Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT

Environment is defined as "the sum total of all conditions and influences that affect the development and life of
organisms Environment is surroundings. It comprises the physical, biological and social components. Man is born in a
family. As he grows, he moves about in the neighbourhood and tertiary groups besides his own family which is the
primary group. He learns about his natural environment such as the
kind of vegetation, soil, water and land. He also comes to know about supply of food, various issues concerning health
and means of recreation. Equally necessary is to know about social institutions such as schools, government, taxes and
expenditure. While the natural environment built around a man meets his basic needs, the socio-economic systems are
founded on a material base. Increasing demands and aspirations of society create a rising demand for goods and
services. Man imposes certain changes on natural environment. Altering the physical environment may benefit man
economically but at times it affects the biological environment negatively, creating an imbalance in the existing
ecosystem.
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
The physical component of the environment which encompasses us may be subdivided into (1) Land (2) Atmosphere and
(3) Hydrosphere.
LAND :One of the three main components of physical environment, land is the most heterogenous.
LAND :On the earth's surface, one comes across ecosystems ranging from arid deserts to lush tropical forests. Each of
them bears distinct plant and animal communities. 'Land' is also the only component of ecosystem where man lives. The
total land area of the world is 13,128,841 hectares. Out of the total land use the crop land is 1,477,877 hectares,
permanent pasture is 3,322,943 and forest and wood land is 4,095,317 hectares. Other land covers an area of 4,232,737
hectares and wild area is 3,486,097 hectares. Any part of the earth's surface that supports vegetation also bears a
covering of soil.
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT
Soil is thus usually defined as "any part of earth's crust in which plants root." The soil is the unconsolidated outer layer
of the earth's crust, ranging in thickness from a mere film to somewhat more than 10 feet, which through processes of-
weathering and the incorporation of organic matter has become adapted to the growth of plant. It is underlaid usually
by unconsolidated parent materials into which the deeper roots of plants extend. Nearly all higher plants except
parasites and epiphytes are rooted in the soil. The soil often contains and acts upon a much more extensive portion of
the plant body than does the atmosphere. Vegetation i.e. plant material too has played an important role in the
formation of soil.
NATURE AND ORIGIN OF SOIL :The chief component of most of the soil is derived from rocks. Rocks disintegrate into
smaller fragments by physical forces like wind and water and move to other places where soil is formed.
The process of fragmentation is accompanied by the extremely important process of chemical corrosion on
decomposition because unless the nutrients locked in these particles as insoluble compounds are changed chemically to
water soluble substances, they cannot be absorbed by plant roots. The mineral matter derived from the rock material
constitutes the matrix of the soil it is very stable.
The destructive physical and chemical activities are followed by constructive biological actions i.e. introduction of
living matter from residues of plants. The organic matter added by residues of plants brings about a fundamental
change. Besides mineral matter, the soil thus contains stored energy in the form of organic material. The soil is now
home to many bacteria, fungi and other organisms.
Throughout the process of soil development, plant and animal residues are converted largely by the activities of micro-
organisms into dark coloured organic matter. The total organic matter or humus normally constitutes about 1 to 15 per
cent of its dry weight. A true soil thus comprises 5 components:
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT

i) mineral particles of various sizes

ii) organic matter
iii) soil solution of inorganic salts;
iv) soil atmosphere occupying interspaces not filled with soil solution;
v) microorganisms-both plant and animal.
SOIL TEXTURE. Soils vary a great deal in the relative fineness or coarseness of the particles of which they are made. These
range from coarse gravel to dimensions below the visibility of most powerful microscope. Generally, there are three
groups of soil particles-the coarse ones are sand, those of medium size are silt and the very fine particles are clay and
colloids.
Sand particles with a diameter of about 0.2 mm or larger do not absorb water or solutes, have no colloidal properties
and no chemical action in the soil. However, they are important in counteracting certain undesirable properties of clay.
Clay particles having a high water holding power are important as retainers of soil water and nutrients. They have a
property of swelling when moist and shrinking when dry. Fine sands and silt are intermediate in the properties of sand
and clay. Soil texture is determined by 'the relative proportion of mineral particles of different sizes present in the soil.'
On the basis of different sized particles, soils are classified into different texture groups. Figure given below shows an
arbitrary textural classification of natural soils obtained by using laboratory particle size analysis. Soil texture directly
influences soil-water relationships; aeration and root penetration. Indirectly it also affects the nutritional status of the
soil, the clay fraction being the main source of many plant nutrients. Sandy soils are nutrition deficient due to high
porosity.
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT
A knowledge of soil texture is important in ‘forestry, gardening, field crop production etc. and for an understanding of
general plant distribution.

TEXTURAL GROUP RELATIVE PROPORTION OF DIFFERENT SIZED

MINERAL

SANDY SOIL . 85% sand + 15% clay silt or both

LOAMY SAND 70% sand + 30% clay silt or both

LOAM SOIL 50% sand + 15% clay silt or both

SILT 90 % sand + 10% clay silt or both

Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT
SOIL STRUCTURE: Soils in nature generally occur in the form of aggregates. Structure is a term expressing the
arrangement of individual grains and aggregates that make up the soil mass. The irregularity in size and shape of rock
particles prevents tight-packing and affords open, irregular spaces through which air and water circulate; while their
weight and mutual pressure furnish the necessary resistance to firm root anchorage.
A very complex structure is represented in clay where the soil granules or crumbs are composed of many particles, the
size of interspaces or pores is so small that neither water nor air can move freely. Such soils readily become waterlogged.
In drying they shrink and crack badly often damaging plant roots. During drought the water moves very slowly through
clay and plants may not receive the necessary supply readily. A rich loam usually furnishes an example of a soil with an
excellent structure. Some of the particles are large and function as individuals. Those of smaller size form a nucleus
about which the still smaller particles aggregate into granules, a process termed 'flocculation'.
This aggregation of the smallest soil particles into groups or crumbs which act as individuals makes the soil much more
porous. The larger interspaces permit the water to drain away as they become filled with air, while the smaller ones
retain moisture. The structure of soil determines its porosity which affects the absorption of water and therefore runs
off and often the resultant erosion. In times of drought, soils without a cover of vegetation even if they contain large
amounts of clay, may be badly eroded by wind if the grains are grouped into fine crumbs or granules. Similarly, the
porosity of underlying soil determines the degree of erosion of bared soil on sloping lands.
soil structure affects movement and storage of water in the soil and also soil erosion. Water content and aeration, as
well as compactness of soil, all profoundly influence root development.
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT
DO YOU KNOW?
Burrowing animals such as earthworms, play a significant role in developing soil structure. Earthworms sometimes
penetrate to a depth of 10 feet. Sometimes there are thousands of them per acre. Burrowing everywhere, they drag
down vegetable fragments from above, help to aerate the soil and keep it light. Rodents, ants and various other animals
mix and open up soil and subsoil helping roots to penetrate deeper. In fact insects, insect larvae, Nematodes and other
organisms are all instrumental in loosening the soil and affecting root development and plant growth.
FORMATION OF HUMUS: Humus largely consists of decayed organic part of the soil. It contains substances
undergoing decay of complex compounds resulting from decomposition of constituents resistant to further decay and of
various substances synthesized by plant and animal microorganisms. Humus has a high carbon content, usually about
55 per cent and about 3 to 6 per cent nitrogen. In many soils the elements carbon and hydrogen occur in the ratio of
10:1. Humus comprises the total organic matter in the soils. It originates almost entirely from the decay of plants and
microorganisms. Although much of the humus has its origin from above ground plant parts, large amounts are formed
by root decay and a smaller amount from the remains of soil organisms. Both bacteria and fungi occur in abundance
and promote decomposition. Other organisms, such as actinomycetes, algae, protozoa including amoeba, are widely
present and add significant quantities of organic matter to soil
The process of decomposition utilises oxygen and evolves equal quantities of carbon dioxide. The end products of
decomposition of organic materials is carbon dioxide, water, ammonia, methane and inorganic compounds of sulphur
and phosphorous. Decay of tissues returns compounds of calcium, potassium and manganese to soil. The ammonia is
immediately oxidised to nitrous and nitric compounds, which occur in soil as nitrates. The rate of formation and
accumulation of humus as well as its chemical composition depends on:
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT

1.the nature of plant and animal residues;

2.the nature of microorganisms present; the temperature, moisture and aeration. The decay of organic matter takes
place most rapidly in warm moist well aerated soil, i.e., under conditions most favourable to the development of
organisms responsible for these processes.
Humus is extremely important in improving the physical condition of the soil. It binds as. well as lightens the soil by
separating the particles and thus increases percolation,aeration, bacterial activity and ease of root penetration. Due to
high water absorption capacity it retains water which helps the vegetation in areas of less rainfall to survive.
ATMOSPHERE: The term atmosphere' refers to the thick gaseous mantle surrounding the earth. It is not possible to
define the limits of the atmosphere because the atmosphere becomes progressively tenuous with increasing distance
from the earth. There is no boundary between the atmosphere and the void of outer space. However, 75 per cent of
earth's atmosphere lies within 16 km (10 miles) of the surface and 99 per cent of the atmosphere lies below the altitude
of 30 km (19 miles). The total mass is estimated to be about 5500 trillion tons.
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE: The various components of the tmosphere have been divided into three
categories: major, minor and trace constituents. Their per cent compositions in pollution-free dry air at ground level are
tabulated as follows:
MAJOR COMPONENTS VOLUMEPER CENT
1 Nitrogen 78.08
2 Oxygen 20.95
MINOR COMPONENTS
3 Argon 9.34 X 10-1
4 Carbon di oxide 3.14 X 10-2
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT
TRACE COMPONAENTS
5 Neon 1.818 x 10-3
6 Helium 5.25 x 10-4
7 Methane 2 x 10-4
8 Krypton 1.14 x 10-4
9 Nitrous oxide 25 x 10-5
10 Hydrogen 5 x 10-5
11 Xenon 0-8.7 x 10-6
12 Sulphur di oxide 0-1 x 10-4
13 Ozone 0-2 x 10-6
14 Nitrogen dioxide 0-2 x 10-6
15 Ammonia 0-trace
16 Carbon monoxide 0-trace
17 Iodine 0-trace
Besides these components, air may have 0.1 to 5 per cent water with a normal range of 1 to 3 per cent. As per the laws
of gravity the density of atmosphere decreases sharply with increasing altitude. More than 99 per cent of the mass of
atmosphere is found within 30 km (approx.) of the earth's surface.
The composition and characteristics of the atmosphere have been found to vary greatly with altitude. Other factors
which introduce variation are latitude, temperature, time and solar activity.
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT

MAJOR REGIONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Atmosphere can be roughly divided into four zones:
1. TROPOSPHERE. This is the basal part of atmosphere, which extends upto about 15 km. This layer is important because
important events like cloud formation, lightning, thunder, storm formation take place here. The temperature decreases
with height at the rate of 6.5°C per km. Towards the upper layer it is as low as
-60°C.
2. STRATOSPHERE: Next to troposphere, the second zone of about 30-35 km is called stratosphere, where the
temperature increases upto 90°C. This increase in temperature is due to ozone formation under the influence of
ultraviolet light.
3.MESOSPERE. About 30 km in height, the zone next to stratosphere is called mesosphere. In this zone the temperature
shows again a decrease up to -80°C.
4 IONOSPHERE. The rest above the mesosphere upto a height of about 300 km is ionosphere. Most of the gaseous
components which become ionised under the influence of radiant energy remain as ions. Due to their much less density,
they are rarely present in molecular form.
PARTICLES IN THE ATMOSPHERE :Particles form a significant proportion of the atmosphere especially troposphere.
These are fly ash, dust, grit and other suspended particulate matter(SPM) released from power plants and industries
(such as stone crushers etc.). There are also bacterial cells, fungi spores and pollen in air as biological particulate
pollutants. Aerosol particles with a diameter of less than 0.2 micron may be added to atmosphere due . to evaporation
of sprays and other organic material.
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT

Fog, mist and cloud formation are natural sources of aerosol particles. Particles play an important role in the
atmosphere:
(i) by reflecting light to maintain the heat balance of earth's atmosphere;
(ii) to act as nuclei for the formation of ice crystals and water droplets. Efforts to artificially create rain are centred
around introducing condensing particles to atmosphere super saturated with water vapour. Some commonly used
particles are dry ice and silver iodide.
'Soot' is added to the atmosphere as a residue of combustion of fuel in power plants and automobiles. It constitutes
about 50% of the particulate load in urban areas.
The hydrogen content of soot is 1-3% and oxygen content about 5-10% due to partial oxidation on surface. Due to its
large surface area, soot is known to act as a carrier for toxic organic compounds e.g. benzo-n-pyrene and toxic trace
metals e.g. beryllium, cadmium, chromium, manganese, nickel, vanadium, etc.
Metallurgical operations add various metal oxides such as iron and cadmium oxides. Zinc from zinc smelting plants and
refineries, mercury from fungicides and paints and lead from automobiles too reach the atmosphere.
WATER IN ATMOSPHERE. Atmospheric moisture in the form of invisible vapour is known as 'Humidity'. The humidity of
air is expressed in terms of relative humidity values. It is the amount of moisture in air as percentage of the amount
which the air can hold at saturation at the existing temperature. Humidity is greatly influenced by intensity of solar
radiation, temperature, altitude, wind exposure, cover and water status of the soil.High temperature increases the
capacity of the air to retain moisture and causes lower relative humidity. Low temperatures cause higher relative
humidity by decreasing the capacity of air for moisture.
Processes such as transpiration, absorption of water etc. are much influenced by atmospheric humidity. Saturation
deficit, temperature and wind velocity affect evapotranspiration rates.
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT
Saturation deficit causes fall or rise inn evapotranspiration rate respectively.Similarly temperature variation too
influence the rate of evaporation. Dry wind decreses the amount of moisture by removing air around plants andmixing
it with dry airwhich decreases the humidsity and thus increase in transpiration.
Thus moisture or humidity plays an important role in the life of plants, some plants such as orchids,lichens,mosses
etc, male direct use of atmospheric moisture.in fungiand other microbes it aids the germination of spores as well as the
following stages in thier life cycle.
Water vapour absorb infra red radiation,even more than carbon dioxide,therebydetermining the heat balance of the
earth. Clouds formed from water vapours are able to reflect light coming from the sun and have a temperature lowering
effect. water vapours especially in industrial ares where pollutant sulphur di oxide is present the atmosphere produce
acid rain as follows.
pollutant sulphur di oxidegets oxidised to sulphur trioxide
2SO2 + O2 + SO3
And sulphur trioxide combines with water apour to form sulphuric acid.
SO3 + H2O H2SO4
The rainfall in these areas has a low Ph value. Water vapour is also responsible for corrosion of metals. Iron
gets rusted in the presence of moist air.
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT
CLOUD CLOSE TO GROUND : When the relative moisture content of the atmosphere reaches 100% i.e. when the vapour
pressure equals or exceeds saturation point FOG is formed close m-the earth's surface. As the physical processes of
cloud formation and fog are identical, fog can also be described as clouds close to the ground. In the evening and at
night, radiation balance of the earth is negative, that is, outward radiation from the earth exceeds inward radiation
from the sun. During the day the atmosphere near the earth's surface is charged with water vapour, which because of
the sharp drop in temperature at night condenses. Fog formation is intensified when, owing to a flow of cold air in the
valleys, cold air accumulates or when the water content of the ground (in marshland, wet meadow etc. is very high.
Atmosphere, thus, is an extremely important component of earth's environment without which life would not have
flourished on earth.
Atmosphere forms a protective blanket around earth and protects it from the hostile environment in outer space. It
constitutes the source of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and of oxygen for respiration. It provides nitrogen which is
converted to more usable forms by nitrogen fixing bacteria and. ammonia manufacturing plants.
In a long hydrological cycle, the major source of water vapour is the world's oceans that contain 97.3% of earth's water
resources. In this cycle a portion of water evaporates and forms clouds that moves inland. Water vapour then cools and
returns to earth as precipitation. Ultimately this water returns to
oceans through river and ground water flow . Atmosphere forms an insulating blanket around the earth. Without it the
temperature at the equator- would rise to 180°F during the day and drop as low as -220°F at night. It burns up meteors
which would have caused massive destruction on hitting the ground. Without the atmosphere there would
not have been any sound. It absorbs infra-red radiations of the sun as well as energy re-emitted by the earth thus acting
as an important heat stabilizing function and preventing temperature extremes .
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT

HYDROSPHERE Water is a vitally important substance not only for man but all animals and plants as well. Water is
widely distributed in nature and occurs in a number of forms: solid, liquid and gaseous.
The hydrological cycle describes the processes by which water gets converted from its liquid or solid state into its vapour
state. In the vapour form water can travel long distances from its place of origin before recondensing and returning to
earth as precipitation.
Hydrological cycle is a complex series of events involving the movement of
atmospheric, surface and ground water throughout various regions of earth. Most of earth's fresh water supply is
obtained due to precipitation caused by hydrological cycle. The hydrological cycle may be short if the water evaporates
from a marine or a fresh water system and condenses almost immediately and returns as precipitation in the same
system.
In a long hydrological cycle, the major source of water vapour is the world's oceans that contain 97.3% of earth's
water resources. In this cycle a portion of water evaporates and forms clouds that moves inland. Water vapour then
cools and returns to earth as precipitation. Ultimately this water returns to oceans through river and ground water flow
The various stages in the hydrologic cycle are as follows:
1 EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION : Water evaporates from the surface of oceans and rivers and then condenses
around tiny particles called 'nuclei'. Nuclei may be organic material like pollen, spores etc. or fine mineral particles.
However, precipitation normally occurs in response to any of these three factors: When masses of warm moist air move
into region of cold air causing rapid condensation of the vapour. In hot weather when air warmed at earth's surface
becomes lighter and rises into overlying cold air, bringing about condensation of water vapour. When air gets cooled as
a result of moving over high mountains.
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT
RUNOFF,STREAM FLOW AND INFILTRATION: When rain falls over a terrestrial area, it will (i) either be caught by
vegetation readily and get re-evaporated, a process called interception, or (ii) fall on the earth's surface from where
again it might either flow as a stream or sink underground by a process called infiltration.
just below the soil surface and discharge into streams which is known as 'run off'. (ii) Some water will remain above the
water table in area called the 'zone of unsaturated flow'.
(iii) Rest of the water will percolate down into the groundwater table.
The entire process can be simplified .
3. EVAPORANSPIRAION A large amount of precipitated water changes back to vapour by either evaporation or
transpiration. In most regions water lost by evaporation cannot be measured separately from the water lost by
transpiration, hence together they are known as evapotranspiration.
Evaporation refers to the process in which water molecules at the surface of a water body such as an ocean, a lake or a
river absorb sufficient energy to leave the surface and change into vapour form. Transpiration is the process by which
terrestrial and emerging aquatic plants release water vapour in the atmosphere.
The water converted to vapour via transpiration cannot be ignored. In fact, transpiration from emergent vegetation has
been a major factor in the" drying up" of lakes.
4. GROUND WATER Water that percolates below the earth may take years to return to the surface. This forms the
longest part of the hydrological cycle. The water that remains close to the surface i.e., above the water table may
discharge as subaqueous springs below the surface of lakes, rivers and marine systems. Springs may be of different
magnitudes depending upon the quantity of rainfall, the area and the permeability of the soil and subsoil.
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT

GROUND WATER VS SURFACE WATER

As water percolates down various layers of subsoil, it dissolves minerals along with filtering out microorganisms.
Thus generally ground water is considered superior to surface water as a domestic water source. Surface water
usually has higher content of biodegradable organic content and a high population of bacteria!
WATER IS UNIQUE Water has certain unique properties that make it even more special as a 'life-giving' and 'life-
sustaining' component of the physical environment. Water is a 'universal-solvent'. Due to its ionic nature and the
presence of hydrogen bonding, water can dissolve a large number of substances. Thus water acts as a basic transport
medium for the nutrients and waste products involved in life processes.
Water has the highest heat capacity with the exception of liquid ammonia. Due to this property a large amount of
heat is required to bring about any change in the temperature of a water body Due to this stabilizing factor aquatic
ecosystems are protected from large variations in temperature .
BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT Biological environment refers to the variety of
flora and fauna in a given ecosystem. It is affected and developed by the influence of all the living organisms. From
the smallest bacteria to the largest predator along with the autotrophs i.e., plants that convert inorganic raw
material to food are all part of the ogical environment. In a given ecosystem
the living organisms are distinguished on the basis of their nutritional relationships. Broadly, we can divide the
biological environment into
two main components:
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT

1 AUTOTROPHS: This component is mainly constituted by green plants including photosynthetic bacteria, which are
responsible for fixation of light energy, use of simple inorganic substances to produce complex organic substances.
Members of the autotrophic component are known as Producers.
2 HETEROTROPIC OMPONENT. This component chiefly comprises consumers i.e., organisms which consume the matter
formed by autotrophs. The consumers are further categorised as:
MACROCONSUMERS Herbivores (animals that feed on plants) and carnivores (animals that feed on flesh of other
animals) are called macroconsumers. Herbivores are known as primary consumers while secondary and tertiary
consumers, if present in a food chain, are carnivores.
b) MICROCONSUMERS :Bacteria and fungi which break down the complex compounds of dead or living protoplasm and
release inorganic nutrients in the environment are rnicroconsumers. Commonly they are known as decomposers.
The biological component is the 'Functional Component' of environment as it establishes the link between
nutrition and energy. Food chains and biogeochemical cycles represent the flow of energy and nutrition in the
environment.
FUNCTIONS OF BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT Food Chains and Food Webs represent the interlinking and
interdependence between various organisms. The transfer of food energy the producers, through a series of
organisms (herbivores to carnivores to decomposers) with repeated eating and being eaten is known as food chain.
Green plants trap the energy of the sun and transform it to chemical form ATP during photosynthesis.
Thus green plants occupy the first trophic (nutritional) level- the producers level and are called the primary
producers.
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT
The energy stored in the plants is then utilised by herbivores that constitute the second trophic level and are called the
primary consumers. Herbivores, in turn, are eaten by carnivores
which constitute the third trophic level and are called the secondary consumers. These, in turn, may be eaten still by
other carnivores at tertiary consumers leveL Some organisms are omnivores eating the producers as well as the
carnivores at their lower level in the food chain. Such organisms may occupy more than one trophic level in the food
chain. A typical 'terrestrial food chain' may be as follows
Green plants--- mouse --- snake --- eagle
An aquatic food chain may be like this:
Algae --- Aquatic insects --- Small fish
However, food chains in natural conditions never operate as isolated sequence, but are inter-connected with each other
forming a complicated pattern known as 'Food Web Food chains cannot occur linearly because an organism can occupy
more than one trophic
levels e.g., a mouse may be eaten first by snake which, in turn, is eaten by the hawk or mouse may be consumed directly
by hawk. A food web has many alternate pathways which regulate the flow of energy from producer to the top
carnivore. The complexity of a food web depends upon the diversity of organisms in the system. Accordingly, it depends
on two main factors:
(i) Length of the food chain. Diversity in the organisms based upon their food habits would determine the length of food
chain. More the diversity, longer will be the food chain.
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT
(ii) Alternatives at different points of consumers in the chain. More the alternatives, more would be the interlocking
pattern. In deep oceans, due to the presence of a variety of organisms, the food webs are much complex. Food webs are
important in maintaining the balance in biological environment. For example, a decrease in the population of rabbits
would naturally cause an increase in the population of alternative herbivore mouse. This may decrease the population of
the carnivore that prefers to eat rabbits. Moreover, a balanced ecosystem is essential for the survival of all living
organisms of the system. If primary consumers had not been in nature, the producers would have perished due to
overcrowding and competition.
SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
Various organisms exist together in nature affecting others and getting affected at the same time due to mutual
interactions and interdependence. Vital processes such as rowth, nutrition and reproduction depend on interactions
between individuals of the same species or between the individuals of different
species. Pollination, seed and fruit dispersal, parasitism and symbiosis are common examples of such interactions. The
effect of man on vegetation has been quite pronounced.
The interactions between organisms may be divided in two categories:
1 POSITIVE ITERACTIONS Interactions where one or both the species are benefitted. These include: (i) mutualism (ii)
commensalism and (iii) protocooperation.
2 NEGATIVE INTERACTIONS. Interactions in which one or both the species are harmed. These include: (i) expolitation (ii)
predation, (iii) antibiosis and (iv) competition.
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT
POSITIVE ITERACTIONS In these interactions populations help one another and benefit in terms of food, shelter or
transport. However, the association may be continuous or transitory, the two partners may be in close contact or live at
a distance.
1 MUTALISM :Here both species derive benefit and usually there is a close and permanent contact essential for the
survival of each. The two populations enter into some sort of physiological exchange. Some common examples of
mutualism are:
POLLINATION BY ANIMALS butterflies derive food from nectar and bring about pollination in return. Dispersal of fruits
and seeds. The fruits are eaten by birds and animals arid seeds are dropped at various places.
Symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria. Bacteria Rhizobium forms nodules in the roots of leguminous plants and lives
symbiotically with the host. Bacteria obtains food from the higher plants and in turn fixes atmospheric nitrogen making
it available for the plant.
(ii) COMMENSALISM. In this association only one species is benefited and neither is harmed. Here two or more
populations live together without entering into any kind of physiological change. Some common examples are:
A variety of microorganisms, saprophytic bacteria and fungi and protozoans live within tissues or cavities of plants and
animals e.g., protozoa plasmodium lives in the body of female anopheles.
Some bacteria live in the intestines of animals. Escherchia coli is found in
human colon. Squirrels, monkeys, birds, insects use trees and other plants for shelter and breeding sites. Oyster crab,
pinnothers ostreum is found in the mantle cavity of the oyster. In addition to shelter, it also gets its food from the host
without causing any harm.
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT
(iii) PROTOCOOPERATION. In this kind of association, although both the species are benefited, yet it is not obligatory i.e.,
not essential for the survival of either population. One such example is of a coelentrate, sea anemone attached to the
shells of a hermit crab. The sea anemone is carried by the crab to fresh feeding sites and crab in turn is said to be
protected from its enemies by sea anemone.
NEGATIVE INTERACTION S As a result of negative interactions one or
both the species may be harmed in any way during their life period.
(i) Exploitation. In this kind of interaction one species harms the other by making its direct or indirect use for support,
shelter or food.
Shelter: Parasite birds such as cuckoo and crowbird never build their own
nests and female lays eggs in the nest built by birds of another smaller species.
Food' A parasite Food' A parasite is an organism living in the body of another organism and deriving its food from its
tissues. A wide ariety of plants and animal parasites exist. Species of Cuscuta (total stem parasites) grow on other plants
on which they depend for nourishment. Most parasites are microorganisms of which fungi, bacteria and viruses are
parasite for plants as well as animals.
(ii) PREDATION. Unlike a parasite which derives its nutrition from its host without killing, a predator is free living which
catches kills another species for food. Herbivores kill the plants and use unharvested herbs and shrubs.
Carnivores kill herbivores to obtain their food. Animals such as insects, squirrels, mice, rodents etc consume large
quantities of seeds. Carnivorous plants such as Nepenthes consume insects and other small animals for their food.
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT
(iii) Antibiosis. The term 'antibiosis‘ generally refers to the complete or partial
inhibition on death of one organism by another through the production of some substance or environmental conditions
as a result of metabolic pathways. Here none of them derives any benefit. These substances or conditions are harmful to
other organism. A very good example of this is antibiotics. In fact about 50% of the species of actinomycetes and 50% of
the lichens produce substances that inhibit moulds and bacteria. (iv) Competition. Competition occurs when individuals
try to obtain a resource that is inadequate to support all members of a community seeking it. The competition can be for
(a) raw materials such as light, water or nutrients or (b) space to rest, breed, grow and hide from predators.
The competition may be:
INTRASPECIFIC i.e., occurring between members of same population, or Interspecific i.e., between populations of
different species. According to the competitive exclusion principle, "complete competitions cannot coexist" and,
according to a well known ecologist, Gause, "Given a region of physical space in which two species do persist indefinitely-
there exists one or more properties of the environment or species or of both that ensures ecological distinction between
the two species." In simple words, it means that populations will evolve in such a manner so as to use environment in
slightly different ways, thereby reducing competition.
SOCIAL EVOLUTION We have seen how individuals of some species and populations of various animals interact and affect
each other. Each population and various communities organise thernselve socially to survive and progress. Social
structure of organisms may have the following characteristics: Individuals tolerate each others presence when
crowded into a restricted space and co-exist peacefully.
Chapter – 1 DIMENSIONS OF ENVIRONMENT
Those that show some integration so that the group responds as a unit. Those that have established division of
labour and definite social structure. Division of labour started evolving very early, for example, ants and termites
have for millions of years been building elaborate dwelling places, domesticating other species, raising vegetables,
storing food, practising sanitation and living under elaborate social hierarchies – an analogous to what man has
evolved independently later on.
With division of labour, each individual or species contributes to the welfare of the social unit or community by co-
operating in various ways. These qualities enable communities to develop high efficiency using natural resources
resulting in their survival and development. In higher animals, with the development of competition, dominance and
subordination arise and get established in social hierarchies.
'Leadership' is essential for social stability and more efficient exploitation of natural resources and advancement of
social systems. Just as lower animals compete with one another to establish the terriotorial right man bulds up
defence and armaments to secure boundaries.