The

Voss
Lectures

on

Electrical

Engineering

III
8th Edition

 COPYRIGHT STRICTLY RESERVED

2015 E.Voss
 Compiled notes of the lectures

on

Electrical Engineering III

given to S 3-Students at the

Cape Peninsula University of Technology, S.A

@2015 E.Voss

8th Edition
Department of Electrical Engineering

ABOUT THE SUBJECT

αΓΔεηθκλνξπΣςυφΨ

This is the first volume of lectures on "electrical engineering" by this author. The idea is to interest
students who have decided to major in “Heavy-current” by discussing interesting topics about this
field.

About 120 years ago the first steps into the calculation of networks were made. Since then many
papers have been published and led to the thorough theory of three-phase systems and their
mathematical treatment. Many engineers like Fortescue, Wagner, Clark, Doherty, Park, Ruedenberg
etc worked on this subject and have made numerous and far reaching contributions. Starting off
with simple configurations these researchers uncovered the basic theorems and ideas which are so
well established nowadays. This combined work and achievement makes the treatment of
complicated networks possible.

At the Cape Peninsula University of Technology the subject of "electrical engineering" is taught on
three levels. This volume provides the theory for the last and so far most advanced one in this
subject.

By nature, every engineering subject requires an increasing level of mathematics when furthering
the studies. This, however, helps in the understanding of the behaviour of electrical phenomena and
must be regarded as inevitable. In this context, this set of notes is a preparation for higher level
subjects were the theory of symmetrical components and the description of systems in per unit
values is considered common knowledge.

Only a sound theoretical background prepares the student to tackle interesting problems when
practicing as an engineer. This in turn will lead to the experience so much needed in this field.

Learner Guide for Electrical Engineering III Page 3 of 10

 Three Phase Theory 1

CHAPTER 1
THREE PHASE THEORY

1.1 REVISION
A three-phase system consists of three voltages with arbitrary magnitudes and any
phase shift (both not equal to zero).
IB


IR


IY
If magnitudes and angles are equal we have a symmetrical system as indicated below.
a
R

Ean
VBR
VRY
Ecn Ebn

c b Y
VYB B

Ean = 220V0 ; Ebn = 220V-120 ; Ecn = 220V120

The voltages between any point a,b,c and the neutral are called phase voltages and
between any two points a,b,c line voltages. Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) the
line voltages can be calculated from the phase voltages

VRY-Ean+Ebn = 0  VRY = Ean-Ebn = 381V30

VYB-Ebn+Ecn = 0  VYB = Ebn-Ecn = 381V-90

VBR-Ecn+Ean = 0  VBR = Ecn-Ean = 381V150

If all these voltages are drawn into a voltage triangle it can be seen that
VL  3
cos 30    VL  2  cos 30   V ph  2   V ph 
 3  V ph
2  V ph  2 
 Three Phase Theory 2

These voltages can be fed to STAR- or DELTA connected loads, whereby the star
connection can be with or without a neutral wire. The situation for a delta connected
load is shown below.

Because Kirchhoff’s current law must be true at the nodal points the directions
indicating the current flow have to be:

(a) For line currents either ALL IN or ALL OUT

(b) For phase currents either ALL CLOCKWISE (CW) or ALL COUNTER
CLOCKWISE (CCW_

If all the line currents are expressed in terms of their phase currents and added up, one
obtains IR+IY+IB = (II-I3)+(I2-I1)+I3-I2) = 0. Although the utilities try to maintain a
symmetrical voltage system they cannot guarantee this for the resulting currents
because they are a function of the balanced- or unbalanced loads.

Due to this the following situations can arise:

1) A symmetrical voltage system connected to a balanced load results in a
symmetrical current system
2) A symmetrical voltage system connected to an unbalanced load results in an
asymmetrical current system
3) An asymmetrical voltage system connected to a balanced load results in an
asymmetrical current system
4) An asymmetrical voltage system connected to an unbalanced load results in a
symmetrical- or asymmetrical current system

1.2 EXERCISES

1.2.1) What current system (symmetrical or asymmetrical) will be created by the

following situations?
a) An asymmetrical voltage system is connected to a balanced load.
b) A symmetrical voltage system is connected to an unbalanced load.
 Three Phase Theory 3

1.2.2) A symmetrical system of phase voltages with a magnitude of 120 volts is

connected to a balanced star connected load with impedances (3  j 4) as
shown below. Determine the phasor diagram representing this system.

For this network there are 3 phase- and 3 line-voltages which are correspondingly
equal on generator- and load side.

Furthermore there are 4 currents which are equal on both sides so that all together 10
phasor have to be determined in order to draw the phasor diagram.

The phase voltages are given by the statement symmetrical and are therefore:

Ean = 120V0 Ebn = 120V-120 Ecn = 120V120

Because of this the line voltages also form a symmetrical system with magnitudes:

VL = 3  Vph = 3120V = 208V

Applying Ohm’s law yields the following currents:

VR E 1200
IR   an   24 A  53.13
ZR ZR  3  j 4
I R  24 A  173.13
I R  24 A66.87

The neutral current can by deduction or calculation be seen to be exactly equal to

zero.

The line voltage between points a and b can be found from the diagram of phase
voltages or by calculation.

Ebn + Eab - Ean = 0  Eab = Ean - Ebn = 120V0-120V-120= 208V30

which means that

Eca = 208V150 ; Ebc = 208V-90

 Three Phase Theory 4

From the drawing it can be seen that the load is inductive which means physically the
current lags the voltage. The impedance therefore must have a positive imaginary
part.
The phasor diagram is given below

Ecn
Eca IB
Eab

Ean
IY

IR

Ebn

1.2.3) A symmetrical system of phase voltages with a magnitude of 150 volts is

connected to a balanced delta connected load with impedances (6  j8) as
shown below. Determine the phasor diagram representing this system.

In this case we need 3 phase- or line voltages, 3 line-and 3 phase currents to complete
the phasor diagram. The reference is here Eab but this is arbitrary.

VYR
I YR   15 A  53.13  I BY  15 A  173.13  I RB  15 A66.87
Z

I R  I YR  I RB  25.98 A  83.13  I Y  25.98 A156.87  I B  25.98 A36.87

 Three Phase Theory 5

The phasor diagram is given below

VRB

IRB IB
IY

VRY
IBY

IYR

VBY IR
 COMPLEX POWER 6

CHAPTER 2
COMPLEX POWER

2.1 PHASOR DIAGRAMS

The quantities V, I and S are phasors meaning they have magnitude and direction like
vectors. However, they are not the same.
Im

 I
 Re

I
  
S  V  I  VV  I I  VI(V   I )

which cannot be, because the power is a function of the difference of the angles and
therefore a minus sign needs to be introduced. This can be done by taking the
complex conjugate of the current.
  
S  V  I   VV  I   I  VI(V   I )
The following is a phase of a 3 phase load which consists of resistors and capacitors.

Z=(10-j15)Ω

The phasor diagram for each of the phases is as given below which indicates that the
common current is leading the phase voltage.

VR P I

VC QC

Vph S
If the voltage is chosen as reference the current must have a positive angle and can be
calculated from
V 220V0
I    12.2 A56.3
Z 18.03  56.3
 COMPLEX POWER 7

The phasor diagram also indicates that the complex power has a negative imaginary
part which can only be calculated if the conjugate of the current is used
S  V  I *  220V0  12.2 A  56.3  2684VA   56.3  P  jQ
This result indicates that capacitive reactive power is always negative. The true
interpretation, however, must be based on physical evidence and that is in this case the
fact that the current leads the voltage.
The following stresses the importance of the capacitive- and inductive reactance in
this regard.
I Xc

V
V V 0
Z    Z  
I I 

V V  
Z    Z  
I I 0

 The angle of a CAPACITANCE is always NEGATIVE

V Xl

I
V V 0
Z    Z 
I I  

V V 
Z    Z 
I I 0

 The angle of an INDUCTANCE is always POSITIVE

2.2 PROBLEMS

QUESTION: 2
Show as in the notes why the complex conjugate of the current must be used in power
calculations?

QUESTION: 3
Prove:
The angle of an inductive reactance is always positive.
The angle of a capacitive reactance is always negative

QUESTION: 4
 COMPLEX POWER 8

Use the phase voltage as reference and calculate the complex apparent power and
indicate whether the circuit is inductive or capacitive.

QUESTION: 5
A balanced, star connected, three phase load is fed by a symmetrical 400V, 50Hz
supply. Each phase consists of a 90 resistance, a 32 mH inductance and a 5 F
capacitance all connected in series. Determine the complex power per phase.

QUESTION: 6
A balanced, delta connected, three phase load is fed by a symmetrical 400V, 50Hz
supply. Each phase consists of a 50 resistance, a 25 mH inductance and a 20 F
capacitance all connected in parallel. Determine the complex power per phase.
 UNBALANCED LOADS 9

CHAPTER 3
UNBALANCED LOADS

3.1 SHORT CIRCUITED STAR CONNECTED LOAD

Unbalanced conditions are all those which are not balanced and that is very often the
case. They include single-,double- and triple line to line faults and all earth (ground)
faults.
Two cases shall outline the general conventional approach using KVL, KCL and
Ohm’s law. They show asymmetry purely in the load and have no earth connection.

a) The star connected load with a short circuit in one phase

The question is: What current flows in the short circuited phase B and the approach is
the same as the one learnt in electrical machines 2.
The current cannot be calculated from Ohm’s law as voltage and impedance in
branch B are zero. This is a very practical example for the meaninglessness of the
fraction 0/0. The remaining quantity is the current and KCL gives the following:
IR+IY+IB = 0  IB = -(IR+IY)

The currents can be calculated using Ohm’s law as

VR V
IR  and I Y  Y
XC XC

The voltages VR and VY are unknown and must be calculated using KVL in the loops
which involve the voltages looked for.
VBR-VB+VR = 0 VR = -VBR =  420120
VYB-VY+VB = 0 VY = VYB = 420  120
Why was VRY-VR+VY = 0 not used?
The currents can now be calculated using these voltages because they are known line
voltages
 V BR V
IR   and I Y  YB
XC XC
 j
jX C 
All that remains is to calculate C and the results are as given below.
 UNBALANCED LOADS 10

X C  159.16  90
I R  2.64 A30  I Y  2.64 A  30  I B  4.57 A180

3.2 OPEN CIRCUITED STAR CONNECTED LOAD

The star connected load with an open circuit in one phase

Explain why Ohm’s law can not be used?

In this case the voltage between the open terminals is looked for because it is safe to
say that the current in this branch is zero. The key lies in applying KVL to any one of
the two loops which involve the open circuit, like for instance

VYB -VB+V = 0  V = VB-VYB

which shows that VB must be calculated since VYB is known.

This can be done using Ohm’s law by calculating VB = IB × XC

But all we know about IB is that

IR+IY+IB = 0 or IB = -IR  VB = -VR because XR = XB

The next loop to be used is

 VBR
VB 
VBR - VR + VB = 0 = VBR+VB + VB = VBR + 2 × VB or 2
Explain why only this loop is used?

Using VBR as reference the results are as follows:

IB = -1.32A90 VB = 210V180 and V = 364V-90
which is a dangerous voltage and the phasor diagram also shows that there exists quite
a difference between the star points.
 UNBALANCED LOADS 11

3.3 UNBALANCED DELTA CONNECTED LOAD

The unbalanced delta connected load

VL = 380V Zab = 38Ω 0 Zbc = 38Ω -30 Zca = 38Ω 30

For the network given above we want to determine the complex power in each of the
phases. Because all voltages and impedances are known the application of Ohm’s law
three times will yield the phase currents
Iab = 10A0 Ibc = 10A-90 Ica = 10A90

from which, using KCL three times, the line currents can be found
Ia = 14.14A-45 Ib = 14.14A-135 Ic = 20A90
This enables us to find an interesting result namely that
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0 but Iab + Ibc + Ica = 10A0
which is not really surprising if KCL is properly understood.
The complex phase powers are easily found to be
S ab  Vab I ab
*
 3800VA 0

S bc  Vbc I bc
*
 3800VA   30

S ca  Vca I ca
*
 3800VA 30

S  S ab  S bc  S ca  10382VA
And the phasor diagram is as shown below
 UNBALANCED LOADS 12

Vab(ref)
Ia
Iab

45°
Ica Ic 135° I
bc

Vca
Vbc
Ib
3.4 THE FOUR WIRE UNBALANCED LOAD
The four wire unbalanced load

Z1 = 5Ω 0 ; Z2 = (4-j3)Ω ; Z3 = (4+j3)Ω ; VL = 380V

Here we want to calculate the total complex power which has to be found from the
phase powers because the load is unbalanced and the factor 3 looses its importance.
But because, due to the neutral wire, the phase voltages are fixed the calculation is
straight forward. Therefore only results are given and it is up to the reader to confirm
them.
Ia = 43.9A-30 Ib = 43.9A-113.13 Ic = 43.9A53.13
 IN = 54.52A-30
Sa = 9680VA0 Sb = 9680VA-36.87 Sc = 9680VA 36.87
 ST = 25168VA
Which is a VERY interesting result. The phasor diagram is again shown below.
 UNBALANCED LOADS 13

3.5 PROBLEMS
QUESTION: 3.5.1
A Delta connected load exhibits a short circuit between points “B” and “R” of a
symmetrical supply as shown:
VYB = 280V120
ZBR = ZYB = 12.535
ZRY = 2146

a) Calculate IY
b) Draw voltage phasor diagrams for “before” and “after” the short circuit was
made.

QUESTION: 3.5.2
A delta connected load exhibits a short circuit between points “Y” and “B” of a
clockwise rotating voltage system of 400V. The phase currents are also clockwise.
The impedances are ZRY = ZYB = 20Ωej40 and ZBR = 10Ωej30. VRY has an angle of minus
120º. Calculate the current IR.

QUESTION: 3.5.3
A delta connected load exhibits a short circuit between points “B” and “R” of a
clockwise rotating voltage system of 380V. The phase currents are also clockwise.
The impedances are ZRY = 20Ωej40 and ZYB = ZBR = 10Ωej30. VYB has an angle of plus
120º. Calculate the current IY.

QUESTION: 3.5.4
A delta connected load exhibits a short circuit between points “B” and “R” of a
clockwise rotating voltage system of 380V. The phase currents are also clockwise.
The impedances are ZRY = 30Ωej40 and ZYB = ZBR = 20Ωej30. VYB has an angle of 120º.
Calculate the current IY.

QUESTION: 3.5.5
A delta connected load exhibits a short circuit between points “B” and “R” of a
mathematically negative rotating voltage system with VRY  380V120 . The phase


currents are assigned the same directions.

The impedances are ZRY = ZYB = ZBR = 10Ωej45. Calculate all the line currents.
 UNBALANCED LOADS 14

QUESTION 3.5.6
A delta connected load exhibits a short circuit between points “B” and “R” of a
clockwise rotating voltage system of 380V. The phase currents are also clockwise.
The impedances are ZRY = ZBR = 1550 and ZYB = 1255 .
VRY has an angle of minus 120 . Calculate the current IY.

QUESTION: 3.5.7
A star connected load exhibits a short circuit in phase “B” of a mathematically
positive rotating voltage system with VRY  380V0 . The phase currents are


directed outwards. The impedances are ZR=ZY=20Ωej60. Calculate all the line currents.

QUESTION: 3.5.8
A star connected load with a short circuit in phase “Y” is connected to an
anticlockwise rotating voltage system of 380V; 50Hz. Phase voltage direction is
outwards. Phases “R” and “B” contain an inductance of L = 30mH each. Use “VBR” as
reference and calculate the current “IY”.

QUESTION: 3.5.9
A star connected load consists of the following impedances.
ZR= (20+j10) Ω ZY= 0 Ω ZB= (3+j5) Ω
Calculate the phase voltages and currents of the load when an asymmetrical voltage
source is connected to the load with the following values:
VRY= 380V   120 VYB= 420V120 VBR= 401V  5

QUESTION: 3.5.10
A star connected load consists of the following impedances.
Z R  20 Z Y  4  j 5 Z B  0
Calculate the phase voltages and currents of the load when an asymmetrical
Voltage source is connected to the load with the following values:
V RY  400V0 0 VYB  420V120 0 V BR  380V  120 0

QUESTION: 3.5.11
Three 20μF capacitors are star connected to a symmetrical 420V, 50Hz, 3 wire supply.
Calculate, using VR as reference,
a) the line currents
b) the line currents if the capacitor in the yellow phase is short circuited
c) the line currents if the capacitors in the yellow phase is open circuited

QUESTION: 3.5.12
Three 30μF capacitors are star connected to a symmetrical 600V, 50Hz, 3 wire supply.
Calculate using VB as reference
a) the line currents for the “healthy” system
b) the line currents if the capacitor in the blue phase is short circuited
c) the line currents if the capacitors in the red phase is open circuited

QUESTION: 3.5.13
 UNBALANCED LOADS 15

Three 20μF capacitors are star connected to a symmetrical 500V, 50Hz, 3 wire supply.
Calculate using V RY as reference
a) the line currents for the “healthy” system
b) the line currents if the capacitor in the blue phase is short circuited
c) the line currents if the capacitors in the red phase is open circuited

QUESTION: 3.5.14
Three 10μF capacitors are star connected to a symmetrical 380V, 50Hz, 3 wire supply.
Calculate using VR as reference
a) the line currents
b) the line currents if the capacitor in the yellow phase is short circuited
c) the line currents if the capacitors in the yellow phase is open circuited
 STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION AND MILLMAN’S THEOREM 16

CHAPTER 4
STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION AND MILLMAN’S THEOREM

4.1 STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION

The application of Ohm’s law requires that the voltage across and the current through
the element under consideration is known.
As this is always the case in delta connected loads it makes sense to look for a way in
which a star connected load can be transformed into an equivalent delta. Emphasis is
on equivalent which means that from voltage- and current measurements at the three
terminals it can not be said whether the load is delta or star connected. Because the
line voltages are the same this then means that during the transformation the
impedance between any two terminals must be the same. This in turn will leave the
currents unchanged.
What we want to achieve is easily shown in the picture below and the transforming
equations are rather simple.

R R

ZR
ZBR ZRY

ZB ZY

ZYB
Y
Y

B B

 Z R ZY  ZY Z B  Z B Z R   Z R ZY  ZY Z B  Z B Z R 
Z RY  Z YB 
ZB ZR

 Z R ZY  ZY Z B  Z B Z R 
Z BR 
ZY
There is of course also a delta star transformation but that would defeat the whole
object and is not often used in power engineering.

4.2 MILLMAN’S THEOREM

While the Star Delta transformation is applied only to the load Millman deals with
source and load. The idea is to express the unknown load voltages by the known
source voltages and the voltage between the two starpoints. It is clear from the picture
below that this method requires a star connected source.
 STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION AND MILLMAN’S THEOREM 17

1 1 1
YR  YY  YB 
ZR ; ZY ; ZB

From KCL applied at point ”S” we have

I r  I y  I b  Vrs  Yr  V ys  Y y  Vbs  Yb  0

Vrn  Vsn Yr  V yn  Vsn Y y  Vbn  Vsn Yb  0

V rn Yr  V yn Y y  Vbn Yb 
Vsn 
Yr  Y y  Yb 

The approach to solving problems using Millman’s theorem can be outlined as

follows:
1) Calculate the voltage between the two star points
2) Calculate the phase voltages of the load
3) Calculate the currents using Ohm’s law

4.3 EXAMPLES

4.3.1) An unbalanced, 3 wire, star connected load has impedances of

Zr = 10Ω 30 Zy = 10Ω -30 Zb = 10Ω 0

and is fed by a symmetrical 380V, 50Hz supply. Use Vry as reference

and calculate:

a) The equivalent delta impedances

Ans: Zry = 27.32Ω 0 Zyb = 27.32Ω -30 Zbr = 27.32Ω 30
 STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION AND MILLMAN’S THEOREM 18

The situation is now as shown below

b) The phase-and line currents

Ans: Iry = 13.91A0 Iyb = 13.91A-90 Ibr = 13.91A90

Ir = 19.67A135 Iy = 19.67A-135 Ib = 27.82A-90

These line currents must be the same for star and delta.
4.3.2) A star connected load is supplied by a 400V three-phase system.

Use Star Delta transformation and calculate:

a) The phase currents.
b) The line currents.
c) The star connected phase voltages at the load.

Note:
 Phase voltages outwards
 Line voltages Counter Clockwise (CCW)
 Phase currents CCW
 Line currents inwards
 Phase R at the supply voltage is reference
STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION AND MILLMAN’S THEOREM 19

Delta impedances

Z R Z Y  Z Y Z B  Z B Z R Z R   Z B  Z B Z R
Z RY  
ZB ZB
Z RY  

Z R Z Y  Z Y Z B  Z B Z R Z R   Z B  Z B Z R
Z YB  
ZR ZR
Z YB  

Z R Z Y  Z Y Z B  Z B Z R Z R   Z B  Z B Z R
Z BR  
ZY 
Z BR  Z R  Z B  0
Z BR  (16  j 2)

V R  230.940V
VY  230.94  120V
V B  230.94120V

V RY  40030V
VYB  400  90V
V BR  400150V

a) Phase currents
V 40030
I RY  RY   0A
Z RY 

I YB  0 A

V BR 40030
I BR    24.80 A157.12
Z BR 16  j 2

b) Line currents
 STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION AND MILLMAN’S THEOREM 20

I R  I RY  I BR  0
I R  24.80 A157.125

I Y  I YB  I RY  0
IY  0 A

I B  I BR  I YB  0
I B  24.80 A  22.875

c) Star connected phase voltages at the load

VR  I R Z R  24.8 A157.12  10  j 9    333.74V115.13

VB  I B Z B  24.8 A  22.87   6  j 7    228.70V26.5

VRY  VR  VY  0  VY  VR  VRY

VY  333.74V115.13  400V30  542.23V67.82 

VYB  VY  VB  0  VY  VYB  VB

VY  228.7V26.52  400V  90  542.22V67.82 

4.4 PROBLEMS

QUESTION: 4.4.1
1.1 What is the advantage of a STAR-DELTA transformation?
1.2 What does EQUIVALENT with respect to STAR-DELTA transformation mean?
1.3 What load configuration (delta, unbalanced, with or without neutral etc) would
star-delta transformation be applied to?
1.4 What is STAR-DELTA transformation called?

QUESTION 4.4.2
An unbalanced, 3 wire, star connected load has impedances of
ZR = 10Ω 30 ZY = 10Ω -30 ZB = 10Ω 0
and is fed by a symmetrical 380V, 50Hz supply. Use VRY as reference and calculate
the phase voltages and currents of the 3 wire star connected load using Star Delta
Transformation.
STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION AND MILLMAN’S THEOREM 21
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION 22

CHAPTER 5
POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

5.1 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION FOR CONSTANT REAL POWER

Let us assume a condition as indicated in the power triangle below and further more
that the indices “b” and “a” describe the situation “before” and “after” compensation.

The utility will charge the customer for the reactive power Q and the real power P.
While P is a unidirectional quantity, Q is not and also loading the transmission lines.
Since the lines are dimensioned according to the complex power S, reducing the
reactive component Q would result in less installation costs and less electricity
demand by the consumer.

Power factor correction is therefore very desirable and there are two ways of doing
this depending on the circumstances. As most of the loads are inductive the
compensation is done with capacitors which deliver the necessary reactive power
instead of the utility.

From the drawing above we see that

Qb Q
tan  b   and tan a   a
P P

and the difference is the power to be compensated.

Qb  Qa  P tan   b   tan   a    Qc

The new quantities describing the load are calculated from

P
Qa  Qb  QC and S a 
cos  a 
The compensation for constant P is done if a customer wants to pay less for the same
real power.
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION 23

5.2 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION FOR CONSTANT APPARENT

POWER

The situation is given in the power triangle below

Qb Q
sin  b   and sin  a   a
S S

Qb  Qa  S  sin   b   sin   a    Qc

The new quantities describing the load are calculated from

Qa  Qb  Qc and Pa  S  cos  a 

The last we have to find is an equation which enables us to calculate the values of the
capacitors. According to Ohm’s law we have
V V2 Q
I C  C and QC  C  VC2    C  C  C 2
XC XC   VC
2
VL VL V L2 VL2
IL  and QL   L
XL XL L   QL

which is in strict accordance with the equations for a resistor, namely

V V2
I  ; P  I 2 R or P 
R R
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION 24

5.3 EXAMPLES
5.3.1) What capacitor is needed for a 1.4kW; 220V; 12A; 50Hz, single phase motor
to improve its power factor from cos( b )  0.78 to cos( a )  0.95 ?
Since the motor needs a certain power to create the desired torque the compensation
must be done for P = constant.

QC  P tan   b   tan   a   VI cos 1  tan   b   tan   a 

QC  220V 12 A  0.78   0.80  0.32
QC  988.41VAr

and the capacitor value becomes

988.41VAr
C  65F
2  50 s 1  2202V 2 b

Because this value was calculated with V = 220V the capacitor must be connected
in parallel to the motor as shown below.
Qa  Qb  Qc  VI sin   Qc  220V  12 A  0.62  988.41VAr  648.39 VAr
P 220V 12 A  0.78 S 2167.6VA
Sa    VI a  I a  a   9.85 A
cos  a 0.95 V 220V

Vc
Ic   jVc C  j 4.43 A
jX c

5.3.2) A 22kW; 380V; 45A; 50Hz; cos(1) = 0.84, 3 phase motor must be
compensated to cos(2) = 0.95. Determine the values of a delta connected
capacitor bank.
Qb  3VL I L sin b   3  380V  45 A  0.54  15.99k VAr
P  3VL I L cos b   3  380V  45 A  0.84  24.9kW
Sb  3VL I L  3  380V  45 A  29.61kVA
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION 25

Qc  P tanb   tan a    24.9kW (0.64  0.32)  7.9kVAr

Qa  Qb  Qc  (15.99  7.9)kVAr  8.09kVAr
P 24.9kW
Sa   26.21kVA
cos( a ) 0.95

If three equal capacitors are used the result is

QC 7900VAr
C   58F
3VC 3  2  50 s 1 380 2 V 2
2

5.3.3) A 415V; 3 phase; star connected; 50Hz induction motor draws a current of
20A at a power factor of cos b   0.6 at full load. After compensation the
current drops to 13.33A which can be done using star- or delta connected
capacitor banks. Calculate the capacitors needed in both cases.
The situation is shown in the drawing below

It should be seen that the type of connection of the capacitors influences only their
values. The reactive power needed is the same in both cases and must therefore be
calculated first. Again the compensation is done for P = constant and the initial values
are as follows:
Pb  3VL I L cos( b )  8625.61W
and
Qb  3VL I L sin( b )  11500.82VAr

After the correction the motor and capacitor draw 13.33A together and therefore
create a different power factor for the network.
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION 26

Pa 8625.61W
cos  a     0.9
3  VL I L 3  415V  13.33 A
From this we find that

tan( b )  1.33 and tan( a )  0.48

and the power to be compensated is

Qc  8625.61W (1.33  0.48)  7.33kVAr

Assuming three equal capacitors are used each one of them has to deliver a reactive
power of

7331.77VAr
Q  2443.92VAr
3
Now the distinction between the type of connection is considered

STAR:

Q 2443.92  3
QS    135.51F
 V 2
2  50  415 2

DELTA:

Q 2443.92
QD    45.17F
 V 2
2  50  415 2

 CS = 3×CD

5.4 PROBLEMS
QUESTION: 5.4.1
A motor draws 25kVAr from the network. After compensation, the network supplies
only 10kVAr. How much kVAr is the motor demanding after compensation?

QUESTION: 5.4.2
A motor draws 32.6kVAr from the network. After compensation the network
supplies only 2.6kVAr. How much kVAr is the motor demanding after compensation?

QUESTION: 5.4.3
A motor draws 19.68kVAr from the network. After compensation the capacitors
supply 7.34kVAr. How much kVAr is the motor demanding after compensation?

QUESTION: 5.4.4
A motor draws 45.5kVAr from the network. After compensation the network
supplies only 5kVAr. How much kVAr is the motor demanding after compensation?
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION 27

QUESTION: 5.4.5
A 380V, 3 phase, star connected, 60Hz induction motor draws a current of 25A at a
power factor of 0.7 at full load. After compensation the current drops to 18A.
calculate the capacitor values needed for STAR and DELTA connection.

QUESTION: 5.4.6
A 415V; 3 phase; star connected; 50Hz induction motor draws a current of 25A at a
power factor of cos   0.75 at full load. After compensation the current drops to 21A
which was done using star connected capacitor banks. Calculate the capacitors needed
in this case.
QUESTION: 5.4.7
The owner of a factory needs to change the overall power factor to cos = 0.95. In
order to reduce the production costs he decides on the cheapest compensation scheme.
The load to be compensated is star connected, supplied by a 400V, 3 phase system and
consists of the following impedances.

Calculate the values of the elements (star and delta configuration) used to compensate
the given load. Then choose practical values from the list of elements available, which
would be used in industry to compensate the given load, bearing in mind that the
practical values should be as close as possible to the calculated values.

List of elements available:

 4 x 470 µF/mH
 3 x 15 µF/mH
 4 x 680 µF/mH
 4 x 820 µF/mH
Note:
 Phase voltages outwards
 Line voltages CCW
 Phase currents CCW
 Line currents inwards
 Phase R voltage is reference
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION 28

QUESTION: 5.4.8
The owner of a factory needs to change the overall power factor to cos = 0.95. In
order to reduce the production costs he decides on the cheapest compensation scheme.
The load to be compensated is star connected, supplied by a 380V, 3 phase system and
consists of the following impedances.

Calculate the values of the elements (star and delta configuration) used to compensate
the given load. Then choose practical values from the list of elements available, which
would be used in industry to compensate the given load, bearing in mind that the
practical values should be as close as possible to the calculated values.

List of elements available: 4 x 4.70 mF/mH, 3 x 270 mF/mH, 4 x 180 mF/mH

and 4 x 1.5 F/mH

Note: Phase voltages outwards, Line voltages CCW, Phase currents CCW, Line
currents inwards and Phase R voltage is reference

QUESTION: 5.4.9
The owner of a factory needs to change the overall power factor to cos = 0.95.
In order to reduce the production costs he decides on the cheapest compensation
scheme. The load to be compensated is supplied by a 380V, 3 phase system as
shown below.

Calculate the values of the star connected elements used to compensate the given
load.

Note:
 Phase voltages outwards
 Line voltages CCW
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION 29

 Phase currents CCW

 Line currents inwards
 Phase R voltage is reference
 Use STAR-DELTA transformation
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 30

CHAPTER 6
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

6.1 THE IDEA BEHIND SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

Any asymmetrical 3 phase system can be represented by two sets of symmetrical

systems with opposite phase rotation and (or not) by an additional one with no
rotation.

Given asymmetrical system

Replaced by symmetrical systems

pps nps zps

The characteristics of these systems are

pps: Symmetrical cw-rotation

nps: symmetrical with ccw-rotation

zps: Three equal and constant phasors with no-rotation

For single elements the angle j = ej90 is very important in order to describe voltage and
current relationships. For symmetrical three phase systems the angle is   1120 .
Using a current system as an example the line currents are calculated from the
symmetrical components as follows:

I R  I Rp  I Rn  I R 0  I Rp  I Rn  I R 0 (6.1)

I Y  I Yp  I Yn  I Y 0   2 I Rp  I Rn  I R 0 (6.2)

I B  I Bp  I Bn  I B 0  I Rp   2 I Rn  I R 0 (6.3)
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 31

 I R   1 1 1  I Rp 
   2   
 I Y     1   I Rn    I p    A   I s  (6.4)
 I     2 1  I 
 B    R0 

[IP] = column matrix of phase currents

[A] = 3x3 transformation matrix

A  3 390 (6.5)
[IS] = column matrix of sequence currents

Equation (6.4) can be solved for I s by multiplying with  A 1  from the left

 I    A   I    A    I    A    A   I    I    A    I 
p s
1
p
1
s s
1
p (6.6)

1
A 1  (6.7)
3  390

which enables us to find the sequence components from measured phase values.

 I Rp  1   2   I R 
  1    
 I Rn    1 
2
 
    I Y    I s   A 1   I p  (6.8)
 I  3 1 1 1   I B 
 R0  

I Rp 
I R 
 I Y   2 I B 
; I Rn 

I R   2 I Y  I B I  I  I 
; I R0  R Y B (6.9)
3 3 3
I Rn
 Asymmetry factor (6.10)
I Rp

It is important to realize that these equations give only the ”R” component of every
system and that the others have to be calculated from them using the phase shift of
120 degrees as shown in equations (6.1) to (6.3).
V R  380V0 VY  380V  120 V B  380V120
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 32

Vp 
1
3
VR  VY   2VB   380V0
Vn  V R   2VY  VB   0
1
3
1
V0  VR  VY  V B   0
3

V R  380V0 VY  380V  120 V B  0

V p  253.3V0
Vn  126.66V60
V0  126.66V  60
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 33

Because any asymmetrical system can be represented by symmetrical components

which means they both describe the same thing it must be possible to calculate the
power of the circuit using either of the two ways.
The complex power of an asymmetrical system is given by
S  P  jQ   PR  jQR    PY  jQY    PB  jQB   S R  SY  S B

which in terms of currents and voltages must be equal to

S  VR I R*  VY I Y*  VB I B* (6.11)

and this can be written in terms of matrices as

*
IR
S  V R VY V B I Y   I 
 V pT *
p

IB
S   AV s   AI s   Vs   A  A  I s 
T * T T * *

S  3Vs  U  I s  (where U is the unity matrix)

T *
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 34

*
Ip
S  3 V p V n V0 I n  3(V p I *p  Vn I n*  V0 I 0* )  3( S p  S n  S 0 ) (6.12)
I0

S  3( Pp  jQ p  Pn  jQn  P0  jQ0 )

S  3{( Pp  Pn  P0 )  j (Q p  Qn  Q0 )}

where Pp = Ip2Rp; Pn = In2Rn; P0 = I02R0;

The result shows that the complex power of a network can either be calculated from
actual values using (6.11) or from symmetrical components using equation (6.12).

V
According to Ohms law impedance is defined as Z  and this holds also true for
I
Vp
symmetrical components. Hence we define the positive impedance Z p  the
Ip ,
Vn V0
negative impedance Z n  and the zero impedance Z 0  .
In I0

The first two can be measured in a star- or delta connection but must be determined
per phase only which means they cannot be calculated from line values.

Furthermore, the rotation of the supply must be changed when measuring Zp and Zn.

For the zero impedance the elements must be connected either in series or in parallel
as shown below.

I0 R Y B
3I0
R Y B

V0 Z V0 Z V0 Z
3V0 I0 I0 Z I0 Z
V0 Z

6.2 EXAMPLE
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 35

6.2.1) For the four wire system shown below find the sequence impedances Zp, Zn
and Z0.

Because the network represents a balanced load, there will be no neutral current.
Connecting a clockwise (CW) or counter clockwise (CCW) voltage system to this
load will give positive and negative impedances of

Vp Vn
Zp   Zn   Z  ZL
Ip In

If a zero phase system is connected to this network as shown below

and KVL is used around any loop, the resulting voltage equation is

V0 – 3I0ZN – I0ZL – I0Z = 0  V0 = I0 (ZL + Z + 3ZN)

and the zero impedance is therefore

V0
Z0  = ZL + Z + 3ZN
I0

which shows that the impedance of the neutral wire enters the zero impedance with 3
times it’s actual value.

6.2.2) Given the asymmetrical current system as shown below calculate the
symmetrical components.
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 36

I R  100 A0 I Y  100 A60 I B  100A  30

which means the components to be calculated are:

I Rp  33.33 A  150 I Rn  50.19 A5.1 I R 0  79.8 A8.8

I Yp  50.19 A125.2 I Yn  33.33 A30 I Y 0  79.8 A8.8

The remaining components can be found by making use of the symmetry of

symmetrical systems.

If an asymmetrical voltage system is applied to a four wire load then the neutral wire
will in most cases carry a current which is according to KCL given by the sum of the
phase currents. I R  I Y  I B  I N

Using the equation for the R-phase we have

 I R  IY  I B   I N
I R0 
3 3

where the sum inside the bracket equals the neutral current I N .

 I N  3I R 0  3I Y 0  3I B 0  239.4 A8.8

because the three zps-components are equal.

6.3 PROBLEMS

QUESTION: 6.3.1
What is the idea of Symmetrical Components?
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 37

QUESTION: 6.3.2
Write down the matrix equation as discussed in class which calculates 3-phase
voltages from sequence voltages, the transformation matrix and the value of its
determinant.

QUESTION: 6.3.3
* * *
Express the apparent power equation S  Va  I a  Vb  I b  Vc  I c in terms of
symmetrical components.

QUESTION: 6.3.4
Calculate the symmetrical components of current in phase “R” for the network below.
The supply voltage is 415V and use VRY as reference.

VRY = 415V0; VYB = 415-120; VBR = 415V120°

YR = 0.015S-30; YY = 0.025S60; YB = 0.02S-90°

QUESTION: 6.3.5
Obtain complex apparent power using phase- and sequence values for the following
known voltages and currents.

VR = 220V0 IR0 = 545

VY = 220V-120 IR1 = 100
VB = 220V120 IR2 = 15-45

QUESTION: 6.3.6
Calculate the complex apparent power using phase values, and compare that to the
complex apparent power calculated by sequence components when the following
phase voltages and current sequence components are given.

V R  230V0 I 0  10 A45
VY  220V  120 I p  10 A0
V B  210V120 I n  10 A  45

QUESTION: 6.3.7
Calculate the complex apparent power using phase values and compare to the
Complex apparent power calculated by sequence components. The phase voltages and
current sequence components are
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 38

V R  220V0 I 0  10 A45
VY  240V  120 I p  5 A0
V B  230V120 I n  15 A  45

QUESTION: 6.3.8
Explain with respect to a 3-phase transformer how the following is measured:
a) Positive impedance
b) Negative impedance
c) Zero impedance

QUESTION: 6.3.9
State the idea behind symmetrical components as discussed in class.

QUESTION: 6.3.10
For the network given below the supply is symmetrical with V = 380V. Calculate the
symmetrical components of the phase voltage system.

YR  10mS

YB  10mS YY  10mS

QUESTION: 6.3.11
The symmetrical components of a current system are IP =I and In = -I. Find the phase
currents IR; IY and IB.

QUESTION: 6.3.12
The symmetrical components of a current system are
I p   jI and I n  jI Determine the line currents of this system.

QUESTION: 6.3.13
The symmetrical components of a current system are:
 2 2
I R1   j A
 2 2 
I R2  j2 A

Calculate the phase currents (IR, IY, IB), the pps and nps and draw the appropriate
individual phasor diagrams

QUESTION: 6.3.14
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 39

The symmetrical components of a current system are

 3 3
I Rp    j A
 3 3 
I Rn  1  j  A

Calculate the phase currents and represent the sequence components Ip and In
as well as the phase currents in a phasor diagram.

QUESTION: 6.3.15
The symmetrical components of a current system are
I p   5  j 5 A I n  jA I0  2A

Calculate the phase currents and represent the sequence components I p and I n
as well as the phase currents in a phasor diagram.

QUESTION: 6.3.16
Calculate:
a) α-α2
b) α-1
c) α2+α+1
d)(α-α2)+(α2-1)+(1-α)

QUESTION: 6.3.17
Calculate:
a)     1
3 2

b) 2  1  
2

c)  3 
4 2 3

QUESTION: 6.3.18
The star connected load given below is supplied by a four wire, 50Hz, 380V
symmetrical voltage system and consists of the following impedances
ZR = 10Ω-60, ZY = 5Ω, ZB = 15Ω in parallel with CB = 200μF.

Use the Re-axis as reference and calculate the symmetrical components of the line-
current system and the neutral current.

QUESTION: 6.3.19
For the network given below the supply is symmetrical with V = 380V.
Calculate the symmetrical components of the phase voltage system.
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 40

YR = 20mSej30°

Z
380V

YB = 20mS YY = 30mSej60°

Z
Z
 THE PER UNIT SYSTEM 41

CHAPTER 7
THE PER UNIT SYSTEM

7.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS

If a value is referred to another rated value or any other meaningful quantity one
obtains what is defined as a per unit or per cent value.
Q
Q pu  actual
Qbase

This basic definition holds for currents, voltages, impedances, power and so on. But
the so defined quantities still have to obey the physical laws in order to be useful in
application.

If ZB = 10Ω and VB = 50V are chosen as base values then

VB 50V
IB    5A
Z B 10

MUST be chosen as base value for the current, for otherwise Ohm’s law is not
complied with. As a consequence of this

I BVB  5 A  50V  250VA  S B

must be the base value of the power. In order to rewrite the necessary equations used
in a calculation in terms of p.u. values all possible values must be referred to

ZB =10Ω VB = 50V IB = 5A and SB = 250VA

which constitutes a set of base values

From Ohm’s law we know that the power can also be calculated from

V B2 50 2 V 2
SB  or I B2  Z B   5 2 V 2 10  250VA
ZB 10

In order to reduce confusion the base values should be obvious to any one and for this
reason name plate date are often used as they would be the same in every country.
However, in complicated networks generators, motors and transformers do not always
have the same ratings, which means although name plate data are chosen they lead to
different base values. This requires that a set of base values must be transferred from
one system into another.

If the indices ”O" and ”N" refer to the old and new system respectively, then

Za
Z puO   Z a  Z puO  Z bO
Z bO
 THE PER UNIT SYSTEM 42

and
Za
Z puN   Z a  Z puN  ZbN
ZbN

from which we can conclude that

Z puO  Z bO  Z puN  Z bN

The equation which transfers this impedance from one system into the other is then
given by

ZbO V 2  SbN
Z puN  Z puO   Z puO  bO
ZbN VbN2  SbO (1)

It should not be forgotten during this derivation, that the actual value Za which has the
unit Ω and represents the physical reality cannot change during the transformation
process.

Single line diagrams represent either a single phase system or one phase of a balanced
three phase system. But in three phase systems loads can be connected in star or delta
which creates a problem as a delta connected load cannot have a neutral wire
connected to it. For this reason it should be investigated what effect the type of
connection has on the impedance value to be used in the calculation of the p.u.
diagram.

It should however be remembered that VB and IB in the equation S B  3  VB  I B

represent LINE values.
STAR
Because S B 3  3  S B1 and VB3  3VB1
the base impedance is calculated as follows
V V V V V 3
Z B1  B1  B 3  B1  B 3  B 3 
I B1 3 S B1 3 3 S B3
VB23
Z B1 
S B3
which is the same formula as for single phase if VB is regarded as line voltage and SB
as the three phase power.
DELTA
Because S B 3  3  S B1 and I B3  3I B1
the base impedance is calculated as follows
2
VB1 3  VB 3 3VB 3  VB 3 VB 3
ZB    3
I B1 I B3 S B3 S B3

which means that for the same power

Z delta  3  Z star
 THE PER UNIT SYSTEM 43

V B23
 ZB
Note that S B 3 for the star connection.
This is not to be confused with the connection of a motor in star or delta.
If three impedances are connected in star and then in delta the power drawn will be
Pdelta  3  Pstar
but if the power is supposed to be constant the impedances have to be changed
according to the above equation.
In other words a delta connected load must be transformed into a power invariant star.

7.2 EXAMPLES

7.2.1) Let Vb1 = 480V Vb2 = 120V Sb1 = Sb2 = 20kVA

and calculate the p.u. equivalent impedances on either side of the transformer
given below.

Z 2eq S 200003VA
Z 2 eqpu   Z 2 eq  22b  0.052578.13   0.0778.13
Z 2b V2b 1202V 2

It is known that the secondary impedance can be transferred to the primary using the
turns-or voltage ratio as
2 2 2
N   480V  Z1  N1 
Z1eq   1   Z 2eq     0.052578.13

where  
N
 2  120V  Z 2  N 2 
Z1eq  0.8478.13 

and if this impedance is now referred to its base value the result is
S 20000VA
Z1eqpu  Z1eq  b21  0.8478.13 
Vb1 480 2 V 2
Z1eqpu  0.0778.13

Which shows that the equivalent impedances are the same in the p.u. system but not
in terms of their ohmic values. This means that a transformer can be represented by
one and only one value if given in the p.u. system which was not possible before.
 THE PER UNIT SYSTEM 44

7.2.2) The diagram below is the single line representation of a symmetrical and
balanced 3 phase network. Derive the p.u. diagram based on 5000VA and
250V at the generator.

Generator

It should be remembered that all the given p.u. values are based on the respective
“VA” rating, which means

ZpuO = j0.2 based on 1000VA and 250V

and applying the transformation formula equation 1, page 45, we obtain

2
5000VA  250V 
Z puN  j 0.2     j1.0 pu
1000VA  250V 

Transformer 1

Here the pu impedance is

ZpuO = j0.1

on either side of the transformer meaning the conversion to the 5000VA base can be
done with either voltage.

On the primary side (with VB = 250V):

2
5000VA  250V 
Z puN  j 0.1     j 0.125 pu
4000VA  250V 

On the secondary side (with VB = 800V):

2
5000VA  800V 
Z puN  j 0.1     j 0.12 pu
4000VA  800V 

Transmission Line
 THE PER UNIT SYSTEM 45

Z a  (50  j 200)  206.1575.96

S b N  5000VA
VbN  800V

5000VA
Z puN  206.1575.96   1.6175.96
 800V  2

Transformer 2

The new base voltage was given as 250V which coincides with 800V on the
secondary side of transformer 1 and also on the primary side of transformer 2.

Therefore the old SB = 8000VA and the new VB = 800V

2
5000VA  1000V 
Z puN  j 0.08     j 0.078 pu
8000VA  800V  (Calculation on the primary)

Considering that under these conditions the secondary voltage is

800V
VbN  500V   400V
1000V

the same result can be obtained using

2
5000VA  500V 
Z puN  j 0.08     j 0.078 pu
8000VA  400V  (Calculation on the secondary)

Load

The old base voltage is VbO = 400V as given which is equal to the new base voltage
because the secondary side of the transformer connects this potential to the load.
2
5000VA  400V 
Z puN  j 0.02     j 0.04 pu
2500VA  400V 

All these p.u. values lead to the impedance diagram below from which the currents in
the individual sections can be calculated.
 THE PER UNIT SYSTEM 46

7.2.3) For the network below calculate the p.u. impedance diagram on a base of
20kVA and 2600V on the high voltage side and the line currents on either side
of the transformer.

Y/Y
15000VA
3000/280V
Z=j0.06pu
Delta
2600V connected
Cable
Load
Z = 0.4+j0.6
Z = 50+j20

Transformer

Following the outlined approach we calculate the new p.u. value on either side of the
transformer
2
20000VA  3000V 
Z puN  j 0.06     j 0.1 pu
15000VA  2600V 
or
2
20000VA  280V 
Z puN  j 0.06     j 0.1 pu
15000VA  242.7V 
recalling that
280V
VN  2600V   242.7V
3000V

Cable

In the system of the transformers secondary side, namely

15kVA and 280V the base impedance of the cable is

2
VbO 280 2
Z bO    5.22
S bO 15000

and its p.u. value

Za 0.7256.3
Z puO    0.13756.3
Z bO 5.22

The p.u. impedance in the new system (20kVA and 242.7V) is then calculated from
the old values (15kVA and 280V) as follows:
2
20000VA  280V 
Z puN  0.137956.3  
   0.24556.3 pu
15000VA  242.7V 
 THE PER UNIT SYSTEM 47

Although this approach is correct and of physical meaning it can however

mathematically be shortened if one realizes what has been calculated.
If in the last equation Zpu0 is replaced by the previous equation and Zb0 by the one
before it makes the calculation much easier, because it is independent of the old
system and does not require knowledge about what the cable’s impedance was based
on. The calculation follows below.
2 2 2
S bN  VbO  Z S  VbO  Z S  VbO  S
Z puN  Z puO    a bN    2a S bO bN    Z a bN
S bO  VbN  Z bO S bO  VbN  VbO S bO  VbN  VbN2

20000VA
Z puN  0.7256.3  0.2456.3 pu
 242.7V  2

Load

The impedance of the star connected load is

 50  j 20 
Z star     17.9521.8  Z a


 3 

and its pu value in the new system

20000VA
Z puN  17.9521.8   6.0921.8
 242.7V  2

From these results we can draw the single phase p.u. diagram with its real and
imaginary part as shown below
Trans. Cable Load

j0.107 0.136pu j0.204 5.659 j2.263

V=1.0pu

and calculate the total impedance to be Z pu (total )  6.3423.95 .

Because the voltage feeding the network equals the base voltage its p.u. value must be
one so that the p.u. current becomes

V pu 10
I pu    0.15  23.95
Z pu 6.3423.95

which is flowing throughout the complete network.

From the defining equation

Ia S
I pu  I a  I pu  I b  I pu b
I b follows that Vb
 THE PER UNIT SYSTEM 48

Two currents have to be calculated in this case, namely the

20000VA
HV  Current : I  0.15 pu  23.95   1.21A  23.95
2600V
and the
20000VA
LV  Current : I  0.15 pu  23.95   13.02 A  23.95
242.7V
which is in perfect agreement with the voltage ratio of the transformer.
Notice also that the transformation does NOT change the angle.

7.3 PROBLEMS

7.3.1) Redraw the p.u. impedance diagram below on the common base of 50kVA and
2500V at transformer 1. ZL = (50+j200)

Ans:
 THE PER UNIT SYSTEM 49

7.3.2) Draw the p.u. impedance diagram on the base of 10MVA and 66kV

Ans:

j10%

G1
j4%

(0.918+j9.18%)

j16%

G2

7.3.3) Draw the p.u. impedance diagram on the base of 20MVA and 11kV
 THE PER UNIT SYSTEM 50

Ans:

7.3.4) Repeat for the system below on a base of 7000kVA and 11kV
 THE PER UNIT SYSTEM 51

1MVA
11kV 2MVA 3MVA 2MVA
Z=j0.1pu 11/33kV 33/11V 11kV
Z=j0.15pu Z=j0.1pu Z=j0.05pu
G1

Z=(10+j20) O
G3

0.5MVA
11kV
Z=j0.15pu
G2

Ans:
 THE PER UNIT SYSTEM 52

7.3.5) Repeat for the system below on a base of 100MVA and 33kV

30MVA
30kV
100MVA
20%
33kV
100MVA 100MVA 12%
M 33/110kV 110/33kV G1
j0.08pu j0.08pu

J60 O 50MVA
20MVA Line 33kV
30kV 10%
15% T1 T2 G2
M

50MVA
30kV
20%

Ans:
 THE PER UNIT SYSTEM 53

j0.08pu j0.496pu j0.08pu

j0.551pu j0.62pu j0.331pu j0.12pu j0.20pu

M M M

QUESTION: 7.3.6
Define the per unit quantity.

QUESTION: 7.3.7
What is the advantage of the pu system?

QUESTION: 7.3.8
Assume the base values are S B , V B , I B and Z B .
How many of them can be chosen as base values and how many must be calculated?

QUESTION: 7.3.9
What must be done if a single line diagram shows a delta connected load?

QUESTION: 7.3.10
Which values does an engineer normally take as base values?

QUESTION: 7.3.11
For the network below calculate the p.u. impedance diagram on a base of 20kVA and
2500V on the high voltage side and the line currents on either side of the transformer.
 THE PER UNIT SYSTEM 54

QUESTION: 7.3.12
The diagram below is the single line representation of a symmetrical and balanced 3-
phase network. Derive the pu diagram based on 10000VA and 250V.

1500VA 4500VA 8000VA

250V 250/1000V 1000/500V 6250VA
Z=j0.15pu Z=j0.2pu Z=j0.1pu 500V
Z=50+j200
1000V Z=j40

Line Load
G1 TR1 TR2
 ON MATRICES 55

CHAPTER 8
ON MATRICES
8.1 General

x  1; y  2; z  3

7 x  3 y  4z  1 7 x  3 y  4z  1
 2x  2 y  z - 9   2 x  2 y  z  9
4 x  y  3z - 3 4 x  y  3z  3

3x3 3x1 3x1

7 3 4 x 1
2 2 1 y 9
4 1 3 z 3
=
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

x  y  z 1

2 x  3z  4 y  3 2 x  4 y  3z  3
4 y  4z  0x  4 y  4z  0
6x  6 y 6x  6 y  0z  0

3x3 3x1 3x1

2 4 3 x 3
0 4 4 y 0
6 6 0 z 0
=
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4 y  2x  z  5 2x  4 y  z  5
5  3 z  2( x  y )  2 x  2 y  3 z  5
3 x  3 z  4 y  7 3x  4 y  3 z  7

3x3 3x1 3x1

2 4 1 x 5
2 2 3 y 5
3 4 3 z 7
=

8.2 Definitions

Transpose  aik = aki

 ON MATRICES 56

2 0 5 2 0 2
A 0 3 3 A  0 T
3 1
2 1 8 5 3 8

A is symmetrical if A = AT
3 0 1
A 0 6 e  As
1 e 8
A is skew – symmetrical if A = – AT
0 2 8
A 2 0 5  Aa ( anti)
8 5 0
Every square matrix equals the sum of a symmetric- and a skew symmetric matrix
A  A s  Aa

As 
1
2
A AT  & A a 
1
2
 A  AT 
Example :
3 2 7 3 4 3
A 4 e 1 A  2
T
e 3
3 3 5 7 1 5

3 3 5 0 1 2
As  3 e 2  Aa  1 0 1
5 2 5 2 1 0

8.3 Multiplications

3x3 3x1 3x1

a11 a12 a13 a11

a21 a22 a23 a21
a31 a32 a33 a31 a11 a12 a13
=

2 3 0 1 6 5 3 1
A    B    AB     BA   
3 1 ; 2 1  2 4 7 7 
A is called “regular” if A-1 exists otherwise “singular”

A * A1  A1 * A  I (Identity)

1 2 3  6 2  3
  1
 
A  1 3 3  A   1 1 0 
1 2 4  1 0 1 
 

1
Proof that A * A  I

8.4 Rules
 ON MATRICES 57

( A  B )C  AC  BC
a11 b11 a11  b11
a 21  b21  a 21  b21
a n1 bn1 a n1  bn1

( AB )C  A( BC )
( AB ) 1  B 1 A 1 (inverse)
( AB ) T  B T AT (transpose)
( AB ) *  A* B * (conjugate)

8.5 PROBLEMS

QUESTION: 8.5.1
Write the given set of linear equations in the form Ax  b
4a  2b  c  5d
5d  3c  2( a  b)
3a  4b  3c  7d
d-c-b  a

QUESTION: 8.5.2
Write the given set of linear equations in the form Ax  b
4c  2a  3b  d
2d  3a  2a  b
3a - (4b  3c)  6d
d  c  a  2b

QUESTION: 8.5.3
When is a matrix called regular?

QUESTION: 8.5.4
Given the matrix below calculate As and Aa
2 0 5
 
A  0 3 3
2 1 8 


QUESTION: 8.5.5
Given the matrix below calculate As and Aa
3 2 7
 
A  4 e 1
3 3 5 


QUESTION: 8.5.6
1
Solve the equation B ( Ax  B) A  ( AB) for
T T
x

QUESTION: 8.5.7
1
Solve the equation BxB  B for
T
x
 ON MATRICES 58

QUESTION: 8.5.8
1 1 1
Solve the equation B ( Ax  B) A  ( BAB) for
*
x

QUESTION: 8.5.9
T
Solve the equation ( BxA)  AB  I for x

QUESTION: 8.5.10
Solve the equation A BxB   AB  I for x
T

QUESTION: 8.5.11
 1  j3 3 j  2  j4 2  j4
A    B    Show that ( AB)*  A* B*
 2  j2 2 j   3j 3  2 j 

QUESTION: 8.5.12
Rewrite the following terms without brackets

( A  B )C
( AB ) 1
( AB ) T
( AB ) *
 ABC  1
 ABC  T
 ABC  *