HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 860-1

March 7, 2014

considerations are usually so interrelated that

CHAPTER 860 optimum conditions cannot be met for one without
ROADSIDE CHANNELS compromising one or more of the others. The
objective is to achieve a reasonable balance, but the
Topic 861 – General importance of traveler safety must not be
underrated. See Index 861.4, “Safety
Index 861.1 - Introduction Considerations”.
Chapter 860 addresses the design of small open Roadside channels play an important role in the
channels called roadside channels that are highway drainage system as the initial conveyance
constructed as part of a highway drainage system. for highway runoff. Roadside channels are often
See Figure 861.1. included as part of the typical roadway section.
Therefore, the geometry of roadside channels
Figure 861.1 depends on available right-of-way, flow capacity
requirements, and the alignment and profile of the
Small Roadside Channel highway. Most roadside channels capture sheet
flow from the highway pavement and cut slope and
convey that runoff to larger channels or to culverts
within the drainage system. See Figure 861.2.

Figure 861.2
Roadside Channel Outlet to Storm
Drain at Drop Inlet

An open channel is a conveyance in which water

flows with a free surface. Although closed conduits
such as culverts and storm drains function as open
channels when flowing partially full, the term is
generally applied to natural and improved
watercourses, gutters, ditches, and channels. While
the hydraulic principles discussed in this chapter are
valid for all drainage structures, the primary
consideration is given to roadside channels.
In addition to performing its hydraulic function, the
roadside channel should be economical to construct
and maintain. Some roadside channels serve as
dual purpose channels which concurrently function This initial concentration of runoff may create
as infiltration swales for stormwater purposes. See hydraulic conditions that are erosive to the soil that
Index 861.11, “Water Quality Channels”. Roadside forms the channel boundary. To perform reliably,
channel design should consider errant vehicles the roadside channel is often stabilized against
leaving the traveled way, be pleasing in appearance, erosion by placing a protective lining over the soil.
convey collected water without damage to the This chapter presents two classes of channel linings
transportation facility or adjacent property and called rigid and flexible linings that are well suited
minimize environmental impacts. These for construction of small roadside channels.
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861.2 Hydraulic Considerations minimizes the effect on existing water surface

profiles. Open channel designs which lower the
An evaluation of hydraulic considerations for the water surface elevation can result in excessive
channel design alternatives should be made early in flow velocities and cause erosion problems. A
the project development process. The extent of the planned rise in water surface elevation can
hydrologic and hydraulic analysis should be
cause:
commensurate with the type of highway,
complexity of the drainage facility, and associated x Objectionable flooding of the roadbed and
costs, risks, and impacts. Most of the roadside adjacent properties or facilities;
channels and swales discussed in this chapter
x An environmental and maintenance
convey design flows less than 50 cubic feet per
problem with sedimentation due to reduced
second and generally do not require detailed
flow velocities.
hydrologic and hydraulic analyses beyond
developing the parameters required for the Rational Additional hydraulic considerations may
Formula (see Index 819.2(1)), Manning’s Equation, include: movable beds, heavy bedloads and
and the shear stress equations presented within this bulking during flood discharges. A detailed
Chapter and Hydraulic Engineering Circular (HEC) discussion of sediment transport and channel
No. 15, “Design of Roadway Channels with morphology is contained in the FHWA’s HDS
Flexible Linings”. The hydraulic design of an open No. 6 River Engineering for Highway
channel consists of developing a channel section to Encroachments.
carry the design discharge under the controlling
Reference is made to Volume VI of the
conditions, adding freeboard as needed and
AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines for a
determining the type of channel protection required
general discussion on channel hydraulic
to prevent erosion. In addition to erosion protection,
considerations.
channel linings can be used to increase the
hydraulic capacity of the channel by reducing the 861.3 Selection of "Design Flood"
channel roughness.
As with other drainage facilities, the first step in the
The hydraulic capacity of a roadside channel is hydraulic design of roadside channels is to establish
dependent on the size, shape, slope and roughness the range of peak flows which the channel section
of the channel section. For a given channel, the must carry. The recommended design flood and
hydraulic capacity becomes greater as the grade or water spread criteria for roadway drainage type
depth of flow increases. The channel capacity installations are presented in Table 831.3.
decreases as the channel surface becomes rougher.
For flood control and cross drainage channels
A rough channel can sometimes be an advantage on
within the right of way, see Index 821.3, “Selection
steep slopes where it is desirable to keep flow
of Design Flood”. Empirical and statistical methods
velocities from becoming excessively high. See
for estimating design discharges are discussed in
Topics 866 and 867.
Chapter 810, "Hydrology".
(1) Flood Control Channels. Flood control
channels are typically administered by a local 861.4 Safety Considerations
agency and present extreme consequences An important aspect of transportation facility
should failure occur. Therefore, when channels drainage design is that of traffic safety.
or drainage facilities under the jurisdiction of
The shape of a roadside channel section should
local flood control agencies or Corps of
minimize vehicular impact and provide a
Engineers are involved, the design must be
traversable section for errant traffic leaving the
coordinated via negotiations with the District
traveled way. The ideal channel section, from a
Hydraulic Engineer and the agencies involved.
traversability standpoint, will have flattened side
See Index 861.7, “Coordination with other
slopes and a curved transition to the channel
Agencies” and Index 865.2.
bottom. When feasible, it is recommended that
For flood control purposes, a good open channels be constructed outside the clear recovery
channel design within the right of way zone.
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861.5 Maintenance Considerations Figure 861.4

Design of open channels and roadside ditches Concrete Lined Channel with
should recognize that periodic maintenance Excessive Weed Growth
inspection and repair is required. Provisions should
be incorporated into the design for access to a
channel by maintenance personnel and equipment.
Consideration should be given to the size and type
of maintenance equipment required when assessing
the need for permanent or temporary access
easements for entrance ramps and gates through the
right of way fences.
Damaged channels can be expensive to repair and
interfere with the safe and orderly movement of
traffic.

Figure 861.3
Accumulation of sediment and debris may destroy
Damaged Channel vegetative linings leading to additional erosion
damage.
Channel work on some projects may be completed
several months before total project completion.
During this interim period, the contractor must
provide interim protection measures. Per Index
865.3(3), the design engineer should include
temporary channel linings to assure that minor
erosion will not develop into major damage. As
needed, the District Project Engineer may obtain
vegetative recommendations from the District
Landscape Architect. The Project Engineer must
verify vegetative component compatibility with the
final design.
861.6 Economics
Minor erosion damage within the right of way
should be repaired immediately after it occurs and Economical drainage design is achieved by
action taken to prevent the recurrence. Conditions selecting the design alternative which best satisfies
which require extensive repair or frequently the established design criteria at the lowest cost.
recurring maintenance may require a complete The economic evaluation of design alternatives
redesign rather than repetitive or extensive should be commensurate with the complexity and
reconstruction. The advice of the District importance of the facility. Analysis of the channel
Hydraulics Engineer should be sought when location, shape, size, and materials involved may
evaluating the need for major restoration. reveal possibilities for reducing construction costs,
The growth of weeds, brush, and trees in a drainage flood damage potential, maintenance problems and
channel can effectively reduce its hydraulic environmental impacts.
efficiency. See Figure 861.4. The result being that a
861.7 Coordination with Other Agencies
portion of the design flow may overflow the
channel banks causing flooding and possible There are many Federal, State and local agencies
erosion. and private entities engaged in water related
planning, construction and regulation activities
whose interests can affect the design of some
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highway drainage channels (e.g., flood control effective at trapping litter, total suspended solids
channels described under Index 861.2(1)). Such (soil particles), and particulate metals. In most
agencies may request the channel design satisfy cases, flow attenuation is also provided.
additional and perhaps governing design criteria.
Refer to Appendix B, Table B-1 of the Project
Early coordination with these agencies may help
Planning and Design Guide for a summary of
avoid delays in the project development process and
preliminary design factors for biofiltration strips
post-project conflicts. Early coordination may also
and swales:
reveal opportunities for cooperative projects which
may benefit both Caltrans and the water resources http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/stormwtr/ppdg/swdr
agency. For information on cooperative agreements 2012/PPDG-May-2012.pdf
refer to Index 803.2. See HDM Table 816.6A and Index 865.5 for
861.8 Environment Manning’s roughness coefficients used for travel
time calculations for the rational formula based on
Many of the same principles involved in sound water quality flow (WQF) to check swale
highway construction and maintenance of open performance against biofiltration criteria at WQF,
channels parallel environmental considerations. i.e., a Hydraulic Residence Time of 5 minutes or
Environmental problems can arise if riparian more; a maximum velocity of 1.0 ft/s; and a
species inhabit the channel. Erosion, sedimentation, maximum depth of flow of 0.5 ft. See Bio-Strips
water quality, and aesthetics should be of prime and Bio-Swales under Biofiltration Design
concern to the highway design engineer. Refer to Guidance at:
Index 110.2 and the Project Planning and Design
Guide for discussion on control of water pollution. http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/storm1/caltrans_20
090729.html
861.9 Unlined Channels
861.12 References
Whenever feasible, roadside channels should be
designed with natural bottoms. Use linings only More complete information on hydraulic principles
when warranted. and engineering techniques of open channel design
may be found in FHWA's Hydraulic Design Series
Refer to Table 865.2 for typical permitted shear No. 3, "Design Charts for Open Channel Flow",
stress and velocity for bare soil and vegetation. Hydraulic Design Series No. 4, "Introduction to
861.10 Lined Channels Highway Hydraulics", Hydraulic Engineering
Circular No. 15 (HEC No. 15), “Design of
The main purposes of channel linings are: Roadway Channels with Flexible Linings” and
(a) To prevent erosion damage. Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 22 (HEC No.
22), Chapter 5, “Urban Drainage Design Manual –
(b) To increase velocity for prevention of excessive Roadside and Median Channels”. For a general
sedimentation textbook discussion of open channel hydraulics,
(c) To increase capacity. reference is made to "Open-Channel Hydraulics" by
Ven Te Chow. In addition, many helpful design
See Topic 865 for design concepts.
aids are included in "Handbook of Hydraulics", by
861.11 Water Quality Channels Brater and King.
Biofiltration swales are vegetated channels, Topic 862 - Roadside Drainage
typically configured as trapezoidal or v-shaped
channels (trapezoidal recommended where feasible) Channel Location
that receive and convey stormwater flows while
862.1 General
meeting water quality criteria and other flow
criteria independent of Chapter 860. Pollutants are Assuming adequate functional design, the next most
removed by filtration through the vegetation, important design consideration is channel location.
sedimentation, absorption to soil particles, and Locations that avoid poorly drained areas, unstable
infiltration through the soil. Strips and swales are soil conditions, and frequently flooded areas can
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greatly reduce drainage related problems. Refer to flowing water, the material used to line the channel,
Index 110.4 for discussion on wetlands protection. the nature of the bedding soil and the sediment
being transported by the flow. Refer to Table 865.2
Typically drainage and open channel considerations
for recommended permissible flow velocities in
are not considered the primary decision factors in
unlined channels.
the roadway location; however they are factors
which will often directly or indirectly affect many Realignment considerations for channels within the
other considerations. Often minor alignment right of way are discussed in Index 867, Channel
adjustments can avoid serious drainage problems. Changes.
If a channel can be located far enough away from 862.3 Point of Discharge
the highway, the concerns of traffic safety and
aesthetics can be significantly mitigated. See Figure The point of discharge into a natural watercourse
862.1. The cost of additional right of way may be requires special attention. Water entering a natural
offset somewhat by the reduced cost of erosion watercourse from a highway drainage channel
should not cause eddies with attendant scour of the
control, traffic protection, and landscaping.
natural watercourse. In erodible embankment soils,
Figure 862.1 if the flow line of the drainage channel is
appreciably higher than that of the watercourse at
Small-Rock Lined Channel the point of discharge, then the use of a spillway
Outside of Clear Recovery Zone may be advisable to prevent erosion of the channel.

Topic 863 - Channel Section

863.1 Roadside and Median Channels
Roadside and median channels are open-channel
systems which collect and convey stormwater from
the pavement surface, roadside, and median areas.
These channels may outlet to a storm drain piping
system via a drop inlet (see Figure 861.2), to a
detention or retention basin or other storage
component, or to an outfall channel. Roadside and
median channels are normally triangular or
trapezoidal in cross section and are lined with grass
or other protective lining.
Reference is made to the FHWA publication HEC
862.2 Alignment and Grade No. 22, Chapter 5.
Ordinarily, the highway drainage channel must be The shape of a channel section is generally
located where it will best serve its intended determined by considering the intended purpose,
purpose, using the grade and alignment obtainable terrain, flow velocity and quantity of flow to be
at the site. Insofar as practicable, abrupt changes in conveyed.
alignment and grade should be avoided. A sharp
change in alignment presents a point of attack for 863.2 Triangular
flowing water, and abrupt changes in grade can The triangular channel or V-ditch is intended
result in possible scour when the grade is steepened primarily for low flow conditions such as in median
or deposition of transported material when the and roadside ditches. V-shaped ditches are
grade is flattened. susceptible to erosion and will require lining when
Ideally, a drainage channel should have flow shear stress and velocity exceed the values given for
velocities that neither erode nor cause deposition in bare soil in Table 865.2. It is good practice to round
the channel. This optimum velocity is dependent the bottom of a V-ditch. See Figure 862.1 and
on the size and slope of channel, the quantity of Figure 863.1.
860-6 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
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Figure 863.1 Though rectangular channels are relatively

expensive to construct, since the walls must be
Small-Rock Lined Triangular designed as earth retaining structures, the
Channel with Rounded Bottom construction costs can be somewhat offset by the
reduced costs associated with right of way,
materials, and channel excavation. See Index 865.2
for the design of concrete lined flood control
channels.

Topic 864 - Channel Stability

Design Concepts
864.1 General
The gradient of roadside channels typically parallels
the grade of the highway. Even at relatively mild
highway grades, highly erosive hydraulic conditions
can exist in adjacent roadside channels.
Consequently, designing a stable conveyance
becomes a critical component in the design of
863.3 Trapezoidal roadside channels.
The most common channel shapes is the trapezoidal The need for erosion prevention is not limited to the
section. highway drainage channels; it extends throughout
Trapezoidal channels are easily constructed by the right-of-way and is an essential feature of
machinery and are often the most economical. adequate drainage design. Erosion and maintenance
are minimized largely by the use of flat side slopes
When a wide trapezoidal section is proposed, both rounded and blended with natural terrain, drainage
traffic safety and aesthetics can be improved by channels designed with due regard to location,
rounding all angles of the channel cross section width, depth, slopes, alignment, and protective
with vertical curves. The approximate length of treatment, proper facilities for groundwater
these vertical curves can be determined by the interception, dikes, berms, and other protective
formula: devices, and protective ground covers and planting.
40
‫=ܮ‬ 864.2 Stable Channel Design Procedure
ܺ
For most highway drainage channels bed and side
where:
slope instability cannot be tolerated and stable
L = Length of vertical curve in feet channel design must be based on the concepts of
static equilibrium, including the use of a lining
X = Horizontal component of side slopes
material if necessary. The permissible tractive force
expressed as x, y coordinates with y = 1
(shear stress) procedure requires that the shear
For narrow channels, L, is limited to the bottom stresses on the channel bottom and sides do not
width. exceed the allowable amounts for the given channel
boundary. Based on the actual physical processes
863.4 Rectangular
involved in maintaining a stable channel,
Rectangular channels are used to convey large specifically the stresses developed at the interface
flows in areas with limited right of way. At some between flowing water and materials forming the
locations, guardrail or other types of positive traffic channel boundary, the tractive force procedure is a
barrier may be necessary between the traveled way more realistic model and was adopted as the
and the channel. preferred design procedure for HEC No. 15, which
is the primary reference for stable channel design.
 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 860-7
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The maximum shear stress along the channel where:

bottom may be estimated by the following equation:
Vp = Permissible velocity, ft/s
߬ௗ = ߛ݀ܵ
Wp = Permissible shear stress, lb/ft2
where:
D = Unit conversion constant, 1.49
 Wd = Shear stress in channel at maximum depth,
As a guide, Table 865.2 provides typical values of
lb/ft2
permissible velocity and permissible shear stress for
 J = Specific weight of water selected lining types.
d = Maximum depth of flow in channel for the The basic procedure for designing a flexible lining
design discharge, ft consists of the following steps.
S = Slope of channel, ft/ft Step 1. Determine a design discharge, Q, and select
the channel slope and channel shape.
When the permissible shear stress is greater than or
equal to the computed shear stress, the lining is Step 2. Select a trial lining type. Initially, the
considered acceptable: Engineer may need to determine if a long-term
lining is needed and whether or not a temporary or
߬௣ ൒ ܵ‫߬ܨ‬ௗ
transitional lining is required. For determining the
where: latter, the trial lining type could be chosen as the
native material (unlined), typically bare soil. For
Wp = Permissible shear stress for the channel example, it may be determined that the bare soil is
lining, lb/ft insufficient for a long-term solution, but vegetation
SF = Safety factor is a good solution. For the transitional period
between construction and vegetative establishment,
The safety factor provides for a measure of analysis of the bare soil will determine if a
uncertainty, as well as a means for the designer to temporary lining is prudent. Per Index 865.1,
reflect a lower tolerance for failure by choosing a District Landscape should be consulted to provide
higher safety factor. A safety factor of 1.0 is feasible long-term vegetation recommendations.
appropriate in many cases and may be considered The Engineer and the Landscape Architect should
the default. However, safety factors from 1.0 to 1.5 discuss the compatibility of any living materials
may be appropriate, subject to the designer's (temporary, transitional or permanent) with the
discretion, where one or more of the following proposed lining material and verify impacts to
conditions may exist: conveyance before the Engineer finalizes the
(a) critical or supercritical flows are expected design.
(b) climatic regions where vegetation may be Step 3. Estimate the depth of flow, di in the channel
uneven or slow to establish and compute the hydraulic radius, R. The estimated
depth may be based on physical limits of the
(c) significant uncertainty regarding the design
channel, but this first estimate is essentially a guess.
discharge
Iterations on Steps 3 through 5 may be required.
(d) consequences of failure are high
Step 4. Estimate Manning's n and the discharge
The relationship between permissible shear stress implied by the estimated n and flow depth values.
and permissible velocity for a lining can be found Calculate the discharge (Qi).
by substituting the equation for maximum shear
Step 5. Compare Qi with Q. If Qi is within 5 percent
stress and continuity equation into Manning’s
of the design, Q, then proceed on to Step 6. If not,
equation:
return to Step 3 and select a new estimated flow
ߙ ଵ ଵൗ depth, di+1. This can be estimated from the
ܸ௣ = ܴ ൗ଺ ߬௣ ଶ
݊ඥߛ݀ following equation or any other appropriate
method.
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ܳ ଴.ସ ߬ௗ = ߛ݀ܵ
݀௜ାଵ = ݀௜ ൬ ൰
ܳ௜ For trapezoidal and triangular channels, the
Step 6. Calculate the shear stress at maximum following K1 values may be applied:
GHSWKIJd, determine the permissible shear strHVVIJp, K1 = 0.77 Z ” 1.5
according to the methods described in HEC No. 15
and select an appropriate safety factor (i.e., 1 to K1 = 0.066Z + 0.67 1.5 < Z < 5
1.5). K1 = 1.0 5 ” Z
Step 7. Compare the permissible shear stress to the The Z value represents the horizontal dimension
calculated shear stress from Step 6 using: 1:Z (V:H). Use of side slopes steeper than
߬௣ ൒ ܵ‫߬ܨ‬ௗ 1:3 (V:H) is not encouraged for flexible linings
because of the potential for erosion of the side
If the permissible shear stress is adequate then the slopes. Steep side slopes are allowable within a
lining is acceptable. If the permissible shear is channel if cohesive soil conditions exist. Channels
inadequate, then return to Step 2 and select an with steep slopes should not be allowed if the
alternative lining type with greater permissible channel is constructed in non-cohesive soils.
shear stress from Table 865.2. As an alternative, a
For channels lined with gravel or small-rock slope
different channel shape may be selected that results
protection, the maximum suggested side slope is
in a lower depth of flow. The selected lining is
1 V : 3 H, and flatter slopes are encouraged. If
stable and the design process is complete. Other
steeper side slopes are required, see Chapter 6 of
linings may be tested, if desired, before specifying
HEC No. 15 for design procedures.
the preferred lining.
Direct solutions for Manning's equation for many Topic 865 - Channel Linings
channels of trapezoidal, rectangular, triangular and
circular cross sections can be found within the 865.1 Flexible Verses Rigid
Channel Analysis subcomponent FHWA's Lining materials may be classified as flexible or
Hydraulic Toolbox software program. rigid. Flexible linings are able to conform to
864.3 Side Slope Stability changes in channel shape and can sustain such
changes while maintaining the overall integrity of
Shear stress is generally reduced on the channel the channel. In contrast, rigid linings cannot change
sides compared with the channel bottom. The shape and tend to fail when a portion of the channel
maximum shear on the side of a channel is given by lining is damaged. Channel shape may change due
the following equation: to frost-heave, slumping, piping, etc. Typical
߬௦ = ‫ܭ‬ଵ ߬ௗ flexible lining materials include grass or small-rock
slope protection, while typical rigid lining materials
where: include hot mixed asphalt or Portland cement
Ws = Side shear stress on the channel, lb/ft2 concrete. Flexible linings are generally less
expensive, may have a more natural appearance,
K1 = Ratio of channel side to bottom shear permit infiltration and exfiltration and are typically
stress more environmentally acceptable. Vegetative
Wd = Shear stress in channel at maximum channel lining is also recognized as a best
depth, lb/ft2 management practice for storm water quality design
in highway drainage systems. A vegetated channel
The value K1 depends on the size and shape of the helps to deposit highway runoff contaminants
channel. For parabolic or V-shape with rounded (particularly suspended sediments) before they
bottom channels there is no sharp discontinuity leave the highway right of way and enter streams.
along the wetted perimeter and therefore it can be See Index 861.11 ‘Water Quality Channels’ and
assumed that shear stress at any point on the side Figure 865.1.
slope is related to the depth at that point using the
shear stress equation from Index 864.2:
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On steep slopes, most vegetated flexible linings are Table 865.1 provides a guide for Portland cement
limited in the erosive forces they can sustain concrete and air blown mortar roadside channel
without damage to the channel and lining unless the linings. See photo below Table 865.1 for example.
vegetative lining is combined with another more
For the design of concrete lined flood control
erosion-resistant long-term lining below, such as a
channels discussed in Index 861.2 (1), see U.S.
cellular soil confinement system. See Figure 865.1
Army Corps of Engineers publication; “Structural
and Index 865.3(1). The District Landscape
Design of Concrete Lined Flood Control Channels”,
Architect should be contacted to provide viable
EM 1110-2-2007:
vegetation alternatives within the District, however
all design responsibilities belong to the Project http://planning.usace.army.mil/toolbox/library/EMs
Engineer. /em1110.2.2007.pdf

Figure 865.1 Table 865.1

Steep-Sloped Channel with Concrete(2) Channel Linings
Composite Vegetative Lining Minimum
Abrasion Thickness of Lining (in)
Level(1) Reinforcement

Sides Bottom

1-3 5 5 6 x 6-
W2.9 x W2.9
welded wire
fabric
NOTES:
(1) See Table 855.2A.
(2) Portland Cement Concrete or Air Blown
Mortar

Figure 865.2
Vegetative flexible lining placed on top of cellular soil Concrete Lined Channel
confinement system on a steep-sloped channel.

865.2 Rigid
A rigid lining can typically provide higher capacity
and greater erosion resistance and in some cases
may be the only feasible alternative.
Rigid linings are useful in flow zones where high
shear stress or non-uniform flow conditions exist,
such as at transitions in channel shape or at an
energy dissipation structure.
The most commonly used types of rigid lining are
hot mixed asphalt and Portland cement concrete.
Hot mixed asphalt is used mainly for small ditches,
gutters and overside drains (see Standard Plan
D87D) because it cannot withstand hydrostatic For large flows, consideration should be given to
pressure from the outside. using a minimum bottom width of 12 feet for
construction and maintenance purposes, but depths
of flow less than one foot are not recommended.
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Despite the non-erodible nature of rigid linings, rocks (cobble, gravel, crushed gravel, crushed
they are susceptible to failure from foundation rock, or any combination of these) on the slope.
instability and abrasion. The major cause of failure Where the channel design includes a
is undermining that can occur in a number of ways. requirement for runoff infiltration to address
stormwater needs, the designer may need to
865.3 Flexible consider installation of a granular filter in lieu
Flexible linings can be long-term, transitional or of RSP fabric if it is anticipated that the RSP
temporary. Long-term flexible linings are used fabric would become clogged with sediment.
where the channel requires protection against See following link to HEC No. 23, Volume 2,
erosion for the design service life of the channel. Design Guideline 16, Index 16.2.1, for
Per Index 861.12, more complete information on information on designing a granular filter:
hydraulic principles and engineering techniques of http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulic
flexible channel lining design may be found in HEC s/pubs/09112/page16.cfm
No. 15 and Chapter 5 of HEC No. 22.
Standard Specification Section 72-16 includes
Flexible linings act to reduce the shear stress on the specifications for constructing gabion
underlying soil surface. Therefore, the erodibility of structures. Gabions consist of wire mesh
the underlying soil is a key factor in the baskets that are placed and then filled with
performance of flexible linings. Erodibility of non- rock. Gabion basket wires are susceptible to
cohesive soils (plasticity index less than 10) is corrosion and are most appropriate for use as a
mainly due to particle size, while cohesive soil channel lining where corrosion potential is
erodibility is a function of cohesive strength and
minimized, such as desert or other arid
soil density. Vegetative and rolled erosion control
locations.
product lining performance relates to how well they
protect the underlying soil from shear stress, and so Cellular soil confinement systems may be used
these lining types do not have permissible shear as an alternative for steep channels with a
stresses independent of soil type. The soil plasticity variety of infills available including soil and
index should be included in the Materials or gravel. Soil confinement systems consist of
Geotechnical Design Report. sheet polyethylene spot welded to form a
system of individual confinement cells. See
In general, when a lining is needed, the lowest cost
Figure 865.3.
lining that affords satisfactory protection should be
used. This may include vegetation used alone or in Figure 865.3
combination with other types of linings. Thus, a
channel might be grass-lined on the flatter slopes Long-Term Flexible Lining
and lined with more resistant material on the steeper
slopes. In cross section, the channel might be lined
with a highly resistant material (e.g., cellular soil
confinement system – see Index 865.3(1) Long
Term) within the depth required to carry floods
occurring frequently and lined with grass above that
depth for protection from the rare floods.
(1) Long Term. Long-term lining materials include
vegetation, rock slope protection, gabions
(wire-enclosed rock), and turf reinforcement
mats with enhanced UV stability. Standard
Specification Section 72-4 includes
specifications for constructing small-rock slope
protection for gutters, ditches or channels and
includes excavating and backfilling the footing Placing a polyethylene cellular soil confinement system
trench, placing RSP fabric and placing small on a steep-sloped channel.
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Per Index 865.1, these systems may be Step 2. Need to select both a low flow and side
combined with other vegetated flexible linings, slope lining. (See Table 866.3A.)
e.g., turf reinforcement mats.
Step 3. Estimate the depth of flow in the channel
(2) Transitional. Transitional flexible linings are and compute the hydraulic radius. (No change.)
used to provide erosion protection until a long-
Step 4. After determining the Manning's n for the
term lining, such as grass, can be established.
low flow and side slope linings, calculate the
For mild slopes, these may include jute netting
effective Manning's n:
(depending on environmental, i.e., wildlife,
ଶൗ
parameters) or turf reinforcement. Turf ଷൗ ଷ
ܲ௅ ܲ௅ ݊௦ ଶ
reinforcement can serve either a transitional or ݊௘ = ቈ + ൬1 െ ൰ ൬ ൰ ቉ ݊௅
long-term function by providing additional ܲ ܲ ݊௅
structure to the soil/vegetation matrix. Typical where:
turf reinforcement materials include gravel/soil
mixes and turf reinforcement mats (TRM's). A ne = Effective Manning’s n value for the
TRM is a non-degradable rolled erosion control composite channel
product (RECP) processed into a three- PL = Low flow lining perimeter, ft
dimensional matrix. For examples see
following link: P = Total flow perimeter, ft
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/LandArch/ec/recp/tr ns = Manning’s n value for the side slope lining
m.htm nL = Manning’s n value for the low flow lining
The design for transitional products should be Step 5. Compare implied discharge and design
based on a flood event with an exceedance discharge. (No change.)
probability at least equal to the expected
product service life (i.e., 12 to 36 months). Step 6. Determine the shear stress at maximum
GHSWK IJd (߬ௗ = ߛ݀ܵ), and the shear stress on the
(3) Temporary. Temporary channel linings are used FKDQQHOVLGHVORSHIJs (see Index 864.2).
without vegetation to line channels that might
be part of a construction site or some other 6WHS&RPSDUHWKHVKHDUVWUHVVHVIJd DQGIJs, to the
short-term channel situation. SHUPLVVLEOHVKHDUVWUHVVIJp, for each of the channel
OLQLQJV ,I IJd RU IJs LV JUHDWHU WKDQ WKH IJp for the
Standard Specification Section 21-1 was respective lining, a different combination of linings
developed primarily to address slope erosion should be evaluated. See Table 865.2.
products, however, it includes specifications for
constructing turf reinforcing mats, netting and 865.5 Bare Soil Design and Grass Lining
rolled erosion control products (RECP’s – see Per Index 865.1, the District Landscape Architect
Index 865.6) which may also be applied to should be contacted to recommend vegetation
channels as temporary and transitional linings. alternatives (including vegetation for transitional
See Index 865.1for coordinating vegetative products, if needed) and the same procedure for the
recommendation with District Landscape stable channel design procedure presented in Index
Architecture. 864.2 should be followed by the Project Engineer.
865.4 Composite Lining Design See Figure 865.4 for grass lining example in a
median channel. For slope stability when
The procedure for composite lining design is based constructing embankment (4:1 and steeper), 85-
on the stable channel design procedure presented in 90% relative compaction is desired. Although not
Index 864.2 with additional sub-steps to account for optimal for best plant growth, compaction of up to
the two lining types. Specifically, the modifications 90% is not a major constraint for grass
are: establishment. Prior to seeding, scarification to a
Step 1. Determine design discharge and select depth of 1 inch of the compacted soil surface is
channel slope and shape. (No change.) recommended for improving initial runoff
absorption and ensuring the seed is incorporated
860-12 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
March 7, 2014

into the soil. A temporary degradable erosion Cn = Grass roughness coefficient (use 0.20 or
control blanket (ECB) (e.g., single net straw) can Tables 4.3 and 4.4 from HEC-15)
then be installed on top.
The remaining shear at the soil surface is termed the
The permissible shear stress for the vegetation is effective shear stress. When the effective shear
based on the design flood (Table 831.3). If the stress is less than the allowable shear for the soil
calculated shear for any given vegetation method is surface, then erosion of the soil surface will be
inadequate, then an alternative vegetation type with controlled. The effective shear at the soil surface is
greater shear stress must be selected and/or a given by the following equation.
different channel shape may be selected that results ݊௦ ଶ
in a lower depth of flow. ߬௘ = ߬ௗ ൫1 െ ‫ܥ‬௙ ൯ ቀ ቁ
݊
Figure 865.4 where:
Grass-Lined Median Channel We = Effective shear stress on the soil surface,
lb/ft2
Wd = Design shear stress, lb/ft2
Cf = Grass cover factor (use 0.6 to 0.8 or Table
4.5 from HEC-15)
ns = Soil grain roughness
n = Overall lining roughness
The soil grain roughness, ns, is 0.016 when D75 <
0.05 in. For larger grained soils the soil grain
roughness is
ଵൗ
݊௦ = ߙ(‫଻ܦ‬ହ ) ଺

where:
The permissible shear stress for rolled erosion ns = Soil grain roughness (D75 > 1.3 (0.05 in))
control products should be based on a flood event
D75 = Soil size where 75 percent of the material
with an exceedance probability no less than the
is finer, in
expected product service life (i.e., 12 to 36 months).
The maximum shear stresses for channel D = Unit conversion constant, 0.026
applications shown in Erosion Control Technology
The permissible soil shear stress for fine-grained,
Council Rolled Erosion Control Products
non-cohesive soils (D75 < 0.05 in. is relatively
Specification Chart must be lower than the
constant and is conservatively estimated at
permissible shear stresses indicated in Table 865.2.
0.02 lb/ft2. For coarse grained, non-cohesive soils
See: http://www.ectc.org/specifications.asp
(0.05 in. < D75 < 2 in.) the following equation
The Manning's roughness coefficient for grass applies.
linings varies depending on grass properties and
߬௣,௦௢௜௟ = ߙ‫଻ܦ‬ହ
shear stress given that the roughness changes as the
grass stems bend under flow. The equation where:
describing the n value for grass linings is:
Wp,soil = Permissible soil shear stress, lb/ft2
݊= ߙ‫ܥ‬௡ ߬଴ି଴.ସ
D75 = Soil size where 75 percent of the
where: material is finer, in
W0 = Average boundary shear stress, lb/ft2 D = Unit conversion constant, 0.4
D = Unit conversion constant, 0.213
 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 860-13
March 7, 2014

Table 865.2(2)
Permissible Shear and Velocity for Selected Lining Materials

Permissible
Permissible
Boundary Category Boundary Type Shear Stress
Velocity (ft/s)
(lb/ft2)
Fine colloidal sand 0.03 1.5
Sandy loam (noncolloidal) 0.04 1.75
Clayey sands FRKHVLYH3,• 0.095 2.6
,QRUJDQLFVLOWVFRKHVLYH3,• 0.11 2.7
6LOW\6DQGVFRKHVLYH3,• 0.072 2.4
Alluvial silt (noncolloidal) 0.05 2
Silty loam (noncolloidal) 0.05 2.25
Finer than course sand - D75 < 0.05 in. 0.02 1.3
(non-cohesive)
Firm loam 0.075 2.5
Soils(1) Fine gravels 0.075 2.5
Fine gravel (non-cohesive, D75 = 0.3 0.12 2.8
in, PI<10)
Gravel (D75 = 0.6 in) (non-cohesive, 0.24 3.7
D75 = 0.6 in, PI<10)
Inorganic clays (cohesive, PI • 20) 0.14 2.9
Stiff clay 0.25 4.5
Alluvial silt (colloidal) 0.25 3.75
Graded loam to cobbles 0.38 3.75
Graded silts to cobbles 0.43 4
Shales and hardpan 0.67 6
Class A turf (Table 4.1, HEC No. 15) 3.7 8
Class B turf (Table 4.1, HEC No. 15) 2.1 7
Vegetation Class C turf (Table 4.1, HEC No. 15) 1.0 3.5
Long native grasses 1.7 6
Short native and bunch grass 0.95 4
860-14 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
March 7, 2014

Table 865.2(2) (con’t.)

Permissible Shear and Velocity for Selected Lining Materials
Permissible
Permissible
Boundary Category Boundary Type Shear Stress
Velocity (ft/s)
(lb/ft2)
Rolled Erosion Control Products (RECPs)
Temporary Degradable Single net straw 1.65 3
Erosion Control Blankets Double net coconut/straw blend 1.75 6
(ECBs) Double net shredded wood 1.75 6
Jute 0.45 2.5
Coconut fiber 2.25 4
Open Weave Textile (OWT)
Vegetated coconut fiber 8 9.5
Straw with net 1.65 3
Unvegetated 3 7
Non Degradable Turf
Partially established 6.0 12
Reinforcement Mats (TRMs)
Fully vegetated 8.00 12
Rock Slope Protection, Cellular Confinement and Concrete
Small-Rock Slope Protection 0.8 6
(4-inch Thick Layer)
Small-Rock Slope Protection 2 8
Rock Slope Protection
(7-inch Thick Layer)
No. 2 2.5 10
Facing 5 12
Gabions Gabions 6.3 12
2
Cellular Confinement: 71 in cell and TRM 11.6 12
Vegetated infill
1.14 - in. D50 (45 in2 cell) 6.9 12
2
3.5” D50 (45 in cell) 15.1 11.5
2
Cellular Confinement: 1.14” D 50 (71 in cell) 13.2 12
Aggregate Infill 2
3.5” D50 (71 in cell) 18 11.7
2
1.14” D50 (187 in cell) 10.92 12
2
3.5” D50 (187 in cell) 10.55 12
2
Cellular Confinement: (71 in cell) 2 12
Concrete Infill
Hard Surfacing Concrete 12.5 12
NOTES:
(1) PI = Plasticity Index (From Materials or Geotechnical Design Report)
(2) Some materials listed in Table 856.2 have been laboratory tested at shear stresses/velocities above those
shown. For situations that exceed the values listed for roadside channels, contact the District Hydraulic
Engineer.
 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 860-15
March 7, 2014

A simplified approach for estimating the erosion products, however, the specifications
permissible shear stress for cohesive soils (based on for constructing turf reinforcing mats (TRM’s),
Equation 4.6 in Chapter 4 of HEC No. 15) is open weave textiles and erosion control
illustrated in Figure 4.1 of Chapter 4 in HEC No. blankets may also be applied to channels as
15. The combined effects of the soil permissible temporary and transitional linings, and some
shear stress and the effective shear stress transferred TRM’s may be used as permanent linings.
through the vegetative lining results in a
(2) Non-Hydraulic Design Considerations. The
permissible shear stress for the given conditions.
long-term performance of TRMs has
Table 865.2 provides typical values of permissible
traditionally been evaluated using hydraulic
shear stress and permissible velocity for cohesive
testing performance within controlled flume
soils and selected lining types. Representative
environments, or laboratory testing of specific
values for different soil, vegetation and lining types
parameters, usually conforming to ASTM or
are based on the methods found in Chapter 4 of
other industry standards. In recent years
HEC No. 15 while those for gravel, rock gabions
additional important design factors have been
and rock slope protection are based on methods
identified, from damages due to insect
found in Chapters 6 and 7 of HEC No. 15. The
infestation to drainage problems or soil
permissive shear stress values shown for soil
conditions resulting in poor vegetative
confinement systems are based on testing by others,
establishment. Table 5.5 within Chapter 5 of
however, the maximum permissive velocity shown
HEC No. 15 provides a detailed TRM protocol
in Table 865.2 for all boundary types has been
checklist.
limited to 12 feet per second based on the following
assumptions: Six broad categories of stressors or potential
damages to RECPs are listed below that can
x The upper limit of flow rate is 50 cfs cause decrease in performance, considered as a
x The longitudinal slope is 10 percent maximum function of specific properties of these lining
materials.
x The maximum side slope is 2H:1V
(a) Environmental stress – tensile stresses that
x The maximum storm duration is one hour exceed the mechanical strength of the
When the permissible shear stress is greater than or material accelerated by other stresses in the
equal to the computed shear stress, the lining is exposure environment.
considered acceptable. If the computed velocity Many manufacturer-reported values for
exceeds the permissive velocity, or any of the maximum velocity or shear stress are based
above-listed assumptions are exceeded, contact the on short duration testing, however, longer
District Hydraulic Engineer for support. duration flows – hours to days – more
865.6 Rolled Erosion Control Products closely represent field conditions. Erosive
properties of soils change with saturation,
(1) General. Manufacturers have developed a vegetation becomes stressed or damaged,
variety of rolled erosion control products and properties of some lining materials
(RECPs) for erosion protection of channels. change with long periods of inundation or
RECPs consist of materials that are stitched or hydraulic stress. The result is that
bound into a fabric. Vegetative and RECP maximum reported shear stress and velocity
lining performance relates to how well they may overestimate actual field performance
protect the underlying soil from shear stresses of the full range of channel lining materials
so these linings do not have permissible shear in the event of longer duration flows (Table
stresses independent of soil types. Chapters 4 865.2). See Index 865.5 for safety factor
(vegetation) and 5 (RECPs) of HEC No. 15 discussion.
describe the methods for analyzing these (b) Mechanical damage – localized damage
linings. Standard Specification Section 21-1 due to externally applied loads such as
was developed primarily to address slope debris or machinery, often during
860-16 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
March 7, 2014

installation but also due to operation and vegetation recommendations (if required by the
maintenance activities designer).
(c) Oxidation – due to exposure to air and
water, a chemical reaction with a specific
Topic 866 - Hydraulic Design of
chemical group in a constituent polymer Roadside Channels
that leads to damage at a molecular level
and changes in physical properties. Other 866.1 General
chemical stresses can include acidity, Open channel hydraulic design is of particular
corrosives, salinity, ozone and other air importance to highway design because of the
pollutants. interrelationship of channels to most highway
(d) Photo degradation – change in chemical drainage facilities.
structure due to exposure to UV The hydraulic principles of open channel flow are
wavelengths of sunlight, most often based on steady state uniform flow conditions, as
occurring during installation, prior to full defined in Index 866.2. Though these conditions
vegetation establishment or inadequate are rarely achieved in the field, generally the
vegetation establishment and coverage over variation in channel properties is sufficiently small
time. that the use of uniform flow theory will yield
UV-Resistance per ASTM D-4355 should sufficiently accurate results for most roadside
conform to the following for the specified channels.
type of TRM and design life: 866.2 Flow Classifications
x Temporary or transitional TRM – 90% (1) Steady vs. Unsteady Flow. The flow in an open
tensile strength retained at 500 hr for channel can be classified as steady or unsteady.
the TRM product to be considered up to The flow is said to be steady if the depth of
a 5-year design life. flow at a section, for a given discharge, is
constant with respect to time. The flow is
x Long-term TRM – 90% tensile strength
considered unsteady if the depth of flow varies
retained at 5,000 hr for the TRM
with respect to time.
product to be considered up to a 50-
year design life. (2) Uniform Flow. Steady flow can further be
classified as uniform or nonuniform. The flow
(e) Temperature instability – changes in
is said to be uniform if the depth of flow and
appearance, weight, dimension or other
quantity of water are constant at every section
properties as a result of low, high, or cyclic
of the channel under consideration. Uniform
temperature exposure.
flow can be maintained only when the shape,
As TRM or other materials are degrading, the size, roughness and slope of the channel are
vegetative component of a project is constant. Under uniform flow conditions, the
simultaneously becoming established, depth and mean velocity of flow is said to be
presumably leading to an overlap in normal. Under these conditions the water
effectiveness of each component. The engineer surface and flowlines will be parallel to the
must carefully evaluate published performance stream bed and a hydrostatic pressure condition
data for specific materials with anticipated will exist, the pressure at a given section will
degradation, consider specific performance vary linearly with depth.
added by vegetative components, and apply a
As previously mentioned, uniform flow
factor of safety in choosing materials that may
conditions are rarely attained in the field, but
provide enough strength initially to bridge the
the error in assuming uniform flow in a channel
gap. Per Index 865.6(1), the District Landscape
of fairly constant slope, roughness and cross
Architect should be consulted to provide viable
section is relatively small when compared to the
long-term and compatible transitional
uncertainties of estimating the design discharge.
 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 860-17
March 7, 2014

(3) Non-uniform Flow. There are two types of potential energy and (2) kinetic energy.
steady state non-uniform flow: Potential energy is due to the position of the
water surface above some datum. Kinetic
x Gradually varied flow.
energy is due to the energy of the moving
Gradually varied flow is described as a water. The total energy at a given section as
steady state flow condition where the depth expressed by the Bernoulli equation is equal to:
of water varies gradually over the length of
ܸଶ
the channel. Under this condition, the ‫ݖ= ܪ‬+݀+
streamlines of flow are practically parallel 2݃
and therefore, the assumption of hydrostatic where:
pressure distribution is valid and uniform
flow principles can be used to analyze the H = Total head, in feet of water
flow conditions. z = Distance above some datum, in feet
x Rapidly varied flow. d = Depth of flow, in feet
With the rapidly varied flow condition, ௏మ
there is a pronounced curvature of the flow = Velocity head, in feet
ଶ௚
streamlines and the assumption of
hydrostatic pressure distribution is no g = Acceleration of gravity
longer valid, even for the continuous flow = 32.2 feet per second squared
profile. A number of empirical procedures
have been developed to address the various (3) Energy Equation. The basic principle used
phenomena of rapidly varied flow. For most often in hydraulic analysis is conservation
additional discussion on the topic of rapidly of energy or the energy equation. For uniform
varied flow, refer to "Open-Channel flow conditions, the energy equation states that
Hydraulics" by Chow. the energy at one section of a channel is equal
to the energy at any downstream section plus
866.3 Open Channel Flow Equations the intervening energy losses. The energy
The equations of open channel flow are based on equation, expressed in terms of the Bernoulli
uniform flow conditions. Some of these equations equation, is:
have been derived using basic conservation laws ܸଵଶ ܸଶଶ
(e.g. conservation of energy) whereas others have ‫ݖ‬ଵ + ݀ଵ + = ‫ݖ‬ଶ + ݀ଶ + + ݄௅
2݃ 2݃
been derived using an empirical approach.
where:
(1) Continuity Equation. One of the fundamental
concepts which must be satisfied in all flow hL = Intervening head losses, in feet
problems is the continuity of flow. The (4) Manning's Equation. Several equations have
continuity equation states that the mass of fluid been empirically derived for computing the
per unit time passing every section in a stream average flow velocity within an open channel.
of fluid is constant. The continuity equation One such equation is the Manning Equation.
may be expressed as follows: Assuming uniform and turbulent flow
ܳ = ‫ܣ‬ଵ ܸଵ = ‫ܣ‬ଶ ܸଶ =. . . = ‫ܣ‬௡ ܸ௡ conditions, the mean flow velocity in an open
channel can be computed as:
Where Q is the discharge, A is the cross-
sectional flow area, and V is the mean flow 1.486 ଶൗ ଵൗ
ܸ= ܴ ଷܵ ଶ
velocity. This equation is not valid for spatially ݊
varied flow, i.e., where flow is entering or where:
leaving along the length of channel under
consideration. V= Mean velocity, in feet per second
(2) Bernoulli Equation. Water flowing in an open n = Manning coefficient of roughness
channel possesses two kinds of energy: (1)
860-18 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
March 7, 2014

S = Channel slope, in foot per feet Table 866.3A

R = Hydraulic Radius, in feet
Average Values for Manning's
= A/WP
Roughness Coefficient (n)
where:
A = Cross sectional flow area, in Type of Channel n value
square feet Unlined Channels:
WP = Wetted perimeter, in feet Clay Loam 0.023
Commonly accepted values for Manning's Sand 0.020
roughness coefficient, n, based on materials and Gravel 0.030
workmanship required in the Standard Rock 0.040
Specifications, are provided in Table 866.3A.
Lined Channels:
The tabulated values take into account
deterioration of the channel lining surface, Portland Cement Concrete 0.014
distortion of the grade line due to unequal Air Blown Mortar (troweled) 0.012
settlement, construction joints and normal Air Blown Mortar 0.016
surface irregularities. These average values (untroweled)
should be modified to satisfy any foreseeable Air Blown Mortar 0.025
abnormal conditions. See Chapters 4 and 6 in (roughened)
HEC No. 15 for Manning’s roughness Asphalt Concrete 0.016-0.018
equations for grass linings, RSP, cobble and
Sacked Concrete 0.025
gravel linings. Refer to Index 861.11 for a
discussion of Manning’s roughness coefficients Pavement and Gutters:
for water quality channels. Portland Cement Concrete 0.013-0.015
Direct solutions for Manning's equation for Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete 0.016-0.018
many channels of trapezoidal, rectangular, Depressed Medians:
triangular and circular cross sections can be Earth (without growth)
found within the Channel Analysis 0.016 - 0.025
subcomponent FHWA's Hydraulic Toolbox Earth (with growth) 0.050
software program.
Gravel (d50 = 1 in. flow depth
(5) Conveyance Equation. Often it is convenient to < 6 in.) 0.040
group the properties peculiar to the cross Gravel (d50 = 2 in. flow depth
section into one term called the conveyance < 6 in.) 0.056
factor, K. The conveyance factor, as expressed
NOTES:
by the Manning's equation, is equal to:
For additional values of n, see HEC No. 15,
1.486 ଶൗ Tables 2.1 and 2.2, and "Introduction to
‫=ܭ‬ ‫ ܴܣ‬ଷ
݊ Highway Hydraulics", Hydraulic Design Series
For the non-pressure, full flow condition, the No. 4, FHWA Table 14.
geometric properties and conveyance of a
channel section can be computed. Then for a water with respect to the channel bottom. For a
given channel slope the discharge capacity can channel of small slope;
be easily determined. ܸଶ
‫݀=ܧ‬+
(6) Critical Flow. A useful concept in hydraulic 2݃
analysis is that of "specific energy". The where:
specific energy at a given section is defined as
the total energy, or total head, of the flowing E = Specific energy, in feet
 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 860-19
March 7, 2014

d = Depth of flow, in feet on the opposite limb of the specific energy

curve. If the unstable flow region cannot be
௏మ
= Velocity head, in feet avoided in design, the least favorable type of
ଶ௚ flow should be assumed for the design.
When the depth of flow is plotted against the When the depth of flow is greater than critical
specific energy, for a given discharge and depth, the velocity of flow is less than critical
channel section, the resulting plot is called a velocity for a given discharge and hence, the
specific energy diagram (see Figure 866.3C). flow is subcritical. Conversely, when the depth
The curve shows that for a given specific of flow is less than critical depth, the flow is
energy there are two possible depths, a high supercritical.
stage and a low stage. These flow depths are
called alternate depths. Starting at the upper When velocities are supercritical, air
right of the curve with a large depth and small entrainment may occur. This produces a
velocity, the specific energy decreases with a bulking effect which increases the depth of
decrease in depth, reaching a minimum energy flow. For concrete lined channels, the normal
content at a depth of flow known as critical depth of flow with bulking can be computed by
depth. A further decrease in flow depth results using a Manning's "n" value of 0.018 instead of
in a rapid increase in specific energy. the 0.014 value given in Table 866.3A. Air
entrainment also causes a reduction in channel
Flow at critical depth is called critical flow. friction with a resulting increase in flow
The flow velocity at critical depth is called velocity. A Manning's "n" value of about 0.008
critical velocity. The channel slope which is recommended for computing the velocity and
produces critical depth and critical velocity for specific energy of flow in concrete-lined
a given discharge is the critical slope. channels carrying supercritical flow
Figure 866.3C Critical depth is an important hydraulic
Specific Energy Diagram parameter because it is always a hydraulic
control. Hydraulic controls are points along the
channel where the water level or depth of flow
is limited to a predetermined level or can be
computed directly from the quantity of flow.
Flow must pass through critical depth in going
from subcritical flow to supercritical flow.
Typical locations of critical depth are at:
(a) Abrupt changes in channel slope when a
flat (subcritical) slope is sharply increased
to a steep (supercritical) slope,
(b) A channel constriction such as a culvert
entrance under some conditions,
(c) The unsubmerged outlet of a culvert on
subcritical slope, discharging into a wide
Uniform flow within approximately 10 percent channel or with a free fall at the outlet, and
of critical depth is unstable and should be (d) The crest of an overflow dam or weir.
avoided in design, if possible. The reason for
Critical depth for a given channel is dependent
this can be seen by referring to the specific
on the channel geometry and discharge only,
energy diagram. As the flow approaches
and is independent of channel slope and
critical depth from either limb of the curve, a
roughness.
very small change in energy is required for the
depth to abruptly change to the alternate depth
860-20 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
March 7, 2014

When flow occurs at critical depth the analysis may be sufficient to adequately describe
following relationship must be satisfied the channel stage discharge relationship. The basic
assumptions to a single section analysis are uniform
‫ܣ‬ଷ ܳ ଶ
= cross section, slope, and Manning's "n" values
ܶ ݃ which are generally applicable to most roadside and
where: median channels. The condition of uniform flow in
a channel at a known discharge is computed using
A = Cross sectional area, ft2 the Manning's equation combined with the
T = Top width of water surface, ft continuity equation:
Q = Discharge, CFS 1.49 ଶൗ ଵൗ
ܳ= ‫ ܴܣ‬ଷ ܵ ଶ
݊
g = Acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft/s2
The depth of uniform flow is solved by rearranging
Critical depth formulas, based on the above Manning's Equation to the form the given below.
equation, for various channel cross-sections This equation is solved by trial and error by varying
include: the depth of flow until the left side of the equation
x Rectangular sections, is zero:
ଵൗ ܳ݊ ଶൗ
‫ݍ‬ଶ ଷ
ଵ െ ‫ܴܣ‬ ଷ =0
݀௖ = ቆ ቇ 1.49ܵ ൗଶ
݃
Per Index 866.3 (4), direct solutions for Manning's
Where: equation for many channels of trapezoidal,
rectangular, triangular and circular cross sections
q = Flow per unit width, CFS
can be found within the Channel Analysis
x Trapezoidal sections. The tables in King's subcomponent FHWA's Hydraulic Toolbox
"Handbook of Hydraulics" provide easy software program.
solutions for critical depth for channels of
Where uniform flow conditions do not adequately
varying side slopes and bottom widths.
describe the actual flow conditions (e.g., natural
x Circular sections. The tables in King's channels) or where additional accuracy is desired,
"Handbook of Hydraulics" can be used for the computation of complete water surface profiles
obtaining easy solutions for critical depth. for each discharge value may be necessary using
detailed backwater analysis methods. Per Index
(7) Froude Number. The Froude number is a
802.1(4)(g) contact the District Hydraulic Engineer
useful parameter which uniquely describes open for support.
flow. The Froude number is a dimensionless
value: Topic 867 - Channel Changes
ܸ
‫= ݎܨ‬ ଵൗ 867.1 General
(݃‫)ܦ‬ ଶ
Chapter 860 primarily addresses the design of small
Where: man-made open channels called roadside channels
D = A/T = Hydraulic depth, in feet (gutters, ditches, swales etc.) that are constructed as
part of a highway drainage system. However, both
Fr < 1.0 ==> Subcritical flow the terms ‘open channel’ or ‘channel’ may be
Fr = 1.0 ==> Critical flow applied to any natural or improved watercourse as
well as roadside channels. See Index 861.1.
Fr > 1.0 ==> Supercritical flow
A channel change is any realignment or change in
866.4 Water Surface Profiles the hydraulic characteristics of an existing channel.
Depending on the site conditions, accuracy Per Index 802.1(4)(g), contact the District
required, and risks involved, a single section Hydraulic Engineer for support.
 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 860-21
March 7, 2014

The main reasons for channel changes to either x A flattened downstream gradient which
natural or improved watercourses (flood control progresses upstream undercutting the channel
channels, irrigation channels etc.) within the right banks or highway fill
of way are to:
x Flattened downstream gradient or channel
x Permit better drainage restrictions may create undesirable backwater
conditions.
x Improve flow conditions
A channel change perched above the bottom of an
x Protect the highway from flood damage
old flood stage stream bed may cause the stream to
x Reduce right of way requirements return to its old channel during a subsequent flood.
In addition, the designer should consult with
The guidelines in Topic 823 (Culvert Location)
Geotechnical Services to ensure that infiltration
generally recommend alignment of the thalweg of
through the bank would not be problematic.
the stream with the centerline of the culvert,
however, for economic reasons, small skews should Topic 868 - Freeboard
be eliminated, moderate skews retained and large
skews reduced. Road crossings requiring fish Considerations
passage are strongly encouraged to retain the
868.1 General
natural alignment of the stream, regardless of the
skew. Alignment of the culvert centerline with the Freeboard is the extra height of bank above the
channel approach angle aids debris passage during design depth where overflow is predicted to cause
storm flows and minimizes hydraulic turbulence damage. Freeboard allowances will vary with each
which may impede fish passage. situation.
Sometimes a channel change may be to its vertical 866.2 Height of Freeboard
alignment. For example, inverted siphons or sag
(1) Straight Alignment. In channels where
culverts may be used to carry irrigation channels
overflow may cause substantial damage, a
crossing the right of way via vertical realignment
guide for freeboard height for channels on a
entirely below the hydraulic grade line. However,
straight alignment, is provided in Table 868.2
maintenance concerns include sediment build-up
and potential leakage problems with full-flow
barrel(s). See Index 829.7(2) and Index 867.2
Table 868.2
below.
Guide to Freeboard Height
867.2 Design Considerations
Shape of Subcritical Supercritical
Channel changes should be designed with extreme
Channel Flow Flow
caution and coordinated with District Hydraulics.
Careful study of the channel characteristics Rectangular 0.1 He 0.20 d
upstream and downstream as well as within the Trapezoidal 0.2 He 0.25 d
channel change area is required to achieve a safe
and effective design. where:
Channel changes may result in a decreased surface He = Energy head, in feet
roughness or increased channel slope. As a result
the following may occur: d = Depth of flow, in feet for a straight
alignment
x Higher velocities which result in damage due to
scour (2) Critical Flow. An unstable zone of flow occurs
where the flow is near critical state. This is
x Sedimentation and meandering at downstream characterized by random waves. An allowance
end of channel change for waves should be added to the normal depth
when the slope of the channel is between 0.7 Sc
and 1.3 Sc.
860-22 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
March 7, 2014

ଶ
ܵ
‫ܪ‬௪ = 0.25݀௖ ቈ1 െ 11.1 ൬ െ 1൰ ቉
ܵ௖
where:
Hw = height of wave, in feet
dc = critical depth, in feet
S = slope of channel, in foot per feet
Sc = critical slope, in foot per feet
(3) Superelevation. The height of freeboard
discussed above does not provide for
superelevation of the water surface on curved
alignments.
Flow around a curve will result in a rise of the
water surface on the outside of the curve and
extra lining is necessary to guard against
overtopping.
Additional freeboard is necessary in bends and
can be calculated use the following equation:
ܸ ଶܶ
ο݀ =
ܴ݃௖
where:
ǻG= Additional freeboard required because of
superelevation, feet
V = Average channel veloctiy, ft/s
T = Water surface top width, ft
G = Acceleration due to gravity, ft/s2
Rc = Radius of curvature of the bend to the
channel centerline, ft
See HEC No. 15, Chapter 3, for shear stress
considerations around bends.