EC 1561 • May 2003

$2.50

Improving Garden Soils

with Organic Matter
N. Bell, D.M. Sullivan, L.J. Brewer, and J. Hart

This publication will help you understand the • Tomatoes and peppers get blossom-end rot,
importance of soil organic matter levels to good even if fertilized with calcium.
plant performance. It also contains suggestions • Water tends to pool on the soil surface and to
for suitable soil amendments. Any soil, no drain slowly, or it runs off the surface.
matter how compacted, can be improved by the
addition of organic matter. The result will be a nnnn
better environment for almost any kind of plant.
What makes a productive soil?
A productive soil provides physical support,
nnnn water, air, and nutrients to plants and soil-
What gardening problems are dwelling organisms (see “What is soil?”
caused by poor soil quality? page 2). Like humans, roots and soil organisms
Many problems with home vegetable gar- breathe and require sufficient air and water to
dens, fruit trees, shrubs, and flower gardens are live. As a result, a good soil is not “solid”;
caused not by pests, diseases, or a lack of rather, between 40 and 60 percent of the soil
nutrients, but by poor soil physical conditions. volume is pores. The pores may be filled with
Symptoms of poor soil quality include the water or air, making both available to plants
following. (see illustration on page 3).
• The soil is dried and cracked in summer. The largest pores control aeration and move-
• Digging holes in the soil is difficult, whether ment of water through the soil and are largely
it is wet or dry. the result of earthworm burrowing or root
• Rhododendrons, hydrangeas, and other growth. The smaller pores store water. In a
shrubs wilt in hot weather, even with added good soil, individual soil particles are
water. aggregated into larger units, and the pore
• Leaves on shrubs turn yellow and have arrangement remains stable over time.
brown, dead sections on them, particularly
on the south side of the plant. Neil Bell, Extension consumer horticulturist, Marion and
Polk counties; Dan M. Sullivan, Extension soil scientist;
Linda J. Brewer, faculty research assistant, Extension
Small Farms Program; and John Hart, Extension soil
scientist; all of Oregon State University.
 What is soil?
Soil includes mineral and organic components,
water, and air. All of these are essential to plant
growth. Soil formation is the result of physical, Silt
chemical, and biological processes. The process
of soil formation begins when wind, rain, and
fluctuating temperatures break rock down into
smaller and smaller fragments. The rock frag-
ments that compose most soils, in order of
decreasing particle size, are sand, silt, and clay.
Soil texture refers to the coarseness of the soil,
which depends on the combinations of these three Sand
types of particles. Soils high in sand tend to be
fast-draining and subject to drought, while soils
high in clay can store a lot of water but are
“heavy” and not as permeable to air and water. Clay
Loam soils feel as if they have a balance of sand, Soil particle sizes. The larger
silt, and clay. sand particles allow water to
The soil is also host to a large number of living drain quickly through soil.
organisms. Without soil organisms, very little soil Clay particles tend to pack
more closely together,
formation would take place. Some of these organ-
causing water to drain more
Soil layers.
isms, such as bacteria, fungi, and certain insects slowly.
Note that and mites, are microscopic. Others, such as ants
most of the and earthworms, are larger.
organic Soil formation results in layers of soil, much
matter is like the layers of a cake. The topsoil is where
found in the
top layers of
most of the organic matter is and where most
soil. biological activity occurs. The subsoil layers tend
to be lighter in color and finer textured than
topsoil. Subsoil tends to be low in organic matter
and is usually less suitable for plant growth.

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 nnnn
Benefits of adding organic Soil structure and compaction
Soil structure is another name for the units
matter to soil of soil that you see when you dig into a soil.
One of the most important reasons for adding You might remember throwing dirt clods at
organic matter is to improve the ability of the your siblings! The most desirable structure
soil to accept and store water (see “Soil struc- for a topsoil is a granular structure (small
ture and compaction” at right). Amending your “pebbles” or “crumbs” of soil). Soils with a
soil may mean that you can reduce the amount stable granular structure are easy to dig,
of water a newly planted garden requires. This accept water readily, and make a good
effect can be enhanced by the use of an organic seedbed. This kind of ideal soil condition is
mulch on the soil surface, which will reduce often referred to as “good tilth.”
evaporation as compared to bare soil. Good soil structure is analogous to a
Adding organic matter also increases the sponge. Like a sponge, pore spaces in a good
activity and number of soil organisms. Over soil are stable. In contrast, soil with poor
time, a well-amended soil will supply more of structure is like a bowl of popcorn, where the
the nutrients your plants require, which will pore spaces are easily crushed.
reduce fertilizer requirements. A productive soil is a dynamic community
Although you might not expect it, adding made up of many species of fungi, bacteria,
organic matter to soil also helps to protect insects, and mites. This community depends
water quality and the environment. Soils on organic matter as a food and fuel source.
amended with organic matter are a better Together with earthworms and plants, these
sponge for water. More water goes into the soil, organisms provide the “glue” that holds soil
and less water runs off the surface. Because together and gives it structure.
surface runoff is reduced, pesticides and fertil- Soil structure is delicate and is damaged
izers are retained in the soil instead of washing by actions that compact the soil. Compaction
into nearby rivers and lakes. by machinery or foot traffic is a common
problem. Compacted soils hinder penetration
nnnn of air and water and growth of roots. Com-
Checking soil organic matter in pacted soils are a poor environment not only
for plants, but also for earthworms and other
your garden soil organisms. Tilling the soil, particularly
Here are some simple ways to assess organic
when it is wet, damages soil structure and
matter content of your soil.
increases the rate of soil organic matter loss
• Use your eyes. Soils with adequate organic
through decomposition.
matter content are dark in color, both because
they have more humus, which is dark, and
because they hold more water.
• Look for puddling and standing water. Soils
rich in organic matter content and with good
tilth allow water to percolate below the Soil with good
surface. structure has stable
pore spaces that allow
• Use your fingers. Look for aggregated soils.
water penetration,
If you rub the soil between your fingers, the root growth,
soil will seem to contain “crumbs” made up earthworm movement,
of mineral and organic particles. The crumbs and air storage.

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 are examples of aggregation and are the

% of applied organic matter remaining in soil

result of sticky substances released by soil 100

bacteria after feeding on organic matter.

80
Aggregation generates soil structure.
• Use your nose. Soils with adequate organic 60
matter content have the rich smell of earth.
Soils that have poor air circulation, a result 40

of reduced organic matter content, may smell

20
sour. Composted
Fresh
0
nnnn 0 20 40 60 80

Fresh versus composted Days after organic matter application

Figure 1.—Fresh organic materials decompose more
materials rapidly than composted organic materials. About half of
Both fresh and composted organic materials fresh organic matter is lost from the soil as carbon
are useful for amending soils. Fresh organic dioxide gas during the first 60 days after soil
material is rapidly decomposed by microorgan- incorporation. Composted materials increase soil
isms in a compost pile or in the soil. The organic matter for a longer time. About half of the
composted organic matter is lost in the first 1 to 2 years
microorganisms use the organic material as a after application.
food source and release carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere. As decomposition proceeds, the
remaining organic compounds are more resis- When organic materials are composted
tant to decomposition. (They have less “food” before use, the rapid decomposition phase takes
value to microorganisms.) place in the compost pile instead of in the soil.
Decomposition is usually very rapid for the Organic matter supplied by compost lasts
first 30 days after application of fresh leaves, longer in soil than fresh organic matter because
fruits, or other vegetative material to soil much of the decomposition has already
(Figure 1). When decomposition of fresh occurred. However, composted organic matter
organic materials takes place in soil, the sticky is a poorer food source for soil organisms
exudates produced by soil organisms help glue compared to fresh organic matter, so less of the
soil particles together, improving soil structure. sticky exudates that build soil structure are
The volume of material will be reduced rapidly produced in the soil after compost application.
as decomposition takes place. On the other hand, composted materials have
Soil microorganisms require nitrogen for fewer weed seeds and are less likely to carry
their growth, so the process of degrading fresh plant disease organisms. Composted manures
organic matter in the soil sometimes causes a are preferred over fresh manures when con-
nitrogen deficiency for plants. If you use fresh tamination of food crops with human pathogens
plant material, allow it to decompose in the soil such as E. coli is a concern.
for several weeks before planting into it. Also In a garden situation, fresh or composted
keep in mind that very woody materials, such materials may be used. If you are establishing a
as sawdust or sawdust-bedded manures, may raised-bed garden, compost is preferred
cause nitrogen deficiency in soils for a long because it will lose volume less rapidly and
time, even after composting. because it has less potential to compete with
plants for nitrogen.

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 nnnn soluble salts (3 to 6 mmhos/cm). (See “Inter-
preting laboratory analyses for fresh organic
Common organic amendments material or compost,” page 7.)
Because organic amendments are bulky, Yard trimmings compost usually increases
heavy, and expensive to transport, look for nitrogen fertilization requirements for the first
suitable amendments close to home. You can 2 months after application. Later on, it has little
make your own compost (see “For more infor- or no effect on nitrogen requirements.
mation,” page 15) or use fresh organic materi- Composted yard trimmings decompose
als from your yard. Local private or municipal slowly in soil. About half of the organic matter
composting operations offer a variety of com- added usually remains in the soil after two
post products and usually provide delivery. growing seasons. Apply yard trimmings com-
Also consider the types of farming, ranching, or post at a rate of 1 to 2 inches.
other agricultural operations in your area, and You can make yard trimmings compost in a
what types of residuals they might produce that backyard compost pile (see “For more informa-
would be available at little or no cost. You tion”). To make compost from woody trim-
might be able to arrange for bulk deliveries of mings, you usually need to grind these materi-
these materials with a landscape supply or als prior to composting.
trucking company. If you need only half a load, Be selective in the materials you include in a
consider splitting a load with a neighbor. home compost pile. It is quite common for
Locally available amendments may include: weed seeds, vegetable seeds, and plant disease
• Yard trimmings compost organisms to survive the home composting
• Leaves from deciduous trees process.
• Crop residues It usually takes about 12 months to make
• Manures and manure composts high-quality yard trimmings compost in a
• Separated dairy manure solids backyard pile with minimal maintenance.
The following sections describe the charac- Because yard trimmings compost from a back-
teristics of these common amendments and give yard pile is not screened, it usually is coarser
some suggestions for getting the best value than purchased compost and is best used as a
from each amendment. mulch in perennial shrub beds (see “Trees and
shrubs,” page 11).
Yard trimmings compost
Sometimes sold as “garden compost,” yard Leaves from deciduous trees
trimmings compost is the most widely available Leaves are perhaps the best and most readily
material suitable for high-rate incorporation available organic matter source for vegetable
into soil. Private composting companies usually gardens or other areas that get some annual
produce it. Grass clippings, leaves, brush, tree tillage. Some cities will deliver leaves collected
and shrub prunings, or other plant materials are from streets to your property at little or no
composted for 3 to 9 months in large piles, then charge.
screened to remove large sticks (greater than Leaf mulch, or leaf mold (partially decom-
0.75 inch). Piles typically reach temperatures posed leaves), has a near-neutral pH (6 to 7.5).
above 130°F, killing most weed seeds. Woody The C:N ratio typically is about 50:1 in fresh
materials dominate most yard trimmings com- leaves, decreasing to below 20:1 when fully
posts. They usually have a carbon:nitrogen composted. Most kinds of leaves are a good
(C:N) ratio of less than 20:1, a pH of 6 to 7, and source of potassium (K); a 2-inch application
relatively low levels of ammonium-N and supplies about 0.3 to 3 lb potash (K20) per
1,000 square feet.

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 Because leaves decompose rapidly, they are available residues from Willamette Valley
not as useful as yard trimmings compost for farms. Freshly cooked peppermint hay, offered
one-time applications to landscape beds to for sale in August, has roughly the same levels
increase organic matter. of nitrogen and potassium as manure and fresh
Mulching an annual vegetable or flower grass clippings. It also is high in soluble salts.
garden with 1 to 2 inches of leaves in the fall Over half of the organic matter in fresh hay
adds organic matter, protects soil from raindrop decomposes in the fall after application.
impact, and smothers winter annual weeds. In Composted peppermint hay, which is offered
the spring, the remaining leaf debris may be for sale in the spring, is more suitable for
dug or rototilled into the soil. If you plant a fall landscape use than freshly cooked hay and has
cover crop, reduce leaf application or omit it greater long-term value as a soil amendment.
altogether so that you don’t smother the cover After composting, peppermint hay is dominated
crop. by fibrous stems that make a good mulch or soil
To compost leaves, pile them in the fall, then amendment. Peppermint can be composted with
turn the pile several times in March and April. other low-nutrient materials (e.g., straw or
Leaf mulch from a home compost pile is excel- woody materials) to make an excellent soil
lent for summer mulching around rhododen- amendment.
drons, blueberries, and other shrubs that are
sensitive to summer drought, or in vegetable Manures and manure composts
and flower gardens. Apply 1 to 2 inches after Many manures and manure composts have
soil has warmed (June). high soluble nitrogen, ammonia, or salt content,
Partially composted leaves also can be used or high pH (above 8). Thus, their suitability for
to improve soil in annual planting beds. use in landscapes is limited.
Composting transforms soluble nitrogen in
Crop residues manure to slow-release organic forms,
Fresh or composted crop residues may be decreases ammonia to levels that do not injure
available from nearby farms, tree-trimming plants, and sometimes reduces pH (to 7 to 7.5).
companies, or your own kitchen. Uncomposted However, composting concentrates salts.
crop residues may contain weed seeds, while Chicken manure and feedlot (steer) manure
properly composted residues are weed-free. composts typically contain very high salt levels.
Woody materials such as hazelnut shells or Mushroom compost, a mixture of manure plus
ground tree prunings can be used as a mulch cottonseed or soybean meal and other inorganic
around trees or shrubs. Crop residues from amendments, is also high in salts.
annual crops (fruit, leaves, straw) decompose In general, it is best to avoid manure and
more rapidly in soil than do woody materials. manure composts for high-rate applications to
Fruit and vegetable residues contain mostly planting beds. Use manures in small amounts to
water and readily degradable organic matter. replace nitrogen–phosphorus–potassium fertil-
They can be incorporated into a backyard izers. Ask for a compost analysis and check for
compost pile or buried immediately in soil. As a soluble salts and ammonium-nitrogen when
general rule, the juicier and leafier the crop evaluating composted manure products. See
residue, the less valuable it is for long-term soil “Interpreting laboratory analyses for fresh
organic matter enhancement. organic material or compost,” page 7, for more
Peppermint hay, consisting of leaves and information.
stems that have been heated to remove
peppermint oil, is one of the most commonly
continues on page 8

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Interpreting laboratory Ammonium-N concentrations above
analyses for fresh organic 1,000 ppm (0.1 percent) typically are present in
manures that have been incompletely
material or compost composted. Materials with high ammonium
Laboratory analyses describe and quantify concentrations are not ideal for high-rate
product quality. Many commercial compost incorporation into soil because they supply too
suppliers regularly test their product and much water-soluble N (see “plant-available
provide product information if you ask for it. nitrogen”). High ammonium-N levels can cause
Moisture content (% “as-is” amendment plant injury when the organic material is added
weight). Tells how much water and organic to planting holes or is not thoroughly mixed
matter are present. A material that has with soil. Ammonium-N usually is converted to
40 percent moisture has 60 percent dry matter. nitrate-N within a few weeks after application.
Best: 40 to 60 percent moisture content. Less You usually can avoid problems with ammonia
organic matter is present at high moisture toxicity to roots by allowing a month between
content (greater than 60 percent), and the organic matter application and planting.
material usually is very dense and heavy. Electrical conductivity (EC). A measure of
Low-moisture materials (less than 40 percent) the soluble salt content of the material. Salt
sometimes are dusty. content is measured by the electrical conductiv-
Percent organic matter (% dry weight). ity (mmhos/cm) of the material. Best: 0 to
Percentage of a dry amendment that is organic 4 mmhos/cm. Poor: above 8 mmhos/cm. High
matter. Best: 40 to 60 percent. Low values salt content means high conductivity, which
(less than 30 percent) usually indicate that may injure plants. Avoid using materials with
organic matter has been mixed with sand or high EC in planting holes because salts may
soil. High values (greater than 60 percent) damage roots.
indicate fresh, uncomposted material. Nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N; dry weight
pH. Indicates acidity or alkalinity of the basis). Nitrate-nitrogen is immediately avail-
soil. Lower values indicate greater acidity. able to plants. Best: 200 to 500 ppm. Materials
Best: 6 to 7. Values below 5 or greater than 8 with high nitrate concentrations supply too
may injure plants. Some plants (blueberries, much water-soluble N (plant-available N) when
rhododendrons) prefer an acidic pH, near 5. applied at typical rates (1 to 2 inches of com-
C:N (ratio of carbon to nitrogen). Best: post). Materials with very low nitrate concen-
Stable soil organic matter has a C:N ratio of trations (less than 50 ppm) and high C:N ratio
12:1 to 15:1. Ratios less than 10:1 are typical (above 25:1) likely are incompletely composted
of uncomposted manure, which will decom- and will increase N fertilizer requirements for
pose rapidly in soil and release plant-available several months after application.
nitrogen. Ratios greater than 25:1 are typical Plant-available, water-soluble, or inor-
of uncomposted woody plant materials or ganic nitrogen. This is the sum of ammonium-
crop residues such as wheat straw. Incorpora- N plus nitrate-N (dry weight basis). One inch of
tion of high C:N materials (greater than 25:1) a compost with 1,000 ppm N (ammonium +
usually reduces the supply of plant-available nitrate-N) supplies about 1 lb of water-soluble
nitrogen in the soil for several months. nitrogen per 1,000 square feet.
Ammonium-nitrogen (NH4-N; dry Excess water-soluble N can leach through
weight basis). Ammonium-nitrogen is avail- soil and contaminate groundwater. Limit appli-
able for immediate use by plants. Best: less cation rates of materials having ammonium +
than 500 ppm. nitrate-N concentrations above 1,000 ppm.

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Separated dairy manure solids • Do not injure plants when applied at high
One manure by-product that is acceptable for rates or change usual fertilization practices—
high-rate application to most planting beds is Quality organic amendments have a pleasing,
called separated dairy manure solids. Separated earthy smell. They do not smell like ammo-
solids are available from dairies west of the nia (excessive nitrogen will burn seedlings
Cascades in fresh and composted forms. Sepa- and tender root growth) or rotten eggs
rated dairy manure solids (composted or (anaerobic decomposition results in organic
uncomposted) are much lower in salt, ammo- acids, which may prove toxic to some
nia, and soluble nitrogen than raw dairy plants). Excessively woody materials
manure. They have a pH of 7 to 8 and soluble will rob plants of soil nitrogen as they
salt levels similar to yard trimmings compost decompose.
(3 to 6 mmhos/cm). The C:N ratio of fresh • Decompose slowly—Quality organic amend-
solids is approximately 30:1, declining to 15:1 ments decompose slowly when applied to
after composting. soil because considerable decomposition has
Fresh separated solids usually are less expen- already occurred during storage or
sive, but lower in quality than composted composting. Rapidly decomposing materials
separated solids. Fresh solids may contain weed may tie up soil nitrogen temporarily, may
seeds. Fresh dairy solids increase nitrogen create organic acids in the soil as oxygen
fertilizer requirements for 4 to 8 weeks follow- levels are reduced, and will undergo a reduc-
ing application, then act as a slow-release tion in volume as decomposition proceeds.
source of plant-available N. About half of the Amendment quality also includes particle
organic content of fresh separated dairy solids size, nutrient and organic matter content, pH,
is lost via decomposition during the first and carbon-to-nitrogen ratio. Quality amend-
months following soil incorporation. ments have low concentrations of contami-
Composted separated solids are a better nants, including salts, weed seed, pesticides, or
value for long-term soil organic matter other foreign substances.
enhancement because they decompose more Many commercial compost suppliers regu-
slowly in soil. Composted solids are essentially larly test their product and provide product
weed-free. Composted solids provide slow- quality information if you ask for it. “Interpret-
release nitrogen for plant growth starting ing laboratory analyses for fresh organic mate-
several weeks after application. rial or compost” (page 7) discusses some of the
criteria for assessing the quality of organic
nnnn materials and will help you interpret product
Organic amendment quality information.
When applying high rates (1 to 2 inches) of
an organic amendment, look for organic nnnn
amendments that will promote stable soil Estimating amendment volume
conditions and balanced plant nutrient levels. needed for a project
Organic amendments like these are:
You can easily estimate how much amend-
• Well-mixed and easy to spread—Quality
ment you need to cover a known area to a
organic amendments have a consistent
desired depth. Choose the depth of application
texture and moisture content, are free of large
(in inches), and measure the area to be amended
sticks, and can be handled easily with a
(in square feet). Table 1 estimates the volume
shovel or fork.
of amendment (in cubic yards) you will need.

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Table 1. Estimating the volume of organic amendment needed.
Depth of Area of garden (square feet)*
amendment
200 500 1,000 2,000
desired
(inches) Organic material to add (cubic yards)
1 0.6 1.5 3.1 6.2
2 1.2 3.1 6.2 12.3
3 1.9 4.6 9.3 18.5
4 2.5 6.2 12.3 24.7
*To estimate square footage of a garden, multiply the length by the width
(in feet).

For smaller gardens, a yard of material is too reduce the volume of pore spaces in soil for air
much, so a 5-gallon bucket makes a handy and water, and kill earthworms.
measuring device. For example, suppose your Digging amendments into the soil is labori-
garden is 10 feet by 10 feet (100 square feet), ous, but will enable you to incorporate as
and you want to incorporate a 1-inch layer of deeply as you choose to dig, up to 12 inches. It
compost. One inch is 1⁄12 of a foot, so you would also avoids many of the problems associated
need 1⁄12 times 100 square feet (100 x 1⁄12), or with rototillers. An ordinary spade works well
8 cubic feet of compost. One and one-half
5-gallon buckets equals approximately 1 cubic
foot, so you would need 12 buckets of compost
(8 x 1.5). Keep in mind that there are 27 cubic
feet in 1 cubic yard of compost.

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Incorporating organic matter
into soil
There are several ways to mix organic matter
into garden soil. The most common methods
involve digging or rototilling (Figure 2).
Rototillers are effective, but hand-operated
machines usually are capable of working only
the top 4 to 6 inches of soil. Tractor-mounted
rototillers may enable you to mix up to 8 inches
deep. For incorporating amendments over a
relatively large area, rototillers are probably the
best option.
Excessive rototilling, however, has very Figure 2.—Rototilling is one way to incorporate
detrimental effects on soil structure, particu- organic matter into soil. Hand digging can be just as
larly if done when the soil is wet. Rototilling effective, however, and is less likely to damage soil
can compact soil just below the tillage depth, structure.

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 in soil that is not too wet. To minimize one of nature’s best soil structure builders,
the impact of digging on soil structure, partly because they provide food for soil organ-
consider using a spading fork. isms. Living roots provide a rich food source
Cover crops provide a relatively for organisms. Grass roots live for a year or
easy way to add organic matter to less; new roots grow each year to replace those
soil. The mat of roots formed by that die. The dead roots are continuously
the cover crop often is more sloughed from the plant and add to soil organic
valuable in building soil struc- matter. One of the keys to getting this natural
ture than the above-ground organic matter factory working in your
biomass. Both winter and lawn is to provide good soil quality for turf
summer cover crops can be establishment.
used. (See “For more Use only composted organic materials for
information,” page 15, soil amendment prior to grass establishment.
for details on cover Use compost that has been screened (particles
crops suited to your less than 0.5 inch). Sticks and other coarse
garden.) You can dig organic materials make it difficult to establish a
in the cover crop firm seedbed prior to seeding or sodding.
before planting Screened yard trimmings compost is widely
your garden. Or, you available and usually is suitable. Do not use
can remove the above- fresh organic materials, because they are too
ground plant material and compost it. difficult to mix evenly with soil and can cause
Another option is to apply a layer of organic low spots in the lawn as they decompose
amendment on the soil surface and simply plant rapidly.
into it. This method has the advantage of not Apply 0.5 to 1 inch of compost and incorpo-
requiring any disturbance of the soil structure. rate it into 6 inches of soil with a rototiller.
Also, the amendment will serve as a mulch and Higher compost application rates can cause an
help preserve soil moisture and suppress weeds. uneven, bumpy lawn as the result of intense
It will take longer for the amendment to earthworm activity and loss of volume as
improve the organic matter content of the soil compost decomposes. Use less compost if the
by this method, however. material is high in plant-available nitrogen
(ammonium-N + nitrate-N; see “Interpreting
nnnn laboratory analyses for fresh organic material or
compost,” page 7). Use less compost if you do
Using organic matter not till the soil to a 6-inch depth.
for landscape installation Lawns require adequate pH and nutrient
and maintenance levels for rapid establishment. By testing your
soil and compost, you can provide the right
Lawn establishment amount of phosphorus, potassium, and lime for
Amending soil with compost prior to estab- the new lawn (see “For more information,”
lishing turf can help get a new lawn off to a page 14). It’s best to incorporate these fertilizer
good start by providing a better environment materials into the soil at the same time you
for root growth. Healthy lawns with deep root incorporate compost.
systems require less water during summer and Nitrogen fertilizer can be added before or
are more resistant to weed invasion. after you mix compost with the soil. Compost
After establishment, a vigorous lawn pro- analyses may be helpful in adjusting nitrogen
duces its own organic matter. Grass roots are fertilizer application rates.

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Vegetable and flower gardens resemble pancakes. Roots are found mostly in
Vegetable gardens tend to contain many the top 2 feet of soil, and can spread to two to
annual or biennial plants. Because some, or all, three times the diameter of the canopy, or more.
of the soil can be disturbed annually, these soils Thus, it generally is better to amend the largest
can be amended on a routine basis. possible area around these kinds of plants.
Some vegetable crops, such as rhubarb, are Amending only a planting hole and not
perennials, and many herbs are small shrubs. amending surrounding soil is not the best way
The deeper roots of these plants and of annual to use organic amendments in tree and shrub
root crops such as carrots do better in soils plantings. If soil is compacted and has poor
amended to a depth of 10 to 12 inches. structure, and only the planting hole is heavily
Ornamental gardens that contain mostly amended with organic matter, the planting hole
herbaceous perennial or woody plants must be functions like a large pot. The tree roots grow
amended prior to planting. Many perennial rapidly through the permeable, amended soil,
plants are dug from time to time for division, but have difficulty penetrating the hard sur-
providing an opportunity to add further amend- rounding soil. This limits growth and increases
ments every few years. the risk of tree blow-downs. Another problem is
that water readily enters the amended planting
Trees and shrubs hole, but drains more slowly into the surround-
Shrubs and trees are more permanent, so soil ing compacted soil, which may create problems
must be well prepared at the time of planting. with waterlogging and cause root damage.
It’s best to amend soil to a depth of 12 inches in When planting trees and shrubs, dig the
these gardens. Mulching in these situations will planting hole no deeper than the root ball of the
increase the effectiveness of the soil amend- plant, but several times wider than the diameter
ment, and over time some of the mulch will of the root ball (Figure 3). At a minimum,
become incorporated into the soil. loosen the top 12 inches of soil around the
Tree and shrub root systems are not a mirror planting hole to increase permeability and
image of the top of the tree; instead, they aeration. If the soil quality is particularly poor,
you might consider adding a maximum of
25 percent organic amendment (by volume) to
the loosened soil. Always use a soil amendment
that is low in soluble salts, such as yard trim-
mings compost or composted leaves. Avoid
materials that typically have a high soluble salt
content, such as animal manures or mushroom
compost.
Small shrubs have smaller root systems and
are not a risk to blow over, so they can be
planted in raised beds amended with organic
matter. Raised beds provide better drainage
than flat plantings, and it often is easier to mix
organic matter with loose soil in a newly
formed raised bed. If you add soil or a com-
Figure 3.—When planting a tree or shrub, dig the hole post-soil mix to construct a raised bed, loosen
only as deep as the root ball, but several times wider. It’s the existing soil with a shovel or fork before
best not to amend the planting hole with organic matter. adding the new soil to form the raised bed.

nn 11 nn
 Construct raised beds several inches above topsoil quality, so before accepting delivery
the existing grade to provide sufficient rooting of topsoil, inspect it and try to assess organic
volume. The width of the raised bed should matter content and other quality issues such
reflect the size of the plant at maturity. The as the presence of weeds or weed seed.
larger the plant, the wider the root system is • Even if the topsoil quality is good, the layer
likely to be. Thus, the bed probably should be of soil will be thin and may not allow for
at least twice the diameter of the shrub’s extensive root growth, as roots will tend not
expected width at maturity. to grow into the compacted soil below. One
Mulching the soil surface with 2 to result can be reduced growth, but more
4 inches of coarse compost, wood chips, bark, importantly shallow root systems increase
or similar materials is a way to add organic the likelihood of blow-down in high winds,
matter to existing shrub beds and under trees. especially in the case of trees.
Mulch can suppress weeds, conserve soil • The subsoil layer beneath may impede
moisture, and moderate soil temperatures, all of drainage, causing problems with growth and
which improve plant growth even if soils are root diseases.
not amended before planting. If you amended a In most cases, the best alternative is to
shrub bed prior to planting, mulching the bed amend the existing soil with organic matter,
afterward will help maximize the benefit of the then bring in topsoil for areas of the landscape
soil amendment. Mulching to conserve soil where added soil will have the most benefit
moisture is particularly useful for raised beds, (e.g., a raised-bed garden).
since water tends to evaporate more readily
from beds than from flat soil. Will gypsum improve soil structure?
Over time, earthworms and other soil organ- Gypsum is sometimes recommended for
isms incorporate some of the mulch into the improving soil structure for soils west of the
soil, providing a natural soil amendment pro- Cascades. Gypsum is calcium sulfate, and it is
cess similar to what happens under a forest. claimed to break up and loosen clay soils. In
fact, soil response to gypsum is variable. There
nnnn is no consensus among soil scientists that
gypsum will improve soil structure in heavy
Questions and answers clay soils.
Topsoil was removed or buried during the Is there anything organic matter won’t do
construction of my home. Is adding more for soil quality?
topsoil better than amending with A single addition of organic matter to soil
organic matter? will not necessarily have long-term effects on
After topsoil is removed or buried, you are soil quality. Over time, the organic matter
left with subsoil, a poor medium for plant content of the soil will decline because of
growth. Subsoil typically is low in organic decomposition. To maintain the organic matter
matter and impervious to water, air, and plant content of the soil, further organic matter
roots. This problem is often addressed by incorporation, mulching, or establishment of a
spreading topsoil over the compacted subsoil perennial grass sod will be required.
layer. Before you use this approach, consider Addition of organic matter will not eliminate
several potential problems: the need for watering flower beds and vegetable
• The quality of the added topsoil may not be gardens during dry summer weather. You
significantly better than the existing soil. probably will find that gardens amended with
Unlike compost, there are no standards for organic matter require less frequent irrigation,

nn 12 nn
but, in most areas, summer water still is Will adding sand promote drainage
required for best growth and appearance of in clay soil?
most plants. Occasionally, a homeowner tries to change
Although in many cases incorporation of the basic nature of a clay soil by adding sand.
organic matter into soils improves drainage, Clays are well-ordered mineral structures that
there are some drainage problems that organic form extremely fine, flat particles. These
matter cannot improve. In low-lying areas particles are layered something like a messy
where water tends to pond on the surface, the deck of cards. The spaces between clay par-
soil will become saturated if there is no lower- ticles are extremely small, which is why water
lying area to which the water can drain. In and air move between them so slowly.
saturated soils, additional organic matter may The diameter of the finest sand is more than
undergo anaerobic decomposition, and plant- a thousand times larger than the diameter of the
toxic organic acids may result. largest clay particle. Sand worked into clay
soils provides a surface onto which clay par-
Will adding organic matter to soil ticles can adhere. The result is a concrete-like
eliminate or reduce soil-borne plant mixture that can be more difficult to manage
disease? than the original clay soil. No amount of added
Amending soils with organic matter gener- sand will change a clay loam into a sandy loam.
ally improves plant health by encouraging root
system development, improving drainage, and Are herbicide residues a problem
allowing gas exchange within the soil. Organic in composted materials?
matter addition also usually increases the In very rare cases, compost is contaminated
quantity and diversity of soil microorganisms with herbicides used in turf or agricultural weed
and increases the level of competition among management. These residues survive the
them, which generally is beneficial to the soil composting process and result in injury to
ecosystem. subsequent plantings. Another source of herbi-
On the other hand, fresh organic matter may cide contamination in compost can be animal
contribute to plant disease by providing a food manure, as animals can pass some herbicides
source for disease-causing soil microorganisms. through their systems from contaminated feed.
Uncomposted materials also might contain The easiest and cheapest way to tell whether
plant and human pathogens. Gardeners may compost is contaminated with herbicides is to
inadvertently introduce plant diseases with conduct a bioassay. This is a simple test that
fresh organic materials. Allow fresh organic allows you to look for the effects of herbicides
materials to decompose in the soil for a month in compost. To conduct an herbicide bioassay,
before planting. mix equal parts of potting soil and the suspect
Suppression of plant disease by soil organ- compost. Fill four pots with the potting soil–
isms is a complex biological process that is compost mix, and four pots with potting soil
difficult to predict. If you have experienced alone. Plant each pot with the plant you would
problems with common soil-borne diseases like to grow. Place pots in adequate light, and
such as Phytophthora root rot, Verticillium wilt, water regularly. Compare the results from the
or damping off, you should not expect to solve two sets of pots. Extension Master Gardener
these problems by adding organic matter. volunteers can provide more information on the
diagnosis of plant injury from herbicides.

nn 13 nn
Will adding organic matter correct water evaporation from the soil, suppress
problems with soil acidity? weeds, protect soil from compaction, and
Some plants, including many vegetable provide nutrients to the soil. Generally speak-
crops, are sensitive to soil acidity (low pH). ing, mulches improve the soil environment and
Soils west of the Cascades are naturally acidic. growing conditions for most plants, regardless
Plants sensitive to soil acidity may exhibit poor of whether the underlying soil is amended.
growth even when the soil has excellent Mulching materials are as varied as the
physical condition (good tilth). reasons for using them. They include manufac-
Adding organic materials to soil generally tured products, such as woven polyethylene
increases soil pH slightly (reduces acidity). sheets, and organic materials, such as compost,
However, it is not as effective as lime at raising leaf mold, manure, barkdust, and nutshells.
the pH of very acid soils. The best way to Organic materials that make good mulches in
determine appropriate lime application rates is perennial plantings usually have larger particle
to have a soil test performed by a reputable soil size than organic materials used for amending
testing laboratory. If you are considering tillage soil. Woody materials make excellent mulches
to incorporate organic matter, it makes sense to because they have lots of pore space to trap
add lime (if needed) at the same time, because water and prevent it from running off, and they
lime needs to be mixed with soil to be effective. are not conducive to weed growth. When
woody materials are used as a mulch, their
What is the difference between a mulch decomposition does not cause nitrogen defi-
and a soil amendment? ciency in plants.
A mulch is a protective layer of material that Some materials that are used as soil amend-
is spread over the soil surface. Unlike a soil ments, such as leaf mold, compost, and certain
amendment, mulches are not dug or rototilled crop residues, also can be used as effective
into the soil. Mulches are commonly used in mulches.
home and commercial landscapes to reduce

nn 14 nn
 nnnn Willamette Valley Soil Quality Card, EM 8711
(1998).
For more information Willamette Valley Soil Quality Card Guide,
OSU Extension Service publications EM 8710 (1998).
Cover Crops for Home Gardens, FS 304 Many OSU Extension Service publications,
(revised 1994). as well as additional gardening information,
Fertilizing Home Lawns, EC 1278 (1989). may be viewed or downloaded from the Web
Gardening with Composts, Mulches, and Row (http://eesc.oregonstate.edu).
Covers, EC 1247 (1986). Copies of many of our publications and
A List of Analytical Labs Serving Oregon, videos also are available from OSU Extension
EM 8677 (revised 2002). and Experiment Station Communications. For
Practical Lawn Establishment and Renovation, prices and ordering information, visit our online
EC 1550 (2002). catalog (http://eesc.oregonstate.edu) or contact
Soil Sampling for Home Gardens and Small us by fax (541-737-0817), e-mail (puborders@
Acreages, EC 628 (revised 2002). oregonstate.edu), or phone (541-737-2513).
Soil Test Interpretation Guide, EC 1478 (1996).
Using Cover Crops in Oregon, EM 8704 WSU Cooperative Extension publications
(1998). Backyard Composting, WAEB 1784.
Water-efficient Landscape Plants, EC 1546 Soil Management for Small Farms, EB 1895.
(2001). Visit the WSU Cooperative Extension publi-
cations Web site (http://pubs.wsu.edu).

nn 15 nn
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the following individuals for reviewing a draft of this publication.
Craig Cogger, Crop and Soil Sciences, Washington State University-Puyallup, Puyallup, WA
Jack Hoeck, Rexius Forest Byproducts, Eugene, OR
Jed Colquhoun, Crop and Soil Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR
John Foseid, Metro, Portland, OR
Joyce Jimerson, Washington State University Cooperative Extension, Bellingham, WA
Judy Good, JB Good Inc., Corvallis, OR
Lauren Ettlin, Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, Portland, OR
Marti Roberts-Pillon, Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, Portland, OR
Rita Hummel, Horticulture, Washington State University-Puyallup, Puyallup, WA
Steve Schueurell, Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR
Teresa Matteson, Crop and Soil Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR

© 2003 Oregon State University. This publication was produced and distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8
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Published May 2003.