is laboratory testing used to determine if the site samples, specifically selected as per
section 7, react with ammonium nitrate and consequently have the potential to react with ammonium
nitrate based explosives. The samples which are shown to be reactive are then used in determining the
suitability of explosive products to be used within the ground.
8.2.1 Isothermal Reactive Ground Test

The Isothermal Reactive Ground Test has been developed for use in screening reactive samples
and for carrying out sleep time analysis. “Standard” test conditions are used when blasting is to
occur in normal temperature ground (i.e. <55°C). However, if the risk assessment indicates that a
higher temperature may be experienced, then the highest nominated loading temperature should
be adopted as the minimum standard temperature for that site, and consequently isothermal
testing will occur at this temperature.
A summary of the test steps is outlined below with the detailed test procedures given in Appendix
3.
• Rock samples are crushed to a fine powder.
• The rock powder is then mixed with chemically pure ammonium nitrate and a solution
to simulate the by-products of sulphide rock weathering.
• The mixture is heated to and kept at 55°C ± 2°C, (for non-elevated temperature ground
sites) the adopted standard temperature, and monitored for exothermic reactions. For
elevated temperature ground sites, the test is performed at a temperature no lower
than the maximum recorded in-hole temperature based on temperature logging and
historical data, or no lower than the maximum nominated temperature limit at the site.
• If exceptionally long sleep times are required in specialised blasting applications, a
detailed risk assessment should be conducted by the site operator and the explosives
supplier. It may also be appropriate to use a Temperature Ramping Test (see Section
8.2.2)
• The mixture is monitored for any visual reactions (such as colour change or signs of
chemical reactions such as gas liberation) and reactivity is identified by a change in
temperature, detected using thermocouples with continuous temperature logging.
• This test method is capable of picking up exotherms of 1°C and greater that are above
the background temperature. Samples that exhibit an exotherm of 2°C or more are
classified as reactive and require further investigation.
A reactive response is identified by an increase in temperature from the base line test
temperature. As outlined in the definitions (Section 1.2), the “reactivity” of a sample or the ease
at which a sulphide/nitrate reaction occurs is related to the induction time. For example, a series
of samples can be ranked as “most reactive” to “least reactive” under the same test conditions
according to the time taken to react with the “most reactive” sample reacting first. The “intensity”
of a reaction is related to the size of the exotherm and does not relate to the induction time.
8.2.2 Temperature Ramping Test

The Temperature Ramping Test may be a useful test for efficiently identifying samples which could
be reactive from a large number of samples.
Sample preparation is as for the “Isothermal Reactive Ground Test”. Testing is carried out by
subjecting the prepared sample to a linear temperature increase over time until a reaction occurs.
Samples which exhibit exothermic reactions at temperatures below the normal decomposition
temperature of ammonium nitrate would be considered reactive. While this test does not give a
direct measure of induction time, samples can at least be ranked according to the onset
temperature of the exothermic reaction (the most reactive samples having the lowest onset
temperature). The most reactive samples can then be checked for induction time in the isothermal
test.
A detailed test method for the Temperature Ramping Test is not provided in this Code as the Test
is not widely used. The details of any proposed Ramping Test Method and the intended
interpretation of results would need to be agreed before it can be adopted into the Code.
8.3 Product Selection Test

The results from the reactivity screening tests indicate which rock samples are classified as reactive. The
reactive samples are retested against the intended explosive to be used in the ground. This must be done
to determine the most appropriate formulation and sleep time.
The “Isothermal Reactive Ground Test” is repeated replacing the ammonium nitrate with the inhibited
explosive. A range of products may need to be assessed to determine which one is suitable for use in the
reactive ground so that adequate sleep time is achieved. Each explosive provider will use their own
methods (formulation, ingredient selection and inhibitor levels) of ensuring that their products are suitable
for the reactivity conditions under investigation.
8.3.1 Sleep Time Testing

Sleep time testing is used to determine the maximum sleep time which may be used for the
selected product. Sleep time testing involves testing reactive ground with inhibited product using
the “Isothermal Reactive Ground Test” for a period equivalent to four times the required product
sleep time, up to a maximum test period of 28 days.
For existing reactive ground sites, the maximum recommended sleep time in reactive ground is
one week (i.e. laboratory test for 28 days). Beyond this period, a risk assessment involving the
explosives provider and the customer should be carried out and documented, and consequently
extended laboratory sleep time testing may be appropriate. There may be a requirement to advise
the outcome of the risk assessment to the appropriate regulator.
8.3.2 Additional Product Testing

As well as using the “Isothermal Reactive Ground Test” for product selection with an appropriate
sleep time, additional product testing must be carried out should any of the following changes
occur:
• use of a new or different bulk explosive product especially from a new supplier;
• raw material sourcing or significant formulation changes of the existing explosive
product;
• increases in the required product sleep times;
• changes to site geology;
• changes in ground temperatures.
8.4 Large Scale Testing

For some sites and as part of ongoing reactive ground management, testing in the form of the on bench
bucket tests may be appropriate. In the bucket test several kilograms of crushed ground are combined
with the inhibited product and left on bench for an extended period. Details of the test are given in
Appendix 4.
Large scale methods are not as sensitive as the isothermal test and should not be used as a substitute for
the isothermal test, however they can be used to provide supplementary information.
Some benefits of completing the Bucket Test may include:
• enables the on-site testing with fresh ground samples from known locations and with site
manufactured explosive products;
• testing is visible to the site operator;
The bucket test, using ANFO, if carried out regularly, may be used as a method of monitoring the ongoing
“reactivity” across a site, but this should not be used to replace the isothermal test.
The bucket test only detects when the reaction progresses to the final stage of the auto-catalytic reaction.
It does not detect reactions that (for whatever reason) do not progress to the final stage of reaction, but
could still potentially result in a premature detonation in-situ.
8.5 Recommended Testing Agencies

The test methods outlined above for screening potentially reactive samples and selecting suitable inhibited
products should be carried out by the following groups:
• explosives providers with the appropriate laboratories and trained personnel;
• site and independent laboratories with the appropriate equipment and trained personnel.
All testing laboratories must ensure compliance with the relevant explosive regulations. The performance
of laboratories must be assessed at least annually to ensure compliance with this Code.
Assessment of compliance for laboratories conducting the Product Selection testing should be through self-
assessment by the explosives provider using appropriately-trained and experienced personnel. Explosives
providers shall also conduct assessments of any site or independent laboratory that is conducting reactivity
testing for customers utilising that explosive provider’s products. Records of the assessments shall be
retained indefinitely by both the assessors and the laboratories.
A recommended guideline for the assessment of laboratories for operation in accordance with this Code is
contained in Appendix 5.
Within the laboratory, appropriate precautions must be in place to ensure the safety and security of
ammonium nitrate and explosives at all times. In some jurisdictions the laboratory may need to be
approved and licensed to handle ammonium nitrate and explosives by the relevant statutory authority.
SECTION 9 Elevated Temperature and Reactive Ground Blasting

Where a site is known to have both elevated temperature and reactive ground conditions, explosives
products that are suitable for withstanding the elevated temperature conditions in addition to the level of
reactivity shall be used. All the precautions as detailed in Sections 5, 6, 7 and 8 of the Code must be applied.
Greater vigilance in determining the “reactivity” of the ground is required due to the high ground
temperatures promoting the nitrate/sulphide reaction.
9.1 Implementation of Elevated Temperature and Reactive Ground Products

Typically when the performance requirements for reactive ground products are being defined, the focus is
on sleep time limitations. Consequently, other aspects of the full life cycle of the product may not be fully
considered, right from the ground being dug through to loading the holes and including the consideration
of misfires. Therefore, current blasting practices at site need to be risk assessed across the full reactive
ground life cycle. Moreover, during product implementation, risk assessments should place greater
emphasis on potential controls if delays, such as misfires, impose extended sleep times beyond established
limits. The risk assessments should include multidisciplinary input from both the site and the explosives
supplier, including: shotfiring, technical service, geology, engineering, and explosive product specialists.
Training programs covering the signs of a reactive ground event for personnel involved with managing any
misfires should also be developed and conducted on a regular basis (reviewed yearly).
9.2 Shot Design in Elevated Temperature and Reactive Ground Blasting

When blasting in reactive ground consideration must be given to designing shots to minimise the risk of
hole dislocation during blasting, i.e. maximise the use of free face where possible and avoid Box Cut type
designs. Hole dislocation can potentially lead to misfires or bulk product remaining in the ground for longer
than the recommended sleep time.
If decked shots are required in reactive ground areas, an additional risk assessment should be completed
with the assistance of specialists from the explosives supplier. When blasting decked shots in reactive
ground, consideration should be given to the use of electronic initiating systems to lower the risk of hole
dislocation or misfires.
Prior to the shot, consideration should also be given to plans to dig out misfires within the recommended
sleep time of the product should upset conditions occur.
9.3 Delineation by temperature

Where there is a risk of elevated temperatures on a site, blasthole temperature shall be measured with an
instrument suitable for the specified temperature range and placed in the blasthole for a sufficient length
of time to give a stable reading.
The temperature should be measured along the length of the blasthole with the highest temperature
measured allocated to the blasthole. When hot material is indicated in any blasthole, the temperature of
all the holes in the material to be blasted shall be measured within 24 hours of the beginning of the shift
in which charging commences.
Hole temperatures should not be measured less than 2 hours after drilling, breakthrough holes shall be
sealed for 4 hours prior to taking the measurement. [AS 2187.2 pg. 57].
If sufficient hole by hole temperature data is available, ground can be delineated by temperature bands
relevant to the temperature and sleep time properties of the explosive system (bulk product and initiating
systems) used.
The risk assessment for the shot should include the following points at the maximum nominated
temperature of the delineated range:
 Appropriate reactive ground testing
 Recommended sleep times of all components of the blasting system
(Detonators/boosters/downlines/surface delays/Bulk Products)
 A process to ensure temperatures do not exceed the nominated temperature over the duration of
the sleep time.
 Buffer zones between holes that exceed the nominated temperature
 Procedures to identify and prevent loading of holes that exceed the blasting system limit
Blast hole temperature can vary over time. Strategies such as temperature trending, where the blasthole
temperature measurement is repeated over time with the temperature trend extrapolated to estimate
the maximum temperature over a short sleep time, can be considered. Where temperatures are
increasing over time particular care should be taken.
SECTION 10 Selection of Accessories

Initiating explosives used in elevated temperature and/or reactive ground conditions must be compatible
with the high explosives they are to be used with and the environment in which they are to be used.
Relevant technical data sheets should be consulted and the suitability or otherwise of the initiating
explosives discussed with the supplier.
As a guide most commonly used initiating systems like detonators and Pentolite boosters may be used at
temperatures up to 70°C. For initiating systems above these temperatures consult your explosives supplier.
Explosive Melting Point
HMX 275°C
HNS 318°C
Pentolite 70°C
PETN 141.3°C
RDX 204°C
TACOT 378°C
TATB 350°C
Some initiating explosives, particularly boosters, may contain nitrates and therefore appropriate
precautions as detailed in this Code must also be taken when used in reactive ground. Booster formulations
must be enclosed in a suitable packaging capable of withstanding the chemical environment and
temperatures encountered in the application of use. This can range from plastic coating, treated cardboard,
tin cans and other metal containers or high temperature plastics.
SECTION 11 Procedures for Misfires & Extending Sleep Time

Misfire procedures need to take into account the increased risk of blasting reactive and/or elevated
temperature ground and in particular, the increased exposure time of products to elevated temperature
and/or reactive ground in the event of a misfire.
A risk management process is required in both the event of a misfire and the instance that sleep times are
extended beyond the recommended values. In the event of a misfire, the explosives provider shall be
involved in the misfire investigation. The customer shall contact the explosives provider to inform them of
the situation. Details of the product used in the area will be provided and a reassessment of the
recommended product range may be required.
In the first instance it is critical that for any misfire:
• an Emergency Evacuation Plan is developed, and communicated to all personnel involved in
managing the misfire, covering what should be done should a reaction be observed during the
recovery of the misfire;
• an exclusion zone is put in place around the misfire area for activities not directly associated with
the recovery of the misfire;
• personnel on bench are minimised to only those directly involved with the management of the
misfire;
• the charging of associated patterns, which are hot/reactive and whose firing could negatively
impact on misfire recovery proceedings, immediately cease.
11.1 Misfires in Elevated Temperature Ground

Standard misfire procedures are applicable unless explosive exposure time is likely to go beyond the
recommended sleep times. In addition to standard misfire procedures, water may be used to wash out
elevated temperature holes, though it must be noted that water temperature may become hot with
exposure to hot ground conditions.
11.2 Misfires in Reactive Ground

Due to the importance of sleep time minimisation, timely action and prioritisation of misfire activities is
essential, including, but not limited to:
• focusing all efforts on dealing with the misfire to minimise the time the product is in the ground
beyond the authorised sleep time;
• minimising people in the affected area and setting up an exclusion zone;
• identifying and documenting the exact location of misfired hole(s) for digging out;
• implementing ongoing visual inspections of the area to observe any signs indicating an
impending reactive ground event or an event in progress;
• consideration of the use of a thermal imaging camera to assist with identifying any heat released
from the misfire area which may indicate a reactive ground event;
• re-firing of the misfired holes immediately if possible;
• excavation within the rated product sleep time.
Timely action is particularly critical if physical separation (i.e. liners) is used as there is a higher risk of
uninhibited product coming into contact with potentially reactive surfaces. Limitations on sleep time for
initiating systems must also be considered.
Standard misfire procedures are applicable unless explosive exposure time is likely to go beyond the
recommended sleep times. Additions to standard misfire procedures would include:
• where re-firing is not possible, the product should be removed from the holes with a vacuum
truck. The recovered product can be diluted with water; dumped from the vacuum truck in a
known non-reactive area where possible; or decanted into appropriate vented storage for
disposal;
• if use of a vacuum truck is not possible, then washing out could be considered. If washing out is
required, an inhibited solution (i.e. 20% urea or Soda Ash solution) is preferred. If only water is
available, copious amounts must be used.
11.3 Extending Sleep Time in Hot and/or Reactive Ground

During blasting operations, events may require the extending of sleep time beyond existing defined limits.
Examples of this could include, misfires, on-bench floods, machine breakdown on bench, or electrical storm
activity.
In the case of the misfire not being able to be removed within the authorised sleep time of the product the
appropriate risk assessment procedures shall be followed. This shall include technical advice from the
explosive supplier and shall consider the type of bulk product loaded (a higher emulsion content product
will have more inhibitor and may offer a greater safety margin), and the type of zone risk (high versus
medium). Prior to re-entry to extended sleep time zones, the management principles detailed in Section
12 of this Code should also be reviewed.
At all times the importance of minimising the time that the misfired product is in the ground must be
emphasised and the number of people allowed to re-enter the blast area minimised.
Any authorisations to extend sleep time due to a misfire shall follow a risk assessment that takes the
following information into consideration:
• length of sleep time tests performed – any reactions recorded?;
• the sleep time characteristics of the product, specifically taking into account any aspects relating
to the emulsion/inhibitor level in the loaded product;
• the status of the ground temperature measured before loading, and how that compares with the
standard test temperature of 55°C:
- note that if temperature checks over several days are available (e.g. 3 readings over 3
days) and are increasing, then the initial temperature at the time of firing can be
estimated by extrapolation;
- if only one temperature check is available, and that is higher than either ambient
temperature or the rest of shot, then measurement over time shall be continued to
determine if the misfire area is rising above product limits before the time of firing;
• information on previous history of non-inhibited product performance in the reactive zone prior
to discovery of reactive ground.
SECTION 12 Management of Premature Reaction/Detonation

Events
Whilst the measures described in this Code are designed to minimize and mitigate the risks associated with
blasting in reactive and/or elevated temperature ground, the possibility still exists that a premature
reaction/detonation event may occur. This Section of the Code provides some guidelines to assist with the
management of such an event.
In the first instance, it is critical that all personnel evacuate the area and the incident is reported
immediately to senior site officials, the explosives provider, and the relevant statutory authorities.
Subsequent management of the event should take into consideration the following:
• setting up and maintaining an appropriate exclusion zone;
• identifying from a safe distance the detonated/fuming/reacting blast hole/s;
• constantly monitoring the complete loaded pattern and recording any unusual events and times
these occur;
• prohibiting re-entry until any signs of chemical activity have completely ceased;
• establishing an agreed plan for tie-in and firing of the loaded portion of the blast pattern taking
into consideration:
- the need to minimise the number of personnel and their duration on the pattern;
- an Emergency Plan (including evacuation) which all parties clearly understand;
- ensuring all personnel have means of rapid egress from the blast pattern (and immediate
area) at all times;
- utilising a simple design to minimise the time to tie-in and to minimise opportunity for on-
bench confusion.
• taking steps to tie-in and fire the pattern as soon as practicably and safely as possible;
• ensuring that, whilst ever there are personnel on the blast pattern, they are in radio contact with
at least one observer located at a safe distance from the pattern. The observer must immediately
advise by radio of any unusual observations and the pattern immediately evacuated;
• it is highly recommended that detonating cord NOT be used for surface tie-in;
• the tie-in sequence must take into consideration the location of the detonated/reacted hole/s.
Initially it is recommended that a buffer be set up around these hole/s whilst the remainder of
the pattern is tied-in. The buffer area should be tied in at the latest possible time before firing.
Depending on reactivity level of the ground, affected holes may not be able to, or need to, be
tied in. In case they are not tied in, refer to Section 11 of this Code;
• where signal tube based surface connectors are used, their tie-in should be sequenced in a
manner that ensures the shot-firer is walking away from tied-in holes and thus can distance
him/herself from possible multiple-hole initiation;
• video record the blast from a safe vantage point that allows a reasonable post-blast analysis for
misfires;
• conduct a thorough post blast inspection of the muck-pile for potential misfired blast holes.
SECTION 13. Activity Sequence – Management Flowcharts

The following flowcharts are designed to show the logic in assessing a site which may have potentially
elevated temperature and/or reactive ground conditions.
13.1 Identification and Analysis of the Risk of Reactivity at Green Field Sites
Operations planned for new site – no previous blasting operations
Conduct Initial Risk Assessment

of indicators f or the presence of
reactive ground (as per Section 4)
No Indicators Yes
present?
Initial Reactive Ground Sampling

(using “worst case” sampling
technique) and Screen Testing
Recommend No Yes
Reactivity
suitable product
detected?
range to users
Recommend suitable product f or

reactive ground situations
Product verification and sleep

time testing
Development or update of
operating procedures
Establishment of temperature
measurement protocols
Establishment of sleep time limits
Basis of Re-Assessm ent

Annual re-assessment
OR
Operations entering new geology
OR
Reactive ground incident occurs
13.2 Identification and Analysis for the Risk of Reactivity at Existing Sites
Existing Site – previous blasting operations have occurred

Reactivity Incident occurs
OR
Annual re-assessment due
Yes Known No Immediately cease supply of

reactive uninhibited product
site
Conduct Initial Risk Assessment Supply highly inhibited

of indicators for the presence of product and recommend 8
reactive ground (as per Section 4) hours sleep time
Extensive Sampling and

No Indicators Yes
testing program to locate
Reactive Ground Sampling, AN present? extent and level of reactivity
Reactivity Testing and Product
Sleep Time Testing
Initial Reactive Ground Sampling Further testing of products

and determination of suitable
and Screen Testing
sleep time
Recommend No Reactivity Yes

suitable product detected?
range to users
Recommend suitable product for

reactive ground conditions
Recommend and
use suitable
products
Product verification and sleep

time testing
Development or update of
operating procedures
Establishment of temperature
measurement protocols
Establishment of sleep time limits
Basis of Re-Assessment
Annual re-assessment
OR
OR
Reactive ground incident occurs
SECTION 14 Training
Based on this Code and other relevant documentation a comprehensive training package shall be
developed for all involved in the handling and charging of explosives in elevated temperature and/or
reactive ground conditions by the customer at each affected site. The training will ensure that each
employee and contractor has a full and comprehensive understanding of:
• standard operating procedures developed for the handling and charging of explosives in elevated
temperature and/or reactive ground conditions;
• site specific procedures;
• job responsibilities;
• hazards associated with the handling and charging of explosives in elevated temperature and/or
reactive ground conditions;
• the use and ongoing maintenance of personal protective equipment (PPE). In some applications
specialised PPE may be specified for the employee to use;
• emergency procedures especially where explosives exhibit any violent reaction during charging.
 identification of early warning signs of a potential incident.
All training will be documented and a process of verification and validation of competencies established.
Revalidation of competency is to be carried out on a regular basis the frequency of which must be
established on a site by site basis taking into consideration the site complexities of dealing with reactive
and elevated temperature ground.
Appendices
Appendix 1 Typical Reactive Ground Indicator Risk Assessment Checklist
Present (Y/N)
Indicators
Are there any sulphides present?
Are black sulphide bearing sediments present?
Are sulphides within mineralised rock present?
Are any white or yellow salts present on the rock?.

Are there any acidic conditions as indicated by the colour of run-off water, usually yellow-red
brown in colour?
Has there been significant corrosion of rock bolts, safety meshing and fixed equipment associated
with the mining operation?
Has the spontaneous combustion of overburden or waste rock/ore either in dumps or in the pit
occurred, especially as it is exposed to the air?
Is there an acrid smell of sulphur dioxide?
Have elevated blast hole temperatures been observed / recorded?
Have elevated ground temperatures been observed / recorded?
Appendix 2 Basis for the Isothermal Test Method in Determining Reactive Ground
The Isothermal test method was adopted to determine if a known rock sample had the potential for
exothermic reaction with ammonium nitrate under controlled conditions; it was not designed to replicate
the range of conditions encountered through the drill and blast process.
The chemistry of reactive ground (as shown in section 6.2) consists of numerous interdependent reactions
occurring in pyritic ores, from the initial oxidative weathering of the pyrite through to the reactant and
catalytic intermediates that form on contact with ammonium nitrate, ultimately forming the conditions
required for exothermic decomposition of the ammonium nitrate explosive to occur.
The rate of the individual reactions (and heat generated) are variable for many reasons, including:
- the varying rates of oxidative weathering;

- concentration and surface area of sulphide present;
- varying levels and pH of moisture in the surrounding rock;
- the availability for reaction of ammonium nitrate component present;
- the structure and porosity of surrounding rock affecting localized entrapment of the
reactants;
- any confinement makes gaseous intermediates available to further catalyze the
AN/Sulfide reaction.
The physical conditions of the charged blasthole prevent heat dissipation due to variables including:
- poor thermal conductivity of pyritic ores and explosive products leading to localized
heating;
- confinement prevents gaseous by-products from escaping the system resulting in higher
pressure and temperature.
The parameters above are neither controllable nor easy to measure. The probability of the ideal conditions
aligning such that an exothermic event occurs are unknown, hence an uncontrolled detonation is possible
at any time.
It has been shown that laboratory scale tests must be conducted above a critical temperature (~50 degC)
to reliably reproduce reactions observed in production blasting at ambient temperatures [Rumball, 1991;
Tunaley, 1999; Kenedy and Tyson 2001]. This is because the safety and efficiency of the test method
necessitates:
- small sample size;

- testing at ambient pressure so gaseous products of intermediate reactions can escape.
Further, aluminium blocks have good thermal conductivity to allow control of test
conditions.
Kinetic models, like the Frank-Kamenetskii equation, show how the varying physical conditions required
for exothermic runaway directly affects the critical temperature of the reaction. Therefore, as the physical
dimensions and thermal conductivity are scaled from the laboratory isothermal test to those
approximating a production blast hole, the critical temperature is reduced significantly [Gunawan and
Zhang, 2009], supporting previous work that showed the reactive ground hazard is present in ambient
temperature ground [Rumball, 1991;Kenedy & Tyson, 2001; Littlefair et el, 2003].
Specific test conditions have been developed for the isothermal test method as follows:
Rock Milling
The rock is milled to <250µm to increase the homogeneity and surface area of the sample subjected to
testing, so that any pyrite within the sample has an increased probability of exposure to the ammonium
nitrate during testing.
Temperature of Testing
As defined in AS2187.2:2006, standard temperature ground is up to and including 55°C, and elevated
temperature refers to material that is above 55°C. The test is performed at the minimum of 55°C±2°C (the
highest standard temperature), or the highest temperature above 55°C to which the product will be
exposed, to:
(i) Increase the rate of reaction sufficiently to enable the induction phase to be completed in a
relatively short time should the ground be reactive; and
(ii) Increase the likelihood of a potential reaction being detected.
As the test is performed under isothermal conditions (i.e. the surroundings are at the same temperature
as the reaction mixture), if the test temperature was sufficiently low, the rate of heat loss from the reacting
test mixture to the surroundings may be sufficient to prevent a reaction being observed if it exceeds the
rate of heat being generated. This limitation of the isothermal test was recognized by Rumball, who stated,
“although the technique is capable of reproducing the aqueous initiation reactions, heat dissipation may
prevent temperature increases which would otherwise catalyze further reaction”. For these reasons use
of the isothermal test at temperatures below 55°C is not recommended as the risk of not accurately
identifying reactive ground is likely. However, even though this is a limitation of the isothermal test method
it is known that within the physical conditions of a blast hole the heat transfer characteristics are
significantly different such that thermal runaway may readily occur. It is well documented that “the
reaction of AN with sulfide minerals is an auto-catalyzed process, which after some induction time can lead
to an exothermic decomposition even if the starting temperature of the mixture is around an ambient
temperature of 25°C” (Briggs and Kelso 2002).
Classification of Reactivity
The isothermal test method classifies a sample as reactive if the test temperature shows an increase of
greater than 2°C above background followed by a return to the background temperature. An exotherm of
>2°C is considered significant based on measurement uncertainty of the K-type thermocouple used for
temperature measurement.
Reactants
Chemically pure ammonium nitrate – The isothermal test method uses chemically pure ammonium nitrate
to provide a standardised raw material for the test method. The variability in the type and amount of
additives present in prilled ammonium nitrate are significant and may affect results in an unknown way.
Hence, as per any standard test method, it is essential to minimise any potential for interference with the
test results.
Weathering solution – The weathering solution used in the isothermal test method has been developed to
specifically replicate the catalysts known to be generated in a concentrated form directly at the site of the
pyrite and ammonium nitrate reaction. Tunaley, 1999 confirmed the ability of the catalysts mixture to
mimic weathering effects. When catalysts were added to freshly crushed samples the lowering of the onset
temperature occurred. Once aged however, addition of extra catalyst made little difference to reactivity,
presumably because sufficient catalytic species had already formed by natural oxidation. Within the small
scale isothermal test method it is difficult to predict and replicate the rate at which the same build-up of
catalysts would occur in any given blast hole. Hence, the use of the weathering solution provides a
standardised method for comparing the reactivity of samples such that if a sample has the potential to
react it will be identified within a reasonable and safe time frame.
Sampling
As per Section 7.3, the minimum recommended number of samples selected and collected for testing is
12. Depending on the outcome of the risk assessment and the geology and complexity of the site a greater
number of samples may be selected. While the exact number of samples required to ensure all potentially
reactive areas of a site have been tested may be difficult to determine, it is imperative that the samples
actually selected for testing are selected by a geologist such that the samples most likely to react are used
for testing. This selective testing is required to ensure the most highly reactive areas are assessed to ensure
the reactive ground areas are accurately mapped and the appropriate inhibited products are used.
Test Duration
The ammonium nitrate screening test is performed for a duration of 7 days to ensure that if a sample has
the potential to react within the conditions of the test this timeframe has shown to be a suitable duration
When testing inhibited product, four times the sleep time has been selected as the test duration required
to provide a reasonable safety margin, primarily but not limited to the following;
 The exact amount and distribution of pyrite within any given blast hole is unknown hence sampling
for reactive ground can never be conclusive that the most highly reactive samples have been found
and sampled.
 The interactions between the pyrite and ammonium nitrate in any given blast hole cannot be
accurately replicated due to; differing surface area interactions, thermal conductivity of both the
rock and explosive, large scale of the reaction taking place.
 Due to the on-going weathering of the pyrite over time, the samples collected for testing may not
have been at the highest state of reactivity.
Therefore, testing inhibited product for a minimum duration of four times the sleep time of the product
enables the variables as above to be taken into consideration when understanding the potential reactivity
of the site.
Appendix 3 Isothermal Reactive Ground Test.

This test is used to assess rock samples for exothermic reactivity with ammonium nitrate. The general aim
of the test is to measure the induction time of the reaction at a constant temperature. The test conditions
are not designed to mimic in-field conditions, but rather determine the chemical compatibility of the rock
sample with ammonium nitrate. To that end, rock particle size, temperature, exposure time and the
presence of by-products from oxidative weathering of the rock have all been optimized to assess the
chemical compatibility as quickly as possible. This is to counter the fact that it is never known whether the
most reactive ground on the site has been sampled and tested.
The test mixture consists of finely powdered rock, ammonium nitrate and a solution of ferrous and ferric
sulphates.
The term ‘isothermal’ is used to indicate that rock is being tested in an environment with a constant and
pre-determined background temperature. Exothermic events are signified by an experimentally significant
increase in the temperature of the sample mixture beyond that of the background.
For normal temperature blasting applications at sites with either known or unknown reactivity, the
background temperature to be used is 55°C±2°C and the test is run for 7 days. The occurrence of an
exothermic reaction at any time before that period terminates the test.
Where elevated ground temperature is evident, the same test is run but the test temperature is at least
equal to the highest in-hole temperature, or at the maximum nominated temperature limit at the site. If
the site changes its nominated maximum temperature then the isothermal testing must be repeated at
this new temperature.
1. Equipment Required.
 Aluminium blocks – these are metal blocks with holes drilled to accommodate the glass tubes and
distribute heat to the tubes evenly. In the example shown at the end of this section, the holes are
75mm deep with a 15mm radius rounded bottom, 30mm diameter. The blocks may also feature a
shallow depression on the top to capture any overflow from vigorous reactions. Some variations in
dimensions may occur, however in all cases the tubes shall be sized to ensure that samples sit below
the top level of the heater block. The Aluminium blocks may be removable, or they may be
permanently fixed into the heater block. An example of a typical aluminium block is shown on the
following page.
 Ammonium nitrate – technical grade purity or better.
 Data logger – any data logger able to log temperatures at a rate of at least one data point per 30
seconds. It should be accompanied by a computer system to process the data.
 Dry block heater – an electrically heated tray able to heat the aluminium blocks uniformly at a
heating rate of 0.6°C min-1 or slower, and keep them at a pre-set temperature in the range 55°C -
200°C and to maintain that temperature to ±2°C.
 Ferric sulphate – Fe2(SO4)3.9H2O technical grade or better.
 Ferrous sulphate – FeSO4.7H2O technical grade or better.
 Jaw crusher – Any crusher allowing fist-sized rocks to be broken into pieces of suitable size for the
pulverising mill.
 Mixing apparatus – stainless steel spatula, glass or plastic mixing container.
 Pan balance – any electronic pan balance may be used provided it can weigh at least 300g to an
accuracy of 0.05g or better.
 Protective clothing and equipment – safety glasses, rubber gloves, ear muffs or plugs, disposable
dust mask and face visor.
 Pulverising mill – A mill with a capacity of 600 – 1000cc and capable of milling samples from the jaw
crusher down to a sieve size of –250 micron within 60 seconds. A commercially available mill that
meets these requirements is the Labtechnics LM1-P.
 Reaction vessels – glass centrifuge/digestion tubes capable of withstanding the reaction

temperatures.
 Sample containers consisting of either – thermally sealable plastic vacuum bags able to hold at least
200g of powdered rock; or air tight plastic jars.
 Sieve – a stainless steel sieve with aperture size of 250 micron. The sieve should be inspected prior
to use to ensure the mesh is not damaged.
 Thermocouples – k-type thermocouples with a manufacturing tolerance of ±2.2°C.
 Tube seals consisting of either - rubber stoppers to fit into the glass tube with two 2mm diameter
holes, one for a thermocouple probe, the other for pressure release; or aluminium foil to seal the
tubes and reduce water loss from the reaction.
 Vacuum bag sealer – commercially available household vacuum bag sealers are suitable for this test.
Example Drawing of Typical Aluminium Heater Blocks to fit a Thermoline Dry Block Heater
2. Equipment Checks
Thermocouples should be tested every two years against a certified reference thermometer, to ensure
the thermocouples meet the manufacturer’s specifications. (± 2.2°C for K-type thermocouples) Any non-
conforming thermocouples should be discarded. Refer to NATA General Equipment – Calibration and
Checks Table October 2015, www.nata.com.au.
It is also important to ensure the heating blocks are performing appropriately with no overrun above the
set temperature on heating, with all test places within 2 degrees of the test temperature. These
characteristics can be monitored during normal testing, and if any discrepancy is noted, the heating block
should be repaired or replaced, and the testing repeated.
It is important to ensure no cross-contamination of samples occurs. The grinding equipment used has
potential for this to occur and all grinding surfaces and other equipment that come into contact with
samples must be thoroughly cleaned between each sample. It is recommended to test the processes on
a two yearly basis or if the process is changed to ensure the procedure used is not causing cross-
contamination. This may be done by crushing a known reactive sample followed by a known non-reactive
sample and testing the non-reactive sample in the isothermal test. If any exotherm is found,
contamination has occurred during the process.
It is recommended to perform “blanks” with inert material similar in particle size and heat capacity (e.g.
sand) to milled rock, mixed with the ammonium nitrate/inhibited products and weathering solution and
run the test. The resulting time-temperature trace may be compared with sample tests to determine if
reactions occur during the heat up portion of the test, if the block has overrun its set point, or if heat has
transferred between adjacent tubes. These blanks should be repeated if the testing system changes, and
if the blocks used are removable from the heater, or heat transfer between adjacent tubes is regularly
observed. In these cases one or more blanks may need to be incorporated into each block of tubes tested.
3. Isothermal Test Method

The Isothermal Test Method is used for both AN Reactivity Screening and Product Selection Testing, with
the difference between the two tests shown in steps 6 and 8.
STEP KEY POINTS SAFETY and QUALITY
1. Rock Check that the rock sample can fit into the jaw crusher. If Wear safety glasses, gloves, hearing protection
crushing required, use a hammer to break the whole rock into smaller and dust mask (also full face visor if using a
pieces first. hammer to break rock). Samples that contain
heavy metals or other hazardous materials
Ensure the collection tray for the crushed rock is clean, dry and
may require alternative PPE.
in place.
Samples must not be oven dried at
Feed rock into the crusher. Activate the crusher and allow
temperatures >50oC prior to testing as drying
enough time for all sample to be consumed. Collect a
may cause premature air oxidation which may
minimum of 200g of crushed rock.
affect the reactivity of the sample.
Where possible, only mill the minimum
amount of rock needed for testing and unused
samples shall be kept in rock form or crushed
(vacuum sealed and stored in the freezer) to
minimize oxidation.
2. Rock milling Ensure the internal surfaces of the mill are clean and dry. Mill for a minimum time to achieve 250 µm.
Load the mill with 200g of freshly crushed rock and mill for not A maximum milling time (< 60 sec) to minimise
more than 1 minute. oxidation of sulphides shall be adopted.
3. Sieving Remove the powdered rock from the mill. Sieving need only be performed once for a set
of samples to ensure that the sample has been
Sieve a small portion of the sample using a 250-micron sieve
milled to 250µm. Discard the sieved portion as
to determine if the sample has been milled to <250 µm.
it has been exposed to oxidation.
4. Milled Store sample in vacuum sealed bag or airtight plastic container The integrity of the vacuum and seal should be
sample immediately after milling. Samples should be labelled with verified by visual inspection of the bags.
storage sample name, and date of milling. Samples may also be stored under nitrogen.
For storage periods greater than 48 hours the
sealed bags/containers should be stored in a
freezer.
5. Weathering Solution A Solution B Wear safety glasses and gloves

by-products
This results in 50g of weathering solution, and
preparation FeSO4.7H2O 3.0 ± 0.1 g Fe2(SO4)3.9H2O 6.9 ± 0.1 g
may be scaled up as appropriate for the
H2O 22.0 ± 0.1 g H2O 18.1 ± 0.1 g amount of testing performed on the day.
The solution may be stored for approximately
Solutions A and B should then be mixed together producing one week, however should be discarded if any
50g of ‘weathering by-products solution’.
change is observed such as a precipitate or

change in colour.
6a. Preparation In a suitable sized container, combine; The rock samples or AN may be pre-weighed
of AN out for the set of samples to increase
18.0 ± 0.2 g of milled rock sample,
Reactivity efficiency, however each reaction tube should
Test mixture 18.0 ± 0.2 g of ammonium nitrate, then be completed (other reagents added and
4 ± 0.1 g of weathering by- products solution. mixed) one at a time and transferred to a fume
hood as soon as it is complete to reduce the
Mix the contents with a spatula and immediately transfer the risk of NOx exposure. In rare cases the mixture
mixture to the glass reaction vessel. Weighing of materials and will start producing NOx immediately on
mixing can occur directly into the reaction vessel if it is large mixing.
enough.
Insert a 2-holed rubber stopper into the glass vessel, or seal
with aluminium foil.
6b. Preparation In a suitable sized container, combine; The rock samples or product may be pre-
of Product weighed out for the set of samples to increase
18.0 ± 0.2 g of milled rock sample,
Selection efficiency, however each reaction tube should
Test mixture 18.0 ± 0.2 g of inhibited product, then be completed (other reagents added and
4 ± 0.1 g of weathering by- products solution mixed) one at a time and transferred to a fume
hood as soon as it is complete to reduce the
Mix the contents with a spatula and immediately transfer the risk of NOx exposure. In rare cases the mixture
mixture to the glass reaction vessel. will start producing NOx immediately on
Weighing of materials and mixing can occur directly into the mixing.
reaction vessel if it is large enough.
If samples have not been vacuum sealed and
It is recommended that product selection testing is completed haven’t been stored in the freezer, then each
in duplicate. reactive rock sample must undergo an AN
Insert a 2-holed rubber stopper into the glass vessel, or seal reactivity test at the same time as product
with aluminium foil. testing to confirm the sample reactivity under
the test conditions and provide a positive
control for the test.
7. Test set-up Place the reaction vessel containing the test mixture into an The Dry Block Heater is to be set up in a well
aluminium block on the Dry Block Heater. The aluminium block ventilated fume cupboard.
shall be at ambient temperature at this stage of the test.
For standard blasting applications, use 55°C.
Insert a thermocouple through the rubber stopper/foil such
For testing related to ground at elevated
that it is fully immersed in the reaction mixture. If possible the
temperatures, the test should be run at a
tip of the thermocouple should sit in the test mixture
temperature equal to or greater than the
approximately 1 cm from the bottom of the tube.
nominated loading temperature limit for the
Configure the data logger to log one data point at least every site /or delineated area.
30 seconds.
It is recommended that negative control
Set the temperature of dry block heater to the target test samples are used (known non-reactive
temperature, and set the heating rate such that the heater samples), to ensure test conditions are met.
block doesn't overshoot the target temperature.
If the dry block heater is known to overshoot
the set temperature the block may be set to
the required test temperature and left to
stabilise prior to preparation and addition of
the test samples.
8a. AN Monitor and record the sample temperature for the test Any visible signs of reaction such as; NOx or
Reactivity period using the data logger. other gas evolution, smoke, charring or
Screening bubbling, or colour change can be recorded.
The AN reactivity screening test for each sample should run for
Test
a duration of 7 days unless any of the following applies: Ensure fume hood sash is not open while a
reaction is occurring or is likely to occur.
- if the sample reacts, then the testing can be terminated
within the 7 day period for that sample. Movement of the thermocouple and/or
frothing of the sample can also result in the
hottest section of the reacting mixture not
being measured.
8b. Product Monitor and record the sample temperature for the test If exceptionally long sleep times are required
Selection period using the data logger. in specialised blasting applications, a detailed
Testing
Product Selection and Sleep-time Testing is completed for a risk assessment should be conducted by the
duration of 4 x the required sleep time to a maximum of 28 site operator and the explosives supplier.
days (ie a sleep time of 7 days requires 28 days of testing). Any visible signs of reaction such as; NOx or
other gas evolution, smoke, charring or
bubbling, or colour change can be recorded.
Ensure fume hood sash is not open while a
reaction is occurring or is likely to occur.
Movement of the thermocouple and/or
frothing of the sample can also result in the
hottest section of the reacting mixture not
being measured.
9. Retesting When retesting of a sample is required, an AN Reactivity If testing shows the known reactive sample to
Screening test should be performed to confirm the sample is be non-reactive, then a fresh sample should be
reactive. milled.
4. Interpretation of Results
An exotherm that qualifies a sample as ‘reactive’ in this test has the following characteristics:
 It is greater than, or equal to, 2°C above the background temperature in the temperature/time trace
of that particular sample;
 It shows both a rise from, and a return to the background temperature when the reaction is
completed;
 reactions may be accompanied by visible signs, such as bubbling, and/or the generation of brown
nitrogen oxides.
To calculate the height of an exotherm that has occurred during the test, subtract the baseline test
temperature from the maximum temperature recorded during the test. The baseline temperature may be
calculated as the average temperature over the test period excluding the ramp and exotherm if the
variation experienced is <1 C ̊ . If the baseline variation is 1-2 ̊C the baseline test temperature may be
calculated as an average temperature in the region of the potential exotherm, taking care to exclude any
tail of the peak. This is to exclude artefacts such as physical movement of the thermocouple and variations
in laboratory temperature. If the baseline variation is greater than 2 C ̊ the test may be repeated as small
exotherms may be obscured.
If the temperature difference between the baseline and maximum temperature is equal to, or greater than
2 ̊C, then the sample must be classified as reactive. If the temperature difference is 1-2 ̊C, then the sample
may be classified as marginal. Marginal results may be due to very low levels of sulphide, premature aerial
oxidation of the sample or reactions other than sulphide oxidation (e.g. carbonates reacting with acid). It
may be due to a reaction where the thermocouple has been dislodged due to the sample frothing and
rising in the tube. In these cases the maximum temperature is often not measured by the thermocouple
and a reaction is not detected. Marginal samples should be considered if no reactive samples have been
classified in a pit. Further testing may then be conducted to reclassify the marginal samples as being either
not reactive or reactive. Further testing may include;
 retesting existing samples;
 re-sampling the area of the mine;
 quantitative sulphide analysis. If there are no sulphides present, then the sample cannot be reactive.
The time vs temperature chart of each sample should be examined, as some samples may exhibit more
than one exotherm during the test period. The first exotherm greater or equal to 2 C
̊ above the baseline
temperature should be reported, alternatively, all exotherms may be reported. The initial portion of the
test should also be examined to determine if the sample has reacted during the temperature ramp period
of the test.
If a reaction occurs during the period that the sample is being heated to the isothermal set point, an
exotherm is harder to distinguish. Nevertheless, a reaction may be indicated by physical signs such as
bubbling and/or brown NOx fumes, and/or a temperature rise that was faster than other (non-reacting)
samples being analysed at the same time. A known non-reactive sample, performed under the same
conditions can be used to provide a baseline of the heating curve. The size of the exotherm is then taken
from the extrapolated baseline to the sample trace at any point in time. The maximum difference in
temperature should then be used to classify the reactivity of the sample.
Example of an Isothermal test where the exothermic reaction is evident during the temperature ramp up stage.-
120
100
80
Temperature (oC)
60
40
20
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Time (Hours)
As indicated in the definitions section (Section 1.2), the “reactivity” of a sample or the ease at which a
sulphide/nitrate reaction occurs is related to the induction time. Therefore, under the same test conditions,
the period of time from the start of the test until an exotherm occurs is the induction time, and
consequently enables a series of samples to be ranked as “most reactive” to “least reactive” with the “most
reactive” sample reacting first. The “intensity” of a reaction is related to the size of the exotherm and does
not relate to the induction time.
The reactivity of stored samples can change over time due to oxidation and/or changes in moisture content.
Hence, when completing re-tests, if the reactivity of a sample has changed significantly than fresh samples
shall be milled and tested (if available).
Appendix 4 Bucket Test for Reactive Ground
The Bucket Test is designed as a large scale test to provide on-site reactivity data in addition to the
laboratory isothermal testing. The test is carried out by mixing equal weights of explosive and crushed
ground in a 20 litre plastic bucket and examining the contents on a regular basis to detect whether or not
a reaction has occurred.
The test may be affected by the prevailing ambient conditions at the time the test is carried out and this
may need to be taken into consideration when interpreting the outcomes of the test.
The bucket and its contents must be placed in a remote location and access to the site restricted to within
100m as, for safety reason, it must be assumed that a violent reaction and detonation may occur during
the test. Where multiple tests are being carried out buckets must be separated by at least 5m.
1. Test Method
The test method is outlined below.
1. The selected ground sample is crushed to 5mm particle size in a jaw crusher, then to sub-2mm
particle size in a roll crusher. 2kg of crushed ground is required.
2. 1kg of ground is placed in a 20 litre plastic bucket. 54 millilitres of water is added and thoroughly
mixed into the ground with a flat stake. The amount of water added at this stage is half the total
amount required for the test. The total amount of water used is 5.4% w/w based on the ground
mass (ie 108ml of water).
3. 2kg of the explosive to be tested is added evenly on top of the ground.
4. The remaining 1kg of ground and 54ml of water is added and thoroughly mixed in with a flat
stake until a homogenous mixture is achieved.
5. Breather holes are placed through the side of the bucket and the lid placed on the bucket to
protect the contents from the weather.
6. The bucket is inspected on a regular basis to determine whether any reaction between the
explosive and the ground has occurred. Inspection should be carried out at six regular intervals
in the first 24 hrs; then three times per day for the remainder of the first week; and thereafter
twice daily until the test is concluded.
2. Precautions
The buckets and their contents must be placed in a remote location with access restricted to within 100m.
If there are any signs of reaction, as indicated by the evolution of gases/fumes, the site must not be
entered, but must be immediately evacuated until at least two hours after all signs of reaction have ceased.
The generation of orange coloured fumes indicates that a violent reaction is underway and evacuation
from the site must be immediate.
When inspecting buckets it is recommended that this be carried out by two people – one carrying out the
inspection of the buckets and the other as an observer watching for the start of any reaction. Unless
adequate lighting is available at the site all inspections should be carried out in day-light hours.
3. Interpretation of Results
A reaction between the explosive and the ground is deemed to have taken place if:
 there are obvious signs that an explosion has occurred;
 the bucket has melted or caught fire;

 evidence of charring and discoloration within the contents of the bucket;
 any signs of the generation of fumes and/or steam from the bucket.
It is recommended that the test be carried out in triplicate for each ground sample. Generally, the test is
carried out with ANFO over seven days as a first indication as to whether or not the ground is reactive.
Should a reaction occur in any of the triplicate samples the ground is deemed to be “reactive” and
appropriate precautions as detailed in this Code must be adopted in charging blast holes on the site. If a
decision is made to use an inhibited explosive then the test should be repeated on the selected inhibited
explosive with those ground samples, which reacted with ANFO, over a period of at least 28 days. The
bucket test does not replace the isothermal test for determining site reactivity, product selection, and/or
sleep time. The bucket test provides supplementary site specific information to complement isothermal
test results.
Appendix 5 Sample Audit Guidelines for the Inspection of Laboratories
Below is an example audit guide for the inspection of laboratories conducting reactive ground isothermal
testing using a dry-block heater.
Audits are to be conducted with reference to the complete Code of Practice. This guide is provided as an
indication of some specific items to be checked for laboratory compliance, it is not intended to be a
comprehensive checklist of requirements.
In addition, any other aspects of laboratory operation that relate to the integrity of reactive ground testing
may be considered in order for the explosives supplier to be satisfied that the results provide a reliable
indication of the potential for reactive ground.
Compliant
or
Subject Requirement Comment
Non
Compliant
Equipment Heating blocks are aluminium with drilled holes that are of
sufficient depth to ensure that the correct mass of sample is
held below the top level of the heater block.
Reagents are technical grade pure, or better.

Ammonium nitrate, ferric sulphate, ferrous sulphate
Deionised water is used for preparing weathering solution
Weathering solution is prepared correctly and is not stored for

longer than 1 week
Data logger is capable of collecting at least one data point per

30 seconds
Pan balance calibration checks show balance is able to weigh

at least 300g to ± 0.05g or better.
E.g. 300g check masses give results within 299.95g and 300.05g
Protective clothing is available and appropriate

Safety glasses, rubber gloves, ear muffs or plugs, disposable
dust mask and face visor.
Laboratory personnel are using the appropriate protective

clothing
Sieve with aperture size 250 micron and is undamaged
Sample Samples are milled for less than 60 seconds to minimise

treatment (note; oxidation of the sample.
milling and
Samples are sealed immediately after milling.
testing may be
conducted at
separate Samples are initially tested within 8 hours of milling.
facilities)
Samples are stored in vacuum sealed bags or in air-tight
containers.
Samples are clearly identified with sample IDs, milling date,

mine name etc.
Sample identification is traceable to customer reference.
Sample storage Milled samples that are stored for possible retesting are
vacuum sealed and stored in a freezer.
Where retesting occurs, a reactivity test is performed to

ensure the sample is still reactive.
Where the rescreening test shows a previously reactive sample

has become non-reactive then a new sample is milled from
retained rock and a confirmatory screening test is performed.
Testing Tests are performed in a fume hood to minimise the possible

spread of fume. (Tubes are placed in fume hood as soon as
practically possible after weighing each tube is complete)
Tests are performed at 55° ± 2°C for sites with normal ground
temperatures.
At sites where elevated temperatures have been identified

(>55°C), testing is performed at an adopted standard elevated
temperature.
Controls used (positive or negative) which are appropriate for

the experimental design. Positive Controls should be used for
all samples not stored in vacuum sealed bags in the freezer.
Procedures are in place to ensure samples are not mixed up

and there is no contamination between samples throughout
the entire testing and reporting process.
Records & Laboratory report clearly shows the time traces and test
calibration temperature.
Thermocouples have been tested to be within manufacturing

tolerance within 2 years. (± 2.2°C for k-type thermocouples)
Evidence is available to show that the heating units are able to

maintain required temperatures to ± 2◦C variation.
Records are maintained and include:

• date of sample receipt;
• date of milling;
• date and details of screening tests;
• date and details of retests or sleep time testing;
• name of person performing the test;
• observations.
Interpretation of
Peak heights are compared against baseline temperature.
Results
The observations of the person performing the test are

considered when classifying samples as reactive or non-
reactive.
Time to reaction is reported.
Appendix 6 Ground Temperature Testing
The ground temperature of a mine shall be monitored when there is any risk of elevated temperature. A
site specific procedure and risk assessment should be developed that considers: 1) the cause of elevated
temperature, and 2) the history and location of elevated temperature across site. Specific consideration
should be given to the risk of blast holes rising above acceptable temperature limits during sleep times and
implementing appropriate controls to prevent this.
Surface methods (such as IR guns, and FLIR) may be used for rapid detection of elevated temperature holes,
however due to the limitations of these devices, they are rarely appropriate as the only method of
temperate testing on a site. Final temperature testing on a suspected elevated temperature hole should
be conducted by an in-hole method, with equipment or procedures that allow for detection of a
temperature gradient and/or maximum temperature when retracting the device out of the hole as the
maximum temperature may not be at the base of the hole.
The site specific procedure/s should specify:
 how to identify which holes to test, and when, and how often to test (e.g. test every hole, test
every hole in a certain known hot area, test 24 hours apart to check for increasing temp);
 what equipment is to be used to test (e.g. for initial checks, final checks);
 what procedure is to be used for testing, including the calibration of equipment;
 site temperature cutoffs (e.g. 55°C, 70°C);
 record keeping procedures;
 how to act on the information, including reporting procedures, retesting, backfilling etc.;
 how elevated temperature holes are to be marked.
The manufacturer should be consulted to determine appropriate calibration methods, and advise on
appropriate procedures for use (i.e. read times, maximum path lengths, use under various conditions). If
moving to a new model of temperature testing equipment, or to using a different method, the new
equipment should be validated against the old method/equipment or industry best practice. A new risk
assessment should be completed to ensure the new equipment or methods is not introducing any risks.
Some temperature testing methods available are discussed in the following Table.
Method Use Advantage Disadvantage

Thermocouple In-hole temperatures, Can be used in deep holes, Labour intensive. If the
temperature profiling also where dust/steam is thermocouples are pulled out of the
of holes. present. Some models may holes too fast the temperature
be able to be used in wet reading may not accurately stabilize.
Disposable holes. Thermocouples are also difficult to
thermocouple may be insert into upholes, or development
used to measure holes.
product/hole
temperatures during
sleep times and are
destroyed in blast.
IR-Gun Surface temperatures, Quick, relatively cheap Cannot be used in wet holes. Beam is
Very short holes affected by dust and steam. Beam
(~5m), Rapid spreads out so may only read
detection of elevated partway downhole (the depth will be
temperature holes. diameter dependent).
FLIR Camera Surface temperatures, Quick, offers a picture, Not an in-hole method, so may miss
(Forward Looking short holes, rapid rather than one elevated temperatures at the base of
Infrared Camera) detection of elevated measurement of an IR-Gun, deep holes. Steam, dust, rain and fog
holes. which means it is more affect the quality of the image and
likely that any hot spots will the distance the camera can see.
be picked up, various Only the surface temperature of wet
models available with holes can be measured.
different resolution.
Hot hole indicator Rapid downhole Efficient detection of Colour change may not be noticed.
cards – Irreversible detection of elevated elevated temperature holes Operators must allow enough time
colour indicators temperatures. while dipping. Cheap, can in-hole for sensor to change colour
cards that are placed be used until they change (approximately 10 seconds). The
on dipping tape colour. Can be used wet. sensor may not change colour if the
Multiple indicator cards can sensor is pulled out quickly.
be used on one dipping
tape to measure the
temperature at different
depths simultaneously.
In-hole Infrared Probe In-hole temperatures, Can be used in deep holes Labour intensive. If the probe is
temperature profiling and to obtain a pulled out of the hole too quickly, the
of holes. temperature profile of a temperature reading may not
hole. accurately stabilize. The probes are
not suitable for wet or steaming
holes, and may be affected by dust.
About the AEISG
The Australian Explosives Industry and Safety Group (AEISG) is an incorporated

association of Australasian explosives manufacturers and suppliers originally formed in
1994.
Since then, the AEISG membership has grown and currently includes:
 Applied Explosives Technology Pty Ltd

 Davey Bickford Australia Pty Ltd
 Downer EDI Mining – Blasting Services Pty Ltd
 Dyno Nobel Asia Pacific Pty Limited
 Johnex Explosives
 Maxam Explosives (Australia) Pty Ltd
 Nitro Sibir Australia Pty Ltd
 Orica Australia Limited
 Platinum Blasting Services
 Redbull Powder Company Ltd
 Thales Australia
The goal of AEISG is to continuously improve the level of safety and security throughout
our industry in the manufacture, transport, storage, handling and use of explosives
and related materials throughout Australasia.
One of the strategies adopted by AEISG in this regard is to identify areas where
improved standards of operation need to be consistently applied and then develop and
issue appropriate codes of practice which capture industry best practice in these areas.
AEISG Codes of Practice are adopted by members for the benefit of their employees,
their customers and the general community. They are also made available free of charge
on the AEISG website, www.aeisg. org.au, for use by any interested parties.
Contact Details: [email protected]
AEISG COP ELEVATED TEMPERATURE
978-1-921308-18-5
Edition 4 March 2017
Edition 4 March 2017

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Australian Explosives Industry And Safety Group Inc.

ELEVATED TEMPERATURE AND

 Applied Explosives Technology Pty Ltd

Copyright © AEISG Inc. 2017

The information is provided in good faith and without warranty.

SECTION 1 SCOPE AND DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................................ 8

1.1 SCOPE AND INTERPRETATION OF THE CODE ..................................................................................................... 8

SECTION 2 REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS .................................................................................................. 11

SECTION 3 BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................................... 12

3.1 CASE HISTORIES ....................................................................................................................................... 12

SECTION 4 RISK ASSESSMENT – INDICATORS OF REACTIVE GROUND ......................................................... 15

SECTION 5 ELEVATED TEMPERATURE BLASTING......................................................................................... 16

5.1 PRINCIPLES FOR ELEVATED TEMPERATURE MANAGEMENT ............................................................................... 16

SECTION 6 REACTIVE GROUND BLASTING .................................................................................................. 19

6.1 PRINCIPLES FOR REACTIVE GROUND MANAGEMENT ....................................................................................... 19

6.4.11 Ongoing Review of Risk Assessment ............................................................................................... 22

SECTION 7 SAMPLING FOR REACTIVITY TESTING ........................................................................................ 26

7.1 SAMPLE SELECTION .................................................................................................................................. 26

SECTION 8 REACTIVE GROUND TESTING AND PRODUCT SELECTION .......................................................... 29

8.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 29

SECTION 9 ELEVATED TEMPERATURE AND REACTIVE GROUND BLASTING .............................................. 33

9.1 IMPLEMENTATION OF ELEVATED TEMPERATURE AND REACTIVE GROUND PRODUCTS ............................................ 33

SECTION 10 SELECTION OF ACCESSORIES ................................................................................................. 35

SECTION 11 PROCEDURES FOR MISFIRES & EXTENDING SLEEP TIME........................................................ 36

11.1 MISFIRES IN ELEVATED TEMPERATURE GROUND ............................................................................................ 36

SECTION 12 MANAGEMENT OF PREMATURE REACTION/DETONATION EVENTS ...................................... 38

SECTION 13. ACTIVITY SEQUENCE – MANAGEMENT FLOWCHARTS ........................................................... 39

APPENDIX 1 TYPICAL REACTIVE GROUND INDICATOR RISK ASSESSMENT CHECKLIST ....................................................... 42

Section 1 Scope and Definitions

1.3 List of Standards, and References

SECTION 2 Regulatory Requirements

Reactive Ground Reactive Ground

Non-reactive Ground Non-reactive Ground

Date Location Type Details of Incident

2016 Indonesia H Melted Booster

2014 Indonesia HR Premature Detonation

2014 Qld, Australia U Post blast detonation

2014 Chile R Premature Detonation

2014 Canada H Mass Detonation

2014 Qld, Australia HR Melted Downlines

2013 Chile R Premature Detonation

2013 NSW, Australia H Premature Detonation

2013 Qld, Australia H Melted Downlines

Date Location Type Details of Incident

2012 Russia R Unknown

2011 Mongolia HR Premature Detonation

2010 NSW, Australia HR Premature detonation

2010 South Africa H Mass Premature Detonation

2010 NSW, Australia H Smoking Holes

2009 China H Mass Premature Detonation

2009 Qld, Australia H Premature Detonation

2009 South Africa H Premature Detonation

2008 Mt Gordon R Two hole deflagration

2007 Donaldson Coal R Spillage fire

2007 Canada R Premature Detonation

2007 Russia R Premature Detonation

2006 Curragh H Premature Detonation

2006 NSW, Australia H Melted Downline

2006 Mexico R Premature Detonation (ANFO)

2005 Black Star HR Premature Detonation