TEN

d repeated d ema . ls o f homosexualicy. As had cheir colleagues,

¡,it M d ' and Quiroz Cuarón hinged much of their argumenc on
. _:s ns e a~~:cularly Margarito's "funnel-shaped" (infundibular) ~nu~.2
Mexican Sexology and s1arico's
g ' p case was one of h und reds chat dealc wich homosexualicy1 . in
:gd . che cwentiech century. Such cases carne to light fol owmg
Male Homosexuality , ' u~::iucion (1910-2.0) during reform movements~su~h as chose
ico¡s nRprosutut1on,
. . eugemcs,
. and che rehabilicacion of cnmmals-chat
. . .
GENEALOGIES AND GLOBAL CONTEXTS , 1860- 19 57
. 1sec o ,. h 'ght kind of citizen-nationalists, build msmuuons to
. ~ ..ht to rorge t e n h .d 13 To cases
Ryan M . Jones ~ · h and discipline chose who strayed from t at 1 ea . ese
·e: e em, d l · b
ated how medica) and legal professionals deploye an ec e~uc attery
~tr inological and sexual sciencific perspectives as well as an _mcellecrual
rl.~ ~it inclusive of conflicting theories and approaches. Mex1can sexolo-

In Dmmb« ,9¡6, , ,cl,phon, ali alm«! ,u,ho<id« ,o , munl,, m ,,;,;,, • •• ,j','¡,I_'.[,

c,'l · &iibil y 1'deological and methodological polyglots. Among them co~ld be
. dwc:re m, dk,I doc'°"• ju<im, p,y<hi,mm, . ,ndomnologm,
· · • ."'·mmolo-
western Mcxico City. There they discovered a bloodied body in a ~hahbf , ",.¡,i ,_ . 'c~,.~•.~·1
• ,,l.ll . ·ses and even ·ournalists and laypeople. They read widely across
.
owned by a thuty-five-year-old merchanc named Margarito. During ·
~~
d,..,ll_i\ "- Cf;..'~~. •~,(lo e11gen1ci
·t :..f- · · · • ,~u-,g,
. d 'recced
' 1
1
' cheir findings ·
coward global conversanons th roug h local
• J
tions, eighceen-year-old Aurelio-who wich his mother lived as a bo!l~ •r'•~~• ,~~ \1'"'\:• t~• 0 • 'ici·onally circulaced publications, and parcicipated in internauona
Margarito's house-accused Margarito of murdering che viccim lor . .:••,JJJ·~§t~• · · ·
• .· · . -~)I .,, _,.. o nm,
from che house. Officials learned thac Margariro and che victim wrn: ·'.!: •'l ~i~' ,i:.,,·,.:nces.
lovers and that when drunk, Margarito often made similar adv,,;w~ •~ -~r~:-. ·;, ·•.11ous scholarship has approached che development of Mexican sexual
Aurelio in order to "make !ove to him as a man and a woman.'' -;· -~ ··• .,.,_ '1, ~ :ind its rclationship to homoscxuality in two ways. Sorne scholars have

Margarito, who had seemed generous for taking in Aurelio and h11 r!,, . -~· -:. ,! microhiscories of fin-de-siccle Mexican inscitucions, including Belén
had in fact used his financia) leverage to sexually exploit Aurclio. Con, •· ~'ti, ,n,1 che C astañeda asylum, in which sexual knowledge was produced . For
two "distinguished medica) jurists" examined boch men and found L.~ m. Mex1co's mosr wcll-known homosexual scandal-rhe •Famous 41•
scigmata that confirmed rheir sexual deviance: in cheir words, M~irP: , llrt: in 1901- provoked scientific interese in sexual deviance and in disci-

exhibiced "signs ofpassive pederascy• while Aurclio showed "acrive ,11i, ' mg ir.4 Ochers have locaced che field 's origins in che second half of che
Nevercheless, when two other eminenc medica! juriscs-Drs. J.k nj~ u1rierh cenrury, when stare institutions and sexological practices appeared
Argüelles Medina and Alfonso Quiroz Cuarón-published rheir an.úvat be more clearly scienrific or modern in character.5 This lacrer approach,
che case in che prominenc Mexican criminological journal Cmn,n,¡f¡,, • 1•evcr, implies rhat Mexico lagged behind ocher countries or possessed
focused squarely on Margarito. In cheir "expert reporr"-based on a bar ly an incomplete fidd of sexual science beforehand.
of somacic, endocrinological,.social, and psychological examinariom •t 'Ihis chapter, in contrast, focuses broadly on che inherent eclecticism of
explored che causes ofMargarico's criminalicy and his sexual deviane<:,,a lo.xican sexology as a deliberate praxis rhat produced a specific form of
thac had earned him che nickname "El Puco• (rhe masculine form of p. 1wlcdge useful in disciplining sexual deviance. Indeed, while Mexican
"proscirute," used as a pejorative describing male homosexuals). Their e al science mighc appear incoherent-because of irs unruly appropria-
sions: Margarico was a dangerous criminal, anchropometrically abno 1s oí inrerdisciplinary, transnational, and transcemporal inA.uences-ic
and a mencally "weak" epileptic. He suffered from an "inversion of che se: rc:nheless proved coherent because of ics overall aim: to produce modern
instincc" and feminizingglandular dysfunctions. They also labded him. •
~ ~Lcn-~ubjeccs and rcform rhose who deviared from char ideal. By incorpo•
"amphigenic," passive homosexual, despite Margarito's marriagc, eighc :ing a mulciplicicy of cucring-edge ideas produced by modern scientific
'iciplines- boch global and local in origin- as well as older ideas abouc rhe

232
ME X I C AN SE X O l O G Y ANO M Al E H O M OS E X U Al l T Y • 233
body rhar scill carried diagnosnc, social, and policica1 valuc, Mcxica ¡s,by Michcl Foucault and Howard C hiang.6 lt inscead incorporated ideo-
ogy provided che analycical frameworks and mechods nccessary to 'a . , 1and cultural residucs from carly modern underscindings of che body,
ilC,,
che modernization projects of che Mcxican state and "solve• pcrcc,ve ,fance, and sin that would hold rclevance well into che cwcnticth cencury.
problems like homoscxuality. iat is, chere was no clcar break where •craditional" views on scxualicy, as
Thus, by focusing on chis eclccticism, a more useful chronology 1s r~ ,ediated chrough practices of rcligion, confession, and bodily expression,
chat sicuaccs che origins ofMexican sexual scicnce in che nincccench C" ,replaced wich a purcly clinical sdmtia sexua/is. Instead, anatomical
and wichin global circuits of incdleccual and mechodological exchang :hs~ remained c:ssencial in Mexican sexual science and were reilied by che
scccions thac follow explore: (1) che sexological, criminological, and ideo ¡¡r,t/~to1-influenr1al. Europhilc, positivist technocrats in Porfirian Mexico
cal genealogies expressed in Margarito's case and similar cases; (1.) thc de ·'18?6-,910) -in medical-forcnsic manuals and legal codes chac shaped dis-
menc oí modern innovacions in and che enduring significance of anatom (Oursc for decades. Lacer ficlds, including psychoanalysis and endocrinology,
•signs• for understandings of sexual deviance between 1860 and 196 .in nirn concinucd to read bodily confessions chat rclied on che rdevance of
brielly, (3) Mexico's fim officia1 sex-change opcranon in 1954-an cveo,t ~.,.u:om1cal cruchs. In chis way, sexology functioned as bochan e.s sential cool
showcascd Mexican sexology on a global scage, chac offered a suppo\cd r moderruzing Mexico anda vector for earlier cultural knowledge to per-

for homosexualiry, and chac soughc to reshape a devianc body inco 1h.1 ir. lt inAuenced Mexican liberalism and modernity, parcicularly in tc:.rms of
legibly ideal cicizen. • "nin~ who was fit for citizenship, as wcll as served as a means to maincain
,,;.,,r.d conunuity wich che pase.
,\ briefdiscussion of sodomy illuscrates chis poinc. Sorne prominent schol-
l. ECLECTICISM , MOOERNITY, LEGIBILITY , .h.11 e claimed, based largcly on readings of literary sources, chat sodomy
'lS nnr di, cusscd in nineceench-cencury Mcxico, except for a few scray refer-

By che time chac Argüdles Medina and Quiroz Cuarón evaluatcd MargJ \, ~ Lite 111 che cencury. This view has concribuced to che nocion of a •void •
case, sexology had bccome wdl imegrated inro Mex1c;in mcd1cal ¡urh , "~ which conrinuicics from che colonial era did not cross to modern
dence. On a nacional levd, it devdoped largdy wichin che field~ oí mm .~x,co.7 A bevy of hiscorical sourccs and recent scholarship demonstrate
ogy and medicine fro m che mid-nineteench cenru ry. Early tcxrs off ' '1crw1\e ~o<lomy cases were tried in courts uncil at leasr che 1880s; while
medical-forensic and legal incerprecacions ofsexual dcviance. Setology ,, ,, •wt, did not condemn pcople to deach as in colonial New Spain, chey srill
Jacer be influenced by, and influential in, other ficlds-puucularly psych1 ·1ed arbitrary semences ofhard labor and imprisonmenc.8 Numerous news-
biocypology, endocrinology, and anchropology. As a conscquence, thcrc . .per, repo rceJ on sodomy chroughouc che lacter half of che cencury.9 An
no separare discipline of sexual scicnce in Mcxico per se; rarhcr, sewlo 18,> amele in Gaata J;féd1<a de klb:1<0, che councry's prcrnier medical jour-
were specialiscs in ochcr fidds. On a transnarional scalc, Mex1can ,c);ul 1I. foc used on anal disease and referenced sodomy. 10 Most important were
was inherendy eclectic, pulling influences from lralian criminal amhrol' ,m1rn. medical manuals, such as Rafael Roa Bárcena's 1860 texr, which
ogy (irsclfhighly ecleccic), German and American sexology, Ausm an pw~ lduded sect1ons on pederascy- then synonymous with sodomy anda Kpub -
ogy, French medicine, Spa nish endocrinology, and Latín American mcJ 1c mme· - and others discussing wounded ind dysfunctio nal body pares,
jurisprudence, among ochers. Such knowlcdgc was fush 1onable, p.irmul 1duding the anus. 11 Toe more influencial 1877 Compendio dr mrdi<ina Irga/
as liberal social rcformers looked to Europc for modcls of uvil11.mon a ,fti:red a lcngchy discussion of sodomy as ;i "public outrage• in ics hrst chap-
soughr ro claim Mexico's righcful place as a leading, modern Western natío ior.12 Such cexrs would shape Mexic;in medical and legil opinions for
In chis way, Mexican sexology was from che bcginning a produce forn1
wichin a global environment and through cra nmational exchanges. Boch the 1860 and 1877 texcs reAected a transicion in Mex1Can thinkmg
Mex1can sexology neverchdess did not emerge ;is a produce of epmel'i abouc sodomy, viewing it not so muchas a sin, bue rae her as a med,c~I condi-
shifis bccween •cradition• and "science," as has bcen posited for other lo :1on or dangerous form of public social deviince. This vicw bcc une cmhnned

234 • R Y A N M J O N ES M EX I CA N S íX O I OGY ANO M AlE H O M OS I XU AI IIY • 7JI

ll'!e!!'P" ----.

with sodomy's official, ¡f incomplete, decriminalization in the 1871 Có · 0 sirivism, social science, and sexual science. Italian thinking carried special
Penal. che culmination of midcentury liberal legal reforms. In che e<> eighr. Criminal anthropologist Cesare Lombroso's discourses on "born"
introduction, Minister of Jusrice Antonio Martínez de Castro srared and "occasional" criminals and "atavism," found in mulriple editions of his
although sorne acts constituted a "very grave offense to moralicy," rhose < ~uomo delinquente, would remain foundational into che next cenrury.
17
"did not disrupt che public peace" should be cast aside. The inspirarion ' cxican scholars engaged Lombroso's work, and in his Archivio di psichia-
13
rhis change carne from earlier French and Spanish codes. Privare so ia, antropologia crimina/e, e scienu penali (1880), Lombroso lisred receiving
acts, rheoretically, lay outside che law's purview, except when they "offend 'aceta Médica journals from 1878 to 1880. By 1890, Mexican newspapers
decency, when chey cause[d] scandal, or [we]re executed through violenc .published essays on criminal anthropology, including an arride devoted to
Bringing such acts to light outside rhesc contexts only scandalized che,p Lombroso's ideas and those of psychiarrists Enrico Ferri and Richard von
Jic-prcciscly what decriminalization sought to avoid. D ecriminaliza ,_J(ral:Ii:-Ebing. In November 1892, El Siglo Diez y Nueve published a rhree-
was thus a sign for Mexican liberals of the nation's evolving modern it){ ·... .. pare series entided "La antropología criminal" that contained a detailed sum-
part of a "racional• approach to engaging criminaliry. lt also meant there!i. · nmry of Lombroso's work, along with rhat ofochers, including French crimi-
theoretically no legal reason an orherwise upstanding individual who p nologist Alexandre Lacassagne. 18 The latter's view of che prominence of
riced prívate same-sex sexuality could not be a legitimare citizen. i.' · '..,_,ci.11 factors over heredity in producing crime were integrated into Mexican
Yct alrhough Mardnez de Castro removed sodomy, aurhoriries u sed u: '1{iill ·, tdminology along with Lombroso's views, despite their secming conrradic-
charges-"outrages against public moralirl and corruption of minot, -~"-:t '-1.. ".:'.,. t ~is. By che 1920s, borh che supposed social and hereditary causes of crime

prosecute homosexuals. Through rhese charges, privare sexualiry be, -~ • • · -:1. •• ·.r2.wrcd in official evaluations of rhose arres red.
ublic concern and could again be regulared. By che lace 1800s, such lh ~· : . , e :~-~ ! ombroso's convictions about physical scigrnata resulting from homo-
P ,.t ... 1'•
hdpcd reinforce converging discourses on che dangers of male dfcniina, ·.-:.. •, ~ .-~r,nl acrivity remained especially inlluenrial in che Mexican public sphere,
female masculinicy), gender inversion, and sexual deviance as chesc ht · 'i:~--~~i.:pire rhe emergence of schoJarship discounring his logic. Echoes of
more publicly visible and discussed in che press, polirics, and scholar\h1p. "-;1 . ·~ ~-,1.,,mbrmo's idea thar pederasrs could be discinguished by feminine hairst yles
visibilicy worried ~fficials. In 1~74, for e~ample. O~. José María Reyes ª].y~ /'~\' · <:.lorh_ing informed reacrions_ro ch~ Nove_mber_ 1901 "Famous 41~ scandal.
in che Gaa:ta Médtca for che social necess1cy of promrur1on to forcsrall 1!. ~·• . , · ;•. ~rn.,li~t~covercd che evcnt-in wh1ch police raided a drag ball-for weeks,
ing" behaviors like pcderast y, bestialiry, and masrurbation, wh ich hi:, lik~ •~· / ~ it remaineJ a rhetorical rouch point for wricers, politicians, and artists
councerparts in various global sices, ried to mental insrabilicy and frminin · ·. ilr dcc.1tb. Some scholars have labded che scandal as che "birrh • of Mexican
hysceria.1s Male youchs had co be prorecred from behaviors thac_rhre,ai . .., osexualiry- rh,n is, thc moment in which male effcminacy and ho mo-
cheir viriliry, minds, and civic fimess. Prosticution, which social rdormtr~ t.111.iry werc conflared as referring ro che same behavio rs and subiectivi-
scrutinized, neverthdess was preferable to losing mento "self-ab use,.. 1. "'' hen viewed in light of discursive sh ifts rclated ro sexual science.
ti \v ' che
and sexual pcrversion because ir preserved hereronormaciviry. ·can be read lcss as an episremic "birth • and more as a key moment
Reyes's reaccion- echoed by orhers and emerging bcfore f.imou~ w . n .i larger process of making homosexuals legible. This process occurred
like Magnus Hirschfdd mused on che subje_cr- \onca_¡ned imporra1;~ COnri:xt in whic~ r~e effc minace homosexual became rcad as represenra-
for Mexican medical-lega l engagemenr w1rh sexuahry rherufter. , . of homosi:xuahry itsdf. Around che effeminate homosexual. tensions
rropes included fears of sexual chaos and degradacion on moral, bo( rgcd between libcralizing polirics, che emcrgcnce of criminal antluo-
narional levcls; a linking of masculin ity to heteronormarive bodi
. .h ..
iY ,mJ sexology, the cxpansion of public discourse on homoscxual't
• y.
behaviors; and che conflation of chese bodies and behav1o rs wir cltl • e emcrgencc of raxonomics of modern human rypcs (normal vs. devi•
Thus, ic should noc be surprising char malc sexual deviance would b. hat cnabled the rientljicos' project to order modcrn Mexico.
majo r 'fo~us of Mexican sexology. A long with loca_! ~orcnsic 111 r r_he scandal, Mexican criminologist Carlos Roumagnac, :i sd f-srylcd
Mexican sexologists rurned co European schools of crumnal anchto osian acolyre, produced rhe most important rurn-of-rhc-ccnrury

231 • R V A N M JO N ES M EXICA N SEXOLOOV ANO MA LE HO M OSEXU ... ll 1Y • 131

positivist scudy linking sexuality and crime. Roumagnac deployed a v, ,minently in methods used by che burgeoning system of schools, p risons.
of the born/occasional binary; both caballos (effeminate hornoscxua Ld youch tribunals casked wich forging or reforming citizens. Endocrinology
played che passive role) and mayares (situational homosexuals who play LJd' psychology gained traccion chcrcafter, alrhough supporting racher than
active role) lived in Belén, a prison known for violent sexual hieraro )placing prcvious techniqucs. An ongoing process wherc scxology bolstcred
Roumagnac's views functioned not just as a Mexican version of an ~ rsccms of social control serving che postrevolutionary stace's disciplinary,
~

theory, bue rather as a Mexican version of a globalized cheory cxp 10 dernizing airns would ensure sexual science's value in ddineating normal
through a circuir between ltaly and che Americas. In chis sense, che" m deviant.
passive binary" that would dominare academic pcrspectives on gend
sexualicy during che mid-cwentieth cencury, famously in works by~
Paz and Osear Lewis, was not only a Mexican idea, nor a "I;.a: 11. A CATALOGUE OF LEGIBLE OEVIANCE :
Mediterranean" modcl generaced through a largcly cultural read: MARGARITO ' S CASE
Spanish colonialism.21 Instead, it was a discourse with truly global'
that, by the cwencieth century, became rchearsed chrough discoursc was in this context that Argüellcs Medina and Quiroz Cuaró n, among
ual science. .cxico's forernost medica! jurists, analyzed Margarito's • intcrcsting problern
Prison homoscxuality rernained a concem in lacer scudies.22 Crirnio, ,omoscxuality." 28 Toe case is a pivota! one for undcrstanding the matura-
Raúl Carrand. yTrujillo mixed Lombrosian and ~reudian thoughc ~n 1n of Mexican scxology. The doctors invokcd a range of scicncific cheories
essay that recalled Reyes's fears about che dangers posed when rnen mechods explicidy and implicidy from Austrians Freud and Julius Bauer,
"natural " sexual oudets. 23 Raúl González Enríquez raised similar et mo-German Kraffi-Ebing, ltalians Lombroso and Nicola Pende,
in his 1933 monograph o n Lecu mberri prison .24 González Enríquo: .iards Gregorio Marañón and Manuel Ruiz-Maya, and Peruvian Susana
exernplificd Mexican sexological eclecricisrn; he appcaled to nurneroti ,o, arnong ochers, along with older paradigms about che body. Thcir
ars to support his argument~, and once again, che noc1on that homú~ ysis illuminaces how in Mexican scxology oftcn-contradictory theories
could be recognized as distinct t ypes loomed largc in his text. Both mcchods, global and local in origin, coexistcd; how chcse rhcories and
y Trujillo and González Enríqucz advocated conjuga! vi,1c, - opcr .ods could be deployed together in order ro shore up any individual
M exico smce 192.4 and touted as bolstcring heteronorrnative, monor, ach 's weaknesses; and how praccitioners used ecleccicism to advance
fa mily rclationships-to •cure" pri~on horno\exuality. The idea woul<l reformi;t goals. Moreover, such cclecticism did nor rcsult from a dearrh
to Latín America, che United Stare,, and hcyond as one oí Mem o' ,dern inforrnation or techniques; Mexicans at times were at che forc-
contributions ro sexual science.2~ nt nf applying new methods- for insrance, Freudian psychoanalysis-in
Mexican scholars addcd 01her approac.hes bcyond pmon , tud1~~ r t ,l\t·~. lnstcad , eclecticism reprcsented a deliberare approach.
ideolog1cal toolkit~. By che 1910~. rhcy inc01 pouted rndonmol11 ~n,ider their conclusions about Margarico's homoscxu.uiry. Arguelles
larger concerns about sexualiry .ind hygiene. Dr. Alfomo Od1oa, l<'r ln,, and Q uiroz C uarón notcd fivc rclevam fucts: (1) Margarito had chil-
ple, claimcd chat "sexual hyg1ene is occupied with che bcttermn .\~) he denicd having had homosexual rcbtions; (3) Aurclio affirmcd
human race· and as~crted that glamh were rc,pons1blc for pmpn ,, ht Jnd Margarito had madc !ove as if they "were a ma n and wonun•; (4)
fcrenttation .26 Orga111Lat1on~ like thc YMC A and che Ateneo Je 1 ' mediul examinacions found signs of passivc ¡x-derasry o n Marg.iriro
spo nmred semina rs bringing ;exology. phys1, .11culture. and rncm,tl ,ccive on Aurclio); and (~) Margarito suffered hypogeniulism and haJ
ro )0ung men as part of cra1ning thcrn to he virile uci1ens. 11rn,. ,1, nd1bu l.1r anus. Of chcse poims. che J od ors e~¡x-o~ly c rnph i siLcd
World War l Europc. bodies becamc 1.entral 10 Mex1c,n1 reu>1htrt11.ll ,rn.1ly'>('~ over M.i rgarico's cemmo11y. For instarn·e, Arguelles Med ina
che Revolution (1910-191.'0), rhcreby reaffirming the need for cht· ' .liro, C uarón decermined thar alrho u~h Margarito had sircd t h ild ren,
1
gaze\" of c n m inologms and sex<Jlogi\t\. ~ By che 19i.o~. ,exology f ,l dad nor preduJe ho mommalit y. Such indi11.m o ns, thr y a1~ued .

238 • R Y A N M JO N f S M Í X IC A N S I X O l O O Y A N O M A 1 ( ti O M O S l X U A l 1 1 ' 1 Jt
 could coexist in so-called amphigenic homosexuals.29 Here they deploy.. iauer's observations, Argüclles Medina and Quiroz Cuarón concluded thac
term used by Freud in his Three Essays on the Theory oJ Sexuality (19 [e cause ofhis dysfunction was his testicles' prcmature "senility" and loss of
Amphigenic homosexuals were •psychosexual hermaphrodites" whose se 'v,ital energy."35
object choice included individuals ofboth sexes.30 They differed from ~~ .Argüclles Medina and Quiroz Cuarón found physical evidence for this
lute inverts, who sought sexual objects of che same sex, and from contin ,prnbined endocrine dysfunction in Margarito's "feminine" hair patterns.
invercs, produced in single-sex environments. This taxonomy had alr ,is beard was "juvcnile" and sparse; his pubic hair was triangular, scarce on
proven influemial in Mexico; criminologist González Enríquez used th r.li;,is pcrineum, and absent around his anus; and he lacked hair on his chest,
types in his Lecumberri study. 31 'b¡¡ck, and pares of his arms and hands. In recognizing these patterns, che
Labeling Margarito as an amphigenic homosexual, however, proved ~n~ d@ctors likcly had been influenced by Lombroso's observations ofbody hair
the opening gambit. Since interactions between Mexicans and scxologist.1 arnong criminals in his 1876 Crimina/Man and by Gregorio Marañón's later
frequently took place in state jurisdictions, this meant that medica! jur· o,bservations in La evolución de la sexualidady los estados intersexuales (1929).
did not simply want to describe sexuality like Freud, but to pass judgmenn•art Marañón, himsclf influenced by Hirschfeld and Universidad de Concepción
sexual deviants in the service of the nation. Freud's amphigenic category thus (Chile) professor Alexander Lipschücz, described numerous hair differences
offered che doctors a way co discounc Margarito's claims ofheterosexuality'¡¡~ 1.,~cween che sexes. For example, while boys had "feminoid" pubic hair during
counterfeit, while Lombroso's "born homosexual"-a pathological bé,i,n1; pubcrty. chcir hair expanded to a diamond as chcy matured.36 Margarito
with a special physiognomy and psychological traits linked to criminalit · :rr.ckcd chis hair, and thus, Argüclles Medina and Quiroz Cuarón argued, he
and femininity-provided che framework for understanding the case:.,; ~ :.-nuincd devclopmcnrally arrestcd, with abnormal secondary sexual charac-
moral and legal terms. Argüelles Medina and Quiroz Cuarón chus folloW'c ,•:ri,ti..:s confirming his endocrine problems and homosexualicy.37 Visual
che modcl advocaced by peer jurisc Carrancá y Trujillo, himscl f a LombrO\r,1 ·;nalys1s, as it had been with Lombroso, rcmained critica! for creating the
disciple, who pioneered che use of Freudian thoughc in his "psycho-lcg~l ~·a:alogucs used to discipline deviance.
analysis" of criminal cases published in Criminalia. 32 Alrog.:cher, che doctors concludcd chat Margarito's cndocrine syndromes
Argüelles Medina and Quiroz Cuarón bolstered cheir argument w1t.J:> undcrmmed his physical, mental. and psychological well-bcing-a diagnosis
analysis based on endocrinological cechniques; Margarico's endocrine dr ·echomg what O choa had asserred in 1914: "lt is indubitable chat in the man,
function , they argued, was proof of his homosexualicy, regardless of h is rn, . ,iilccrnal sccrccions of che generacive gland influence much about his health,
cimony. Although chey could not find a "major" endocrine syndrome, chcy vigor, character, and inrellccrual faculties." 38 lndeed, the doctors asserted
conduded chat Margarico ncvercheless suffered from a "smalr syndro rh.u Margariro posscssed oligofrenia, a condition of incerrupted menea!
that manifested in incersexual, rathcr than scxually differcntiated, som.it.ic d.:vdopmcnr and weakness that lefi: his mental abilitics comparable to thosc
signs. Specifically, che doctors diagnoscd him with hyperchyroid ism and of a working-class cwelve-year-old child.39 Sincc the doctors also viewed thc
hypofunctional pituitary and adrenal glands. Thesc observacions ~how<:d mencally dcficient as "strongly crotic." they asserted that it was not uncom-
chat Margarito's body had been "feminizedt the overactivc chyroid scrved J5 mon to find chat individuals like Margarito wcre "pederasts committing
a "feminizing gland," while che pituicary and adren al glands, normally "vir sexual crimcs."tO Margarito also suffered from cpileptic attacks, which che
ile," underperformed.33 Here che doccors invoked lcalian eugenicisc Pende's doccors inrerpreced as furcher evidencc of criminality. Argücllcs Medina and
cheory of che body's "pocential bisexualicy" and. inherenc intersexualicy.34 For Quiroz C uarón noted chat both Lombroso and Kraffi-Ebing viewcd crimcs
Pende, proper sexual differenciation required che harmonious rclease a .í\S "poorly imerprcted epileptic phcnomena.''1 1 Homosexual men were chus
action of hormones as pare of che "pluriglandular origin" of bodily s unable to control their inclinations or fully understand che.ir actions.
Margarito's syndrome evinced disharmony. Worse, Margarito suffered fror 1
Margarito's oligofrenia, in their view, rendcred him overly emocional, as
"hypogenitalism"-insufficiendy functioning testicles- placing hinl ,demonsrrated by his tendency while drunk to fice from rooms crying.4 2 As
between a normal individual and che "perfect castratcd typc." D rawing 6 in their analyscs of physical signs, che doctors reached for an older logic,

240 • A Y A N M . JO NE S MEX I CAN SEXOLOGY ANO MALE HOMOSEXUAL 11'Y • 241

implicidy rácrencing nineceenth-cemury notions of hysreria as a characc parallclism bctween chronological and biological stagcs 1s d isoricnrcd.""9 To
mic of deviance or che feminization of men. ln period ccxcs, che male hyster che doctors, Margarico clearly was scuck in an "earlier• stagc of devclo p-
"was still frequendy envisioned as an effeminate heterosexual, an ove rnenc-one chat Mcxican scholars asscrced normal ceens grcw out of- and
homosexual, ora physical or emocional hermaphrodite."43 Influential Itali crapped in a form of what Pablo Ben has called "sexual chaos:so His incom-
forcnsic doctor Arrigo Tamassia asserted in 1878 that sexual inversion cou plccc devclopmcnt, while descrving creatmenr, could not be allowed to again
be hereditary; epilepsy, hysteria, insanity, and mental disorders characteriz tdverscly affcct ochers.
sexual inverts' family histories. Margariro's emocional instability chus e, Yet in making their case, Argüclles Medina and Quiroz C uarón provcd
roborated che endocrinological "feminization" that Argüelles Medina ¡_elccuve in choosing cvidence to support thcir analysis. While chey no ccd
Quiroz Cuarón had discovered, as well as bolscered claims that he was pto :hat Margarico's genitals were •normal" in form and volume- cvidcncc he
to irracional actions, including passionate murder. His crime was "plan 1v_ as not as dysfunctional as chey claimed-this evidence had lictle impact on
by an oligofrenico and executed by an epileptic: imperfeccly planned a: chcir diagnosis that Margarito simulcaneously suffcred from "juvenile" and
execuced in an impulsive and brutal manner."'44 •~enile" maladics. Their observations of his body hair cxcludcd circulating
Criminologists frequemly ciced passionate crimcs as hallmarks of ho ¡exolog1cal knowledgc produccd by Marañón thac admitted considerable
sexual interaccions; scholars including Reyes (1874 ), Kraffi-Ebing (18 '.,t.irian on in che topography and chronology of"virile pilosiry• dueto age, as
Lombroso (1896), and Solano (1935) had linked epilepsy to sexual devia ,di as work by Lipschücz in Chile criticizing European modcls (such as
impulsivicy, and brucalicy. Ro umagnac's 1904 scudy drew connecct .ombroso's body cypes) and affirming echnic differenccs in normal bod y-
berween crime and sexu al deviance thar later scholars, like Gon: ,air patterns.51 As such, Margarico's smooth body was not in and of itsclf
Enríquez, echoed explicidy.4S Similarly, m ainstream ncwspapcrs and tabJ Leccssarily abnormal, and other options-such as grooming pattcrns- did
linked cnme, violence, and homosexualiry. In April 19}8, rwo jailcd 1 ,e figure in che doccors' perspcccivcs. In chis respect, che modernicy of their
t1dos "provoked a grand scandal" whcn onc sp1llcd hot coffce on thc ot ,gic proved compromised. Moreovcr, che doccors admitted no potcntial
who respo nded by slici ng the former's forehcad.46 In Septcmber 19,9 tlhus berween assercions ofMargarito's mental dcficiencics and his abiliry
m ore hadan alccrcat ion in wh ich one bit che orher in che face aftcr an u1 1111an1pulare Aurclio. One wonders if efforts to "type• Marga rito scemmed
cering joke.~7 In che m inds of Mcxican scholar, , such events confirme~ ·.much from a desirc to reinforce scereocypical links bcrween ho moscxual-
ho moscxuals were beholden ro cnminal pass1ons and po\ed wh.n P<'r ·cpilcp,y. and criminaliry-chcrefore providing an • inreresting problcm•
criminologist Solano in a 1935 Cr,mznaba a mele called .in "cv1denc 'rzmm,i/1,1 rc.iders-as chey did from o bjective cvaluacions. Argticllcs
danger: She warned of che conrag1ous narure of abnormal sexualtt y. hy,,. idina and Q u1roz C uaró n assembled an analysis chat confirmeJ, unsur-
0

and epilepsy, asserting t hat there wa~ a c.<"1tain \Cxual pathological a ,ingly, preconcepu ons of how homoscxuality would manifcst itsclf: as a
becween che m sane, criminal~. and homo~exual, "I~ r or che Jo loprncnt.11 ret.1. rd ano n or degeneratíon o f m ind and body; in a feminine,
Marganto's dcviance, crime, and inducemenr of Au1cl10 into homo,c ,mn,irc form; and as a dangerous devolucio n that poscd cxisttmial th rc.1.cs
would have fit chese descripuom pcrfc..dy tt" public and nation. The net rcsulc was ro produce a certain k.índ of sexo-

Argüellcs Medina and Qu1 roL ( uaró11's 1.00- lu,ums thU\ fic \Ht h11, .al knowledge, a catalogue of devíancy resonating with nario nal impera-
lating nacional and rransniltional J1s~our'>Cs link111g , e.:u.1.l <lcn,rnn -~.111ned at d1~c1plinmg socit-cy.
a nd ps~cholog1c.i.l and somauc d efiuenues I he1r ob..crva110~\ ,11rrvlt
what M ex1can psych1atnst Alfonso M ill.ín . d ar<', t<'í o! rhc 111
Castañ ed a asylum, observed in another mfluent1al ( nmm.ih.1 ,HU< le 111. REAOING ANAL " TRUTHS"

sexuals were "v1cums• of che "reu rdac1on uf norm.al .111d h abuual n '
.u~-dcYelopmenr: As such, the •sexual pcnert 1, a ,ubjecc whose dir db Medina and Qu1roz C uarón thus idenrificd Ma rguiro as a J ;angn-
cal age 1s greater chan his biolog1<.al and ~uual age .in md1\ 1du t\lmmnu.1.I Neverthdess, ont form of cv1dence carried mor<' wcíght in

M [i< t C AN S t KOlOGV ANO M A l C H O M OS l .. V A llfY • H J

2'2 • R Y A N M JO I'< E S
t~ll c-.u..1l,~tu.·. t hl.' •n \lth~• n-..1J frx>m M.,~ J.flt\; S ..1nu$....; Al-,..lVI.' ..111 d~c. C.trpi,.,"s 1.'\>111¡x-11dmm. \\ h t.:h ,·,tcJ Ottil.i. C.ts pcr, .intl T ,1,ru1<"11 M n1,,111s
' '
~ \c\l,' .UI m.-Ji,. .ti 1unst~. ~-..-,.11wvrlcrs ..rnJ ~"<'J.\\fo~ists rdiN un ..1n.11 truths cum,ne,I h<•th .i.rtiY('S ..1ml p..1~ ivcs. o ttC'J1 ,·h.i.~1 ng-c.1ch wn h cnmc-~~ 11e, c1
'"' Jt'{"('rn\11\C J e, l..lfü"<'. ,, di lllt\) thc rwl.'ntieth ,·l.'n tury. The~ aut h()rittcs 1hck5S. ~1T.1rer intt'tTSt. if nm .1l"-.1>~ pu nbh mcm . "-.is lc-viC'\.I at t'<', cpt h·c-
, Ít'"\\~ · si~ns ""'': p.tssw"I.' pnlcrast} • rn,·h ~s t hc info11,Hbul.-r ,rnus .is rrnmp• P-'rrnc~
in~ ,:~'_)\mtl.'rinJ 1,-..1tt,,ns h.)und in mhcr fumu of phy~k-al. roc1o1.I. or tcstimo- As i\lcxk.1n se.x-okl&)' nwu rcd . ;in..110 111ir.1l p.ir.ld igms srill c.1mcJ ~•~n•h
ni.11 cvkkn~ : that is.•m c.i.rlia vk\\ 1.)f .m.ito mir-.i.l unpo rt-ancc formcd the c mr weight in me<.l i,-al jurisprudenrc. In ;in 1:-l$Q 1..-asc• .i.ud1Qm i<"s t·u,nt ned
l\>u111.l.mon ol..111.i..ly s,s.. r.uher th.m being rcpl;i,·cd by l..1rc.r pcrspc-cti,-cs. fal.'n rwo lllt'II c-:mghc h.ivingsc.'< nc.ir th<' Ou.1c.1 c.u hcdra~ both cxh ib1ted s1¡.t1n
1
ps~, -hi..1trist M ili.in affirmcd t h.H t hcsc signs mnaincd rrit k.i.l º fu r t hc of J'C'CC nt su.6< In J.muary 19H. Mc.x.ko C ity policc a~sred .l 1wcnt y-1h rc<-
mt-d11..-o•k g;-.1l Ji.lgnostic ,1fthc- p.iss:ivc ho mosa u.11:" year•old sh 0<1nakcr .md an illirerntl.' thirty-ycar-old man. ncither oí who m
l hc 1111port'.1n.--c e>Í :mal rrm.hs cmc.rgcd " "<'11 bdo rc modcm scxology. .1nd w2s vil.'wcd as o urn,:i.rdly dfc min.1tc.1>1 Whcn exam inc-d, both men ~ ow,:d
their pcrsistc-n.:c in .:-;iscs like Mugariw's oftcrs c,; dcncc ofrhc conrinuity of "signs• ofho mose.xual anjvit y: c>nc- h.1d "spillcd spcrm on his pcnis: anJ t hc
•u ·.idm on.i..l• ,·icws o n ~cxuality e-Yen as ncwcr furms ofknowk d8(' emc11,'C\i. orha had "signs of pcdt'nst y on h is .mus." These signs wc rc uscd ro jum fy
As cu ly .is Rl.'n;iisnncc- Eumpc. sccular .m d ~l igious offici.1ls .,Jjudil',mng incu cc-r.i.tion. Simil.uly. in l\lay 19 z.8. po licc su rpriscd eighrc-el\-)'1.'JI--Old
s0<.l0mr tria.Is ronr r;ictcd doctors ro ,-ondun anal cxaminacions looking fur Manuel S.í.nchcz O mivl.'ros kissing an o ldc-r m.111. Autho ricies rcm ittl.'d
crnchs o n both vin ims and che .iccuscd ; thc s:unc- w-as crul.' in che- Spanish S.inchc-z O ntiveros ro che Tribunal de M.eno rl.'s. M e.xico C ity's s~ ciahzcd
Empirc duri ng che si.xrCl.'nth and sc,·cncecnth cl.'nt urics.\ " Thc p rcscncc- or yo uth court. fuunded in 19i.7. Thcrc, he and tho us;rnds of ochcrs faccd exam1-
abscncc- of somau c stigmata rould makc o r break a c.i.sc, and cheir 1mport.1ncc-, nations of their bodic.s. sociological backgrounds. hcrediry, educuion al and
as e, 1dc-ncc- grcw thcrea!tcr. lralian Paolo Z acchiú mulcivolumc- Qu,umonts psychological devclopment, and sexual cxpericnces. During c-valuacio ns.
mtd1co-leg.Jk.1 {1611- s1) o ffcrcd p rotocols in which hssurcs. hcmo rrho,ds. Sánchez O mi,·c-ros cxhibited •signs of passivl.' pcdc-rascy."62 Youths as wd J as
and anal looscn ing wac signs of pl.'nct rario n and assc-rccd thac thc pents Jdulrs wo uld be cxaminc-d for such indicatio ns for dc-cades; in thc 1950s.
sho uld be cxamincd to sec if it was capable of rommitting tht' ;icts.ss Two surgeon Rafud Sandoval C am acho looked for signs whcn detcrmining how
ccnturies btcr. Spaniard Mateo O rfila argucd in h is Tratado dt mtdwn.r to surgically ªcu reº a homosc,'< ual patil.'nt.63
úgal (1847) that sodomy or pcderast y would leave a "rcccum distcndl.'d in tht" C omcxtualizcd this way, Mcxican casl.'s can be scen wichin a lo ng crajcc-
form of a fu nnel•-an idea he rcferenced fro m Frcnch physician ~I Khd tocy thac placed the "truth • oí malc sexual dcvi:i.ncc o n thc body and, espc-
C ullerier.~ Other ~,gns included a ~phincter "Jilatcd and without re~m cially, che anus, even as ncwer, o nl.'n rnntradictory approachcs appcarl.'d in
0

anee: and º chickcned , sl.ick, and m fl.1m cd tlesh. l mt.icio n and ,well1n, psychology. l.'ndocrinology. and rdated ficlds chat challcnged rh1s bodily
suggcsccd that che n 1mc ha.d JUSC occurrcd." logic. ln cffl.'ct, M cxican jurisprudl.'ncc treatcd rhc anus as the m alc corollary
Likc Orfila, mosc medica! jurim Sdunn iuJ m .cpci,•c p an nen. (,crma to t he hymc-n and thl.' vulva; ali chrl.'c wc-rc sites of truth proving that scxu¿j
forens1c sde.nusc J . L. C aspcr wrou: m his l illndboolc far rhe Pmmu o activiry, dc-vianc or o the.rwise, had occurrcd. H ymcnology and invcscigacions
Fortns/C J.ftdw nt (18s2.) chac hab1tual pasm·e sodomy len { W O 11nport:i11 of infu nd1bular anal o r vulvar distortio ns broughc bodil.'s undcr statl.' scru-
m:i.rks: a "horn-likc dl.'prcss1on . cowards che ,m us a nd a Hnoorh 1ond1 t1ny and invokcd ccnturil.'s-old cultural bdicfs about bodily intl.'g riry.64 Thc
tion oftht slcin around thc ,m us, apparend y au~111g from che frcq uc-nr \trud1 eummc<l, med icalized boJ y w;is a feminizcd body, as mcn lost chcir ;igency
i ng and frin ion of che skin: 58 In contr.ist, Frcnch forcmi<. php1u.111 undcr che stace's gazc; it chus was a self-fulfilling idea, sincc agcm s wo uld look
Ambro1se Tardieu, m w
atttntats aux m<?ws (185-), ,ugued th;ic borh pa,m for Íl.'minine bodily crurhs while humiliating thd r puiem s in che Sl.'a.rch .
and activl.' pcder;ists m uid be 1dcnu ficd th rough s1gns. A Lthes had "poin1 That ho mo~cxual s wnc stereot yp ic.tlly rcgardcd as bcing fcmininc m akc-s
pcniscs" similar ro thosc of dog), whdc p,m 1vc~ had cXC'C)\tvdy devdopt rhesc parallcls cvcn more miking.
but tocks.~9 Mexicans acccsscd thcse text~ d irccd}, chro ugh scholars lik Thc significance of this logic pcrsisred even alter thl.' infund ibular :i.nus
Lo rnbro~o. and via local mm like Roa Bárccnú man ual and H 1d.ilgo .1nd ot hc-r physil-a l m gmaca had bccn discrcdi tcd as not otfcring c.xplanatory

24' • A Y A N M J ON ES M ( XI C AN S f X O l O O Y ANO M A l [ H O "4 0 S ( X l/ A l I f Y • io

uuchs. For inscance, while Tardieu and ochers had argued thac che infundib mechods of concaining homosexuality between 1880 and 1960, from educa•
ular anus was a pachognomonic sympcom of passive pederascy, French docto tion campaigns to forced rehabilitation, increased police raids, and amplified
León Henry Thoinoc in 1911 ciced how che buccocks could be normal i~1 prison conjuga! visits. Such effo rcs expressed che perceived social respon~ibil-
young or habitual passive pederasts, while normal individuals who were sli~ iry to help dc:viants, as wcll as che social obligacion to prevc:nt chc:m from
or dderly could have che deformity. Traumas, lcsions, and emociona· contaminaring ochers. These, however, failed to reduce homosexualicy, which
responses could cause ic, as could a muscle concraccion, which could have an <:ontinued ro grow in visibility. Wo rse, the promise ofhormonal cherapies-
number of causes besides anal penecracion.65 Semen, liquids, and stains 0 .which had proponencs like Eugene Sceinach, Serge Voronoff, Marañó n,
66
both parcners offered beccer evidence of sex. Pende, and Ochoa-had noc been realizcd. Spanish neurologisc Gonzalo
H ow chen can che persistence of chese signs as evidence in Mexico b ·L,aÍOra-exiled to Mexico due to che Spanish C ivil War- asscrtcd in che
explained? O ne explanacion might be che imporcance of embodied expeui Mexican journal Endocrinologla in 1942. chat hormonal chcrapies for adule
ence in Cacholic culture. Bodies had meaning and served as sices of sin a~ homosexualicy generally failed.67 Becter cescing and methods, and earlier
1
salvacion discursively in che foundacional liceracure and political writing ¡ uearmc:nc, were needed-an idea that mirrored criminological pcrspectives
Mcxico chroughouc che cwentieth cencury. In curn, Mexican medica! juris ,about rc:forming youchs in youch cribunals beforc chcy becamc irredcemable
employed cheir logics of bodily signs because such logics made sense in adules.
policical and cultural climace in which ic was bdieved chac homosexual typc Throughout the period, adverriscmencs olferc:d «cures" for sexual, psychi-
could be physically recognized-a modernizacion, in ocher words. of che oldc cal, and somatic dc:viance and degradation. These included rejuvcnating ton-
stigmaca idea. Such recognicion formed an imperacive part of scruccuring c 'ics, glandular cherapies, and cures for mascurbation, homosexuality, and
modern nacio n-scace and delineacing citizens from noncitizens. Scigma ''lsecret illnesses."68 The incenc behind such remedies-chat homosexualicy
referenced culcural beliefs thac still resonaced despite che decríminaltzati could and should be treated-was shared by prominenc scholars like Mc:xican
of sodomy and decades of secularizing liberal reforms, showing che stat Lcopoldo Bac:za y Acévez, who in 1950 echoed Marañón and claimcd that a
limits (or disincerest) in expending political capital on a group long maligne¡ humosnual deservc:d to be castigarc:d no more rhan a d iabc:cic. Bacza y
In chis way, as Mexico modern1zed. long-hcld belicfs abour bod ily mg AtévcL\ asscrcion promoted a d ifferenc form of naturalizing and pathologiz-
mata and newer knowlcdge converged at che momcnr whcn ncw social ,l.l 111 í]lg homosexu,1licy, onc: chat fu rchcr shifced che: cerra in away from psychoso-
like aftminado1- legible homosexuals gencrally assu med co be cffcmin,ne c1.1l criminaliry-and fro m sodomy as a crime-toward creatmcnc and
appe.1red more v1sibly and when che Mexican state took a greacer rncere,c · _pvtenrially integracing homoscxuals inco che nacional bod y. Alrhough not
producing virile cicizeM. That dfeminace males u•r,r homo,cxu,d, .1 .dl.lred by ali scholars or commc:ncators in che period-man y of who m con-
homosexuals 1crrr dfeminate males became a ~cnc:ral1zcd 1.1utology .ift ;1nue,I to evoke rhe crirninal/pachological view of ho mosc:xualicy- th is
1901; ne.,,erchde)S, mc:tho<ls were mil nee<le<l w drline,ue die norm.d h •l'lllvm~ logic forc:shadowc:d rhe comribucion thac surgc:on Rafael Sandoval
the dc:,•ianc. In chis, che ,mm trumpcd gendc:r, bn.rn<<' v. hile femi n1 l am.1thú made in h is 1957 srudy ofhomoscxualiry. Starcing in 19H, Sandoval
appearances and gc:nder performJ nce, m.i.rl...c:d man~ men .1, Jn u nt, " '111, { .1111.1t ho and rhree colleagues conducted a series of operations o n n vcnry-
srigm.ita v."t"rc cra1rs ali homo\Cl.ual\, indudin¡? tho~e \\ho werc not c., "nt )t".U old J. O. B. (whose real name w,ts Jorge).1,9 Sandoval C anucho's
1
identifiable, purponedly share<l. mnhurwn wa~. in his vicw, a ~cure• for ho moscx ual ity; th rough his mc:rh-
,d,, che body muid be treated, c:ven · resrored ~ ro a proper hc:tcronormativ'C'
ltdcr thJr remc:Jied rhc origins of chr indi,,idual's distrc.-ss and foresr.il!ed
IV · AN ATOMICAL "SOLU TION S " k1.u h.um
L11-c- h1s pred1::fes~or~, S.rndm~I Ca mach o re.2d wídcly o n homo~c.xu.iliry,
Xe,errhdess. ifhomo ~exu.lls could h<" rec,~n izr,l, mc:d 1..-.i.l-lc:gal ·,t•lm,,¡- t1ng bding European rhinkers including C arl \X'estphal. Hmchfcld,
ror homo_~u.tl1~· snl! f.1ccJ cc:rr.1ín l1m1l.H10m. Authontlt") tnt"d \,H I "lri.h. ~foil. Lombroso, C harcot , \'alemin M.agnan, Kratn-E.bing. FreuJ,

: •s 11 'r A "4 M J C' ~ E 5 1,1 [XI C AN SE ~ O l O G Y AN O "4 Al l H O M O$ E X U Al I T 'r • 2 •

Ellis, and Auguste Forel, as well as American activist Donald Webster Co¡¡ plexes" causing insecurity and aggression toward sociery, while his Szondi
Sandoval Camacho recognized cwo homosexual types: those wanting to b cese revealed "feminine sexual tendencies accompanied by che necessity of
"cured; and chose expressing pride and happiness in thei1 sexuality. He di~ constituting himself as a receptacle oflove andan intense desire of receiving
missed both as deploying "defense mechanisms"-che first fighting to pr~ renderness" and "hysteria." Doctors concluded he had a "conscious and
serve sclf-worch, while che second suffered "shame and remorse" and use 'unconscious opposition to che contradiction between his physical appear-
"boascfulness" to ddlect judgment. Whether innate or contingent, homo rílnce and psychological processes of a feminine character" and suffered wich
sexuality remained pathological. Sandoval's solucion was to merge surg~~ 'an "intersexual syndrome" associaced with feminine mannerisms and habits.
with psychiatric and hormonal therapies. Homosexuality appeared incurab1! Worse, his "scrong depressive and hysterical states" led him to consider sui-
only because psychoanalysis left an irresolvable, "implicit ancagonis¡µ cide. For Sandoval. Jorge fit che scereocypical homosexual profile, and an
between che psychic and che somatic." Toe psyche and body needed to !:}e i ntervention-sought by boch Jorge and che doctors-was required before
aligned to enable an individual's "reintegration into society, with his physical matters soured.72
appearance corresponding with his comportment." 70 Sandoval Camacfu,; Unable to otherwise reformJorge into a virile citizen, Sandoval Camacho
chus sought to make good on ongoing, if gradual. shifts in Mexican sexologi and his colleagues chose instead to surgically inscribe developmem onto his
cal thoughc-for example: (1) homosexuals should be treated, not incarcc~ bodv. Surgery "solved" Jorge's pathologies; complememary hormonal and
ated, so chey could be brought back into che civic fold; and (2.) anatomy, nq 2,ychiatric creatmencs helped him adjust to his new feminine status. Sex
just che psyche and biochemiscry, needed fixing. Jorge was an ideal cand1d2.r ,c~,,.gnmcnt made his body legible as normal-to him, his doctors, and
because boch psychoanalysis and hormonal therapies had failed him. \kman ~ociety, which read about his transition in newspapers and saw pho-
To scarcJorge's creacment, Sandoval Camacho and his colleague, followc:. o, of him in femini ne poses, doing domestic chores, and holding a Virgin
a process of interviews and tests similar to bue more daborate than rho~, ". tue He had successfully been heteronormativized, the "natural • order
used by Argüelles Medina and Quiroz Cuarón. In Novembcr 19s2., docto ~tJbil i,ed rhrough surgically diminating his homosexuality, his original
interviewedJorge, who described how as a child he had preferred girls' ((,;i _.~rn ininity legitimatized rather than perverse. "Saved " from further pacho-
pany, played with dolls, and role-played as a mother. As a teen, he "1m1t.mf' 1 ),,g1(al degencrat ion, his anatomy now "matched• his appearance and indi-
his sisters' mannerisms and habits, occupied himsdf in domescic labors ~.wom . He was now Marta, a normal woman, and not Jorge, a deviant
found pleasure in creating menus, [and] saw to washing, ironing, and \ewin •!fanm,1do role-playing likc a child in drag. Follow-up examinations and press
his brother's clothing." At rhirtcen, he had his firsr sexual encountc:r w1ch. i11tcrv1cw\ suggested that Marta was happy with che results and that her
"masculine, call, well-built, good-looking" parrner wich whom he fdt "pe índin:mons now had posicive expressive outlecs.73
tecced" and who provokcd an enjoyablc: "feding of volupruosity." lhm h Sandoval C amacho's procedure was che first in Mexico to be profession-
sought out similar men for sex cwice a wc:ek. Jorge chus exhibited rhe \OCi ally conducted and intcrnationally publicized. Alrhough not che firsc nation
background and behaviors commonly associated wirh homosex uality ar t :o conduce sex-reassignments-celebrated cases, such as chat of Chriscine
time.7 1 )orgemen, existed in Europe- after Marta's case, Mexico became an early
Doctors gave Jorge tests that rdlecced both state-of-thc:-arr aJvancc~ .1rgkal destination. Female impersonators like Ray Bourbon and patie.nts of
including refinemencs of previous approaches- and che concinuing in ílue Amerkan sexologist H arry Benjamín sought treatmcnt therc since such
of preferred methods. These induded anthropometric examinations, whi rrearments were not available in rhc United States.74 In chis way, Mcxica.11s
remained fashionable in Mexican social science; Binet-Simon and Ra~ stakcd claim to a role in shaping global sexologicaJ disc-ourse, on homose.xu-
imelligence teses; a Rorschach psychodiagnostic; and blood, thematic app ity. Sandoval's "cure• afnrmed chat by che 19so~. sexological scicnce coulJ
ception, and Szondi tests. Each offered evidence of parhologics. His pu ump stigmata, cven ifit ~till requircd bodily signs in irs asscssmenr of nor-
hair hada pronounced criangle, and he had an infund ibular ,mus, althou 1alcy and deviance (and, by exrension, citizen and noncitizen). Over.111.
his genitalia were normally sized. His Rorschach test revealed "sexual ca 1:tndov.il's "a naromical solution• reAected both che tr.ijectory in which

M ~X I C AN SE X O LO O Y ANO M A I E H O M OS t X U A I ti Y • JO
2'8 • RYAN M J O NE S
 Mcxico mirrorcd its "Latin" councerparts, insofar as sexual sciences in
Spain, Italy, and othcr Latín American countrics were also ccleccic. lt partid-
paced in many of thc samc networks identified by Chiara Beccalossi and Kun
MacMillan, in their chapters in chis volume, bctwecn ltaly, Spain, central
Europe, Argentina, Cuba, and Chile. Orhcr cransatlancic and regional ner-
works, involving France, Brazil, and Peru, also were prominent. Together,
chesc circuits might be thought of as making up a larger Latin sexological
sphere predicated in pan on cultural similarities, historical legacíes, and 1111-
guistic affinities. But Mexico also interacted with multiplc circuits ofknowl-
edge beyond chis Latín sphcre and with genealogies oflmowledgc stretching
back centuries in order co craft a ficld that was simultancously Mexican,
cransnational, and transtemporal, locally applied and globally oriented. That
is why a "Frcudianization" anda "Lombrosianization" of Mexican thinking
could coe.xist, why bodies and stigmata remained useful for analysis, and why
"cures• sought holistic, if scill anacomically on enccd , solutions. Throughout
,o, Marta (Jorgel Olmos and doctors 1954 Courtesv of the Arch,vo General de la Nac,o the period, Mexican scxology scayed importanc to projects designcd to nor-
Mex,coC11y malize citizens, transitioning from identifying and punishing deviams to
surgically correcting them. In othcr words, Mcxican sexual science played an
Mcxican sexology dcvdoped and its cclccttc1sm and sdectivity. lt incorpQ instrumental role in construccing che ways in which citizenship was bascd, at
rated both che late~t techniqucs and a bodily focus that harked back to least in pan, on che management ofintimatc anatomical truths.
centuries-old lcgacy. Ncvcrthdcss, while the trcatment was inccnded to no lt is important to stress thac these innovacions occurred not in isolation,
malize unruly bod1es, che ti ming of 1ts emergcncc also allowcd for its appr<1 but as pare of Mexico's parcicipation in larger global sexology debates in
priation by individuals who arciculatcd ncw subjecr pom1ons-1ncludrn which Mexico di<l not just rcceive knowledge, bue also produced and distrib-
bcing gay, transscxual, or tramgendercd- as pan of cmcrging tramnatiom,! utc:d it. By che 1930s and 1940s, severa! well-respected, widdy read Mexican
homophile and homosexual liber:mon movcmcnts thac challcngcd che ve('' journals exisced, including Criminalia; Eugenesia (eugenics}: Cauta 1\1idica;
\ame paradigms of state-~ancn oned hctcronormativc moderniq. Ps1quu (psychiatry, mental hygiene, and neurology}; Endocrinología; and
Cim cia, founJed by Spanish expatriares. Ali published on homosexuality.
Numerous foreign scholars from Latin Amcrica, the Unitcd States, Europc,
CONC LU S ION and che Philippines comributed to che journals and wcre members of organi-
zations hcadquartered in Mexico. Such contributions show chat the journals'
My intent has not bcen to ofler an exh.ausrivc account ofMexican ~xology bu 1magmed communic y extended globally. Book publishers also rcleased local
to empha.sii:e 1ts cclecuci~m and to pinpoinc a vcnion of what AmoId I hvid~Q!l ,u1d foreign sexology books: because of che prominence ofMexican publish-
has callcd an •anacomical scyle of reasoning" that remaincd critica! to the fü• ing hou~es in Latin America, chesc books reachcd a wider audicncc rhan chey
7
and ics deployment in its fim century. \ Rathcr than super~edcd by orh would have otherwise. For example, publishers rdeased C ub.in Dr. Jost
approache~. chis signs-base<l bo<ldy loga. remaincd fl exible and potent evcn l Agu\tÍn Martínez's lecrnrcs on homosexualiry- E/ homouxuaiumo _'I <u
it was cornbined with ncw knowledge in order to nafl "soluciom" that rcilÍ\ lrtltJ1111mto (1947)- and the tr.inslated version of Cory's groundbrcaking.
both che bo<ly's importancc and che precmincnce of mo<lem ~cknc-c in re,tr gay-liberationist 11,r Homosr.,ual in Amrma in 19\1, 011c ycar aficr lt)
turing chat bo<ly to fit national airns and cultural sensibilities. fngli~h la11gu.1ge debut.

MíXr C AN S(X OLOGV ANO MA L[ H O M OSfKllALlfY • a 1

250 • R V A N M JO NE S
 Mex1co Ciry-like Buenos Aires, Tokyo, Shanghai, and sites in Europc:, Michdlc Rosío Na.sser (Nc:w York: Palgravc, 2.003), 151-66; Cristina Rivera-G ana,
the United Staces, and dsewherc-thus servcd asan important nodc in glo- "Bcyond Mcdicali:iation: Asylum Doctors and In mates Produce Sexual Knowledgc:
bal sexology circuits. Mexican sexology was produced in a cosmopolitan., at che: lnsanc Asylum Út Castañeda in Late: Porfirían Mc:xico," m Irwin,
McC.tughan, and Nasscr, 1hr FamouJ 41, 167-90; and Roben Buffingron, "Los
well-connccted city; chis cnsured it was cclectic, global in nature, and
Jotos: Contc:stc:d Visions of Homosc:xuality in Modc:rn Mcxico." in Sex 11nd
grounded in the cvolving fidd. Me.xican se.xologists cngaged with foreign Sexual1ty in Úttin Amrru,z, c:d. D;inid Baldc:rston and Donna Guy (Nc:w Yorlc.:
knowledge, infuscd it with local episcemic and cultural truths, and deployed Ncw York Universiry Press, 1997), 118-31.
it as pare of modernization. Despite che presence of older logics and 5. See, for c:xamplc:, Ca rlos Monsiviis, "Thc: 41 and thc: Gran Redada," in Tlu
approachcs within Mexican scxology, its production within a modern1zing Famous 41: Sexual.Jty and Social Control m Mex-i,o, 1901, cd. Robert McKec: Irwin.
context made it transferable. Further srudy is required to ascertain how inAu- Edward J . McCaughan, and Michellc Roslo Na.sscr (Nc:w York: Palgravc, 2.003),
139- 68; and Fabrizzio McManus, "Homosc:.xualiry, Homophobia, and Biomcdical
ential Mexican approaches, including those beyond conjuga! visits and sex-
Scic:ncc:s in Twc:ncic:th Ccmury Mc:xico." Sexuality a11d Culture 18 (1014): 235-56.
reassignment surgerics, proved globally; however, given Mexico's prominenc 6. Michcl Foucault, 1hr Ordrr o/Thmg1: An ArthArok,gy ofthe Human Snmw
w1thin regional and global circuits, chis outcome cannot be discoumed. B (London: Roudedgc:, 2.002.); Michd Foucaulr, 1hr HiJtory o/Srxual,ty, vol.1. Ar,
che time ofSandoval's scudy, Mexico had emerged asan international powcr, lntroduction, (Nc:w York: Vincagc: Boolcs, 1990); Howard Chiang, "Epistcmic
that claimed che right ro be a leadcr in che nonaligncd world; as such, it Modcrnity and rhc Emergcnce ofHomoscxuality in China," Grndrr11nd HtStory 2.2.,
no. 3 (2.010): 610-57.
sexology was likdy one of its ideological exports.
7. C arlos Monsivfo, "Ortodoxia y heterodoxia c:n las alcobas," Drb,zte FtminiJta
In sum, che trajectories and genealogies of Me.xican sexology above rai5
6, no. 11 (April 1995): 183- 2.12.; and Roben McKcc: Irwin, Mexi<11n Masculinilits
questions about what constitutes ª Western" se.xology that should still be- (M inncapolis: Univcrsity of Minnesota Pre$$, 2.003). 0n che ninetcc:nth-ccntury
e:xplored in greater detail, and chey highlight how various Mexican anori vo1d , scc M artín Nesvig, "Thc Complacatc:d Tc:rrain of Latin American
produced sexology in a globalized, multisited, and cross-referencial proce~1 Homosc:xuality." H upanu Ameruan H iJtorical Revirw 81, no. 3 (2.001): 689-72.9.
lndeed, in cheir unruly appropriations of ideas new and old. Mexican \exolo 8. Sc:c Alc:jand c;i Palafox Mcncgaui, "Sodomía y masculinidad en I¿ ciudad de:
gises like Argüelles Medina, Quiroz C uarón, and Sandoval C amacho ~aw Méuco (1821- 1870): A r,uario de ESiudios Ammcanos 7 i , no. 1 (1015): 2.89- 32.0. My
fonhco mang monograph "Erorac Rc:volutions: Malc H omoscxuality, Nation, and
themsd ves as producen, no t simply pass1ve recipienrs, of sexual ~t:1cnrc
Modcrn1ty m Twc: m ic:ch C c:ncury Mcxico• also cxplorc:s discussions of sodomy in
imminently applicable to modernization, both at home and glolnlly. legal case:~ and che public sphc:re.
0
9 Sc:c Notic1u sueltas: Dmmo Fc:dcr.u," El Ómnibus, 0 ctober 1 , 18~2.; "Putc:s
de polid a," El S,glo Dut. y Nurvr, Fcbruary 12., 1868; and "Sentencias." i:'/ M onitor
NOTES Rtpubl11ano, Sc:ptc:mber u, 1893.
10. A11101110 Ca réaga, "Blenorragia anal." Cau t,z Mldu ,z dr M b:iro IS, no. 9
1. Bc:njamin Arguelles Med ina a nd A lfonso Quiroi C.ua ró n, "Un (May 1 , 1880).
romin co-funcional," Cr,mmalui 4 , no 4 (0cccml~r 19r;). q1- n. 11 Rafael Roa Bárccna, A/anual razonado dt prJaica cnm,na/ y m ldm,-lrgal
1. I b,d .• 1n-46. r,,,r,..,mtxic,ma (Mc-xico C u y: lmpr. dC' Andradc y Escalantc, 1860). The tcxt had a
3 Sc:c, for eJ1.impk Kachc:rmc: Ela1ne Bliu, Comprom1std PoJ//1/J>W /'111,11wt1111 sctond ed111on in 1869.
Public H ealth, ,zn d Po/Jiu, ,n Rtvolu11on11ry Mexuo (.1ty (U111H r\ll y P•r 11 Lu15 Hid algo) C upio, Comper,d 10 dr 1'udicina Lrgt1I, vol. 1 (Mc:xico Ci1, .
Pcnmylva nia Srnc: Univc:rnty Pres), 2.010); Alc:xand ra Mmn.í \tcrn, •· fh,. 1J,,ur tJ l111p1cm.a ele Ignacio fac;ila nre, 1877).
Eugenio' in Vc:racruz, Me.xic..o. RadtCal Politia, Public lfrahh, and l ,11n \inw, 11. Jdfrcy Merrid. anJ Bry.int T. Ragan, " lmroduction." 111 H om ostxuaÍJty m
0 nly 5tcr1liza11on Law." 1-/iJpani< Am,r,can I fotor,,·,d Rr11uw 91 no l AlodtYIJ /'r11nu, cd. Jdfrc:y M c-m ck and Brpnt T. Rag;in (0xfonl: 0xford
-431-4 J: and Rolxn Buffingwn. ( nmmal ,md Cit1,;rn ,n A1odrm Mtxi<o 1 uu,1, l n1Hrrnv Prc:ss, 1996), 4 , R1Chard Ocm inson and Frannsco ViLqun C arda, "/ os
Urnvcrmy of Nc:bra.ska Prcu, 1000). lm 1-,blt, • A 1 ÍISroryofMalt Homosrx1'alJ17 m Sp,un , 11,0- 1119 (Card1tT: U nivn m y
4 . 5cl'., fo r cxa.mplc:, Pablo .P1,ca10, "l ntcrprct.at1Qns ofSou.al11y m Mcx1<0 ( 11 o/ \X .!, Pro\, i oo7), 6.
0
Pcuont: A CmtC.aJ Vc:rsion ofRoumagn;i( in Tht r amou141· .' i,xualuyand ,.""·' 14. Amonio Mut!Mt de C a.)1ro, Código prn11I p,,r.i rl D11tnto Frdo.1/ ,
:.ontrol ,n Mexuo, 19(11, cd. Roben M cKcc l rwin, 1-Jwud J Ml C.•ugh .. n, 1 7rmtor,o de la Ba1a Ci,liforn,4 sobrr drl1to1drlfa rro <11m11n 1pttr4 tod.. ú l<rp,.b/u"

U • " fAl'I M JONE. M t lt I C " 1'I II C JI. O l O O Y A 1'I O M " l l H O M O I f lt U A l I T-. · 7U

Mr:i:u,m.i 10hr, de/1101 ,ontr,1 /11 Ft'der111ión (1S71) (Veracruz y Puebla: Librerías "!.;, H· Arguelles Medina and Quiroz C uarón, "Un peritaje somático-funcional ,"
lluscrac16n." 1891), 4 4 - 4~. See a l~o Buffington, Cnmin11l and Ci1tu 11 m M odert 2.40 -41.
M o:,w . 34. Lo renzo Benadusi, 71,, Enemy o/1hr Neu, Mm,: Homoux 1111li1y in F11so1I
1s. José M arlJ Reyes, "Higiene p ública: Estudio sobre la prosmució n en México, Ita/y, trans. Suzanne Dingee and Jcnnifer Pudney (Madison: Univermy of
<iauta Méd1C11 de Mlx ico 9, no. 2.3 (December 1s, 1874): 44S- S7• Wisconsin Press, 2.0 12.).
16. Sec Pahlo Ben's chapter in chis volumc. 3S· Argiiellcs Medina and Quiroz Cuarón, "Un peritaje somático-funcional,"
17. C hiara Bcccalossi, "Sexual Deviancies, Disease, and C rime in Cesar<:¡ 140- 41.
l.ombroso and the ' ltalian School' of C riminal Anthropology." in Dmau nn'd 36. Gregorio Marañón, The Evol111ton o/Se.t and /11urux11al Co11d11ions, trans.
Crmu: Soc111l PathologieJ and the Ne111 Politio o/Hralth (London: Routlcdgc, 10 1~j Warrc B. Wclls (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1932.), 51. On Marañón and
18. "La antropologla criminal." pts. 1- 3, El S,glo Duz y Nueve, Novembcr 14- ,¿. Lipschiitz, see Kurt MacMillan's essay in chis volume and MacMillan, "Hormonal
1891. Bodies: Sex, Racc, and C onstitucional Medicine m che Iberian-American World,
19. See che essays in Robcrt M cKec lrwin, Ed McC aughan, and Michelle Roci 1900-19so" (PhD diss., Univcrsity ofC alifornia ar lrvine, 2.013).
Na.sser, 1hr Famous 41: Srxuality and Social Control in Mrx uo, 1901 (New York• 37. ·n,eir conclusions mirrored rhosc by the Brazilian Leonídio Ribeiro. See
Palgrave Macmillan, 1003). James N . G reen, "Doctorrng the Nacional Body: Gcnder, Race, Eugenics, and che
2.0. C arlos Ro umagnac, LoJ cr1mmale1 en M éxico: Emay o de pncología crm11n,1 'lnvert' in Urban Brazil, ca. 1910 - 1945," in Gtnder, Sexuality, and Power in Latin
(Mex1co City: El Fénix, 1904). Americ11 Jtnce lndependmu, ed. William E. French and Katherine Elaine Bliss
2.1. See Octavio Paz, El laberinto de l-11 101,dad (M exico (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Litdefield, 2.0 0 7), 198-99.
C uadernos Americanos, 19so); and O sear Lew1s, Thr Childrm o 38. Ochoa, Gldndula1gmrradorm, 2.0-2.1.
Yo rk: Random H ouse, 1961). 39. Arguelles Med ina and Qu1roz Cuarón, "Un peritaje somático -funcional,"
2.2.. Sce my forthcoming essay "J-lomosexuality, Nation, and d,c Islas Mari, 145
Penal C olony, 192.s- 1940." 40. l biJ., 2. 4 6.
13. Raúl Carrand y Trujillo, "Sexo y p enal." Crimma/111 1, no. 1 (~cptcmhcr 4,. Ihicl
1933): 2.6- 31. 41 11.,,J , 2..¡s
2. 4 . Raúl Gonzilcz Enrlquez, El problema uxual del homb,e m la pm1tmo,,n ·H· Ma rk ~- Mrcale, Hpurual Mm: TIJt Hidden Hwory o/Malr Ntrvous JllnrsJ
(Mexico City: Editorial Citlalrepetl, 1971). (Ca mbridge, MA: 1-larv:ud Univcrsity Press, 2.008), 2.00, 2.81.
2.s. "Science: Sex ín che Calabozo," Time, September 2.2., 1941 .¡ 4 A1 gi1clles Medina and Quiroz Cuuón, "Un peritaje somático-funcional."
2.6. Alfonso R. Och oa, Sobre /aJf unczonn Ji11ológua1 dr la1 glándulaJgmrrad,, 2.46.
raJ (Mcxico C ity: Tipografía Económ ica, 1914). 45. Rou magnac, L oJ crimmalrs en M lxico.
2.7. On Europc, see Ana Cardcn-Coyne, "From P1ccn lO Who lc: Ih 46. "Un.1 riña de invemdos," El Naoonal, April 2.7, 1938, 9.
Scxualization o f Muscles in Postwar Bodybuilding." in Body Par/J: (r,11,,1 47 "R,ña d e homosexuales en la d rccl dd C a rmen." El Nacional, September 8,
Exploratiom in Corporralily, ed. C hristophcr For rh and !van C roz1er (bnh.1111 1939, \ CC. 2., p. l .
M D: Lexingco n Books, 2.oos). 48. Susana Solano, "El ho mose.xualismo y el estado peligroso." Crmimalia 2., no .
2.8. Arguelles M edina :i.nd Qu1roz C uar6n, " Un peritaje ,omát1co-funoonal. 10 {Junc 193s): 138. O n ho mosex ua lit y and insaniry, see Beccaloss1, "Sexu:r.l
141 Dcv1ancies."
2.9. lb1d., 2.4 2., 2.4s. 4 9. Al fo nso Millán , "Carácter antisoc ial de los homosexuales." Crimmalia ~.
30. Sigmund Freud , Thru füJaJJ on the 1htory o/Sexu11lt1y, u am . James ~tr.1thq no. 4 (Dcccmber 1934): so , s1.
(N ew Yurk: fl asic Books, 1962.), 1 2.. Toe idea of .1.mph1gcnic homosex uals built upo so. Sec Pablo Bc n's chapter in chis volume. A 19lOS deba1e 011 sexual eJuc.uion
~,hola rship by Kraffi-Ebing, H avdock Ellis. Albcrr M nll, anJ H1rsch fcld. in schools ,nduJcd claims that homosexuality Wjs a "pha.se• ofhuman devclopmenr.
31. Gonzále2. Enrlquez, El probú ma uxual, 93 Sce Pedro Z uloaga, "La educ.ición sexual," F.I Nacional, September 17, 1913, scc. 1,
32.. R aúl Carrancá yTru¡illo, "Un ensayo judicial de la psrcotécnica," Cmn111al1h p. ¡.
6 ( Februa ry 19¡4). On Freud 's ,nAuence on Mcxrca n mcd ical jurisprudence, ,e sr. Sec, for example, M.ua ñón, Et,o/"tion o/So .., ss- s6.
Rubén Gallo, Frt ud'1 M exi<o: lnto the W i/d J ofPJychoanalym (Uoston: M IT Prrn si. O n an.11 truths, ,ee lv.111 C rot ier, "Ali che Appcarances Wcre Pcrfc:ctl)'
2.0 10}, c~p. chap. S (199 - 2.3-4). Natu1 :r.l: lhe Anus of rhc Sodo mice m Nineceench-C cntury Mcd1cal Dtscou r)e," in

'~• • RY/\N M J ONí S MI K I C AN !; E KO l OGY Al'IO MAlF H O M O S F X UAl ll Y • 1b~

 ..
.,~

Body Pans: Cr,tu ul Exp/orallom in Corportahty, ed. C hristopher Forth and Ivan 71. Ibíd., 36.
Cr~zier (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2.oos), 66. 73. See, for examplc, Sandoval Camacho, Una contribuoón experimmtu!, 111-
\l - Mili.in, "Caricrer antisocial." s1. 11; and Asociación de Editores <le los Esrados (AEE), "Marca Olmos está feli z." El
H· Kacherine D. Watson, Form sic Mtdicmt m IVestern Socuty: A History (Ne Siglo de Torreón, May 7, 1954, 1.
Yor~: Roudedge, 2.010), 116-17; Zeb To rcorici, "'Hcran Todos Putoi ': Sodonrnica 74. Joanne Meyerowitz, H ow Stx Changed: A History ofTransstxUA!uy m the
Subcultures and D1sordcred Dcsirc in Early Colonial Mexico." Ethnoh,story H, no, Unittd Sta/es (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univcrsicy Press, 2.001}, 86, 147, 187.
1 (Winter 2.007): 35-67. 75. Arnold Davidso n, 7ht Emergmu ofSexua./1Jy: Hiuorual Eputrmology and
ss See Georgc Ro us.scau, "Policing che Anus: Stuprum and Sodomy accordin tht Fonnation ofConcepts (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univermy Press, 1001).
to Paolo Z.lcchia's Forcnsic Medicine." in Homostxua.lily m Early Modn-n Europ
cd. Kennech Bo rris and George Rousseau (New York: Routledge, 2.008).
s6. Mateo O rfila, Tratado tÚ m<dicma úgal, vol. 1 (Madrid: Imprenta de Do
Josc Maria Alonso, 18,p), 159.
57. Clcrninson and Vázqucz García, "Los ln vzsibú1, • H-36.
s8. C1ced in Crozicr. "Ali che Appcarances."
59. A mbroise Tard ieu, Les attmtat, aux mll'urs (Grcnoble: Editions Jéró
~iillon, 199s).
60. Sec Mark Ovcrmycr-Vclazquez, Vmons o/ the Emtraúl C,ry: Modtrm
Tr11dztson, and the Form,ztwn oJ Porjinan Oaxaca, l'vftx,co (Durham, NC: Du
t.:niversity Prcss, 1.006), 106; and Kachryn A. Sloan, Runuway Daughttrs: Stdumo
Eú,pement, an.J Honor 111 Nmeteenth-Cmtury J.fexi<o {Albuquerquc: Univers1cy
;-..ew 1'.kxico Press, 2.008), 199.
61. See Archivo H istó rico del D1scmo Federal (AHDF ¡, Carcdn, Le,·umbci:
caja 12., cxp. 2.9s íLuis Sinchcz Agu1lu; , ,¡nd A HDF Carccles, Lccumbcm, ca¡;.
cxp 2.98 lLcocad10 Torres Rod rigucz1. Januuy 11 , 1911
61. "Arch ivo General de [.¡ 1'ac1ón, Con.sc¡o Tutela.e para )'.fcnorcs Infracto
cap 2., cxp 11-8: Manuel Sánchcz Onn~cros." May 1918
63. Rafael Sand0\·a1 Camacho, Una contr1buczón txpcnmmtal al o tud,o d,
~mos.a11,1/ui,,.d (Mexw:o C1ty, 19s-
64 . Hi<ulgo y Carp10. Comptndzo tÚ nuds.111,1 /r,:al, 1 19. Fr.i..nciKo Flore
lwnnt en J.lb.uo 1~1cx,co C1ry· Oti~ina T1p de la 5e, reta na de Fomento, 18!,
6s Lcon Henry Thoinot, .\fuúwúg.il .4,pt, lJ 11_{ .\for11/ OJfm~t., rrws. .-\r
v.:· \lt'cyuc Ph1la.dclphi.a FA. Da,~ 19¡-. 10 7. 11s-1S.
66 lbsd.. 101-,
6.., Gonulo Lafora. "Los upo~ <le ho rno~iu.ah,d;&IÍ ,. la< hormonas scxu
E.,uit,cn,,,~ ÍS 194¡
68 S<c •5o1o curo hombres Ex•IÚ,or Oct~r 11, 1941 4 · "El rr ,1.t.r"
a.:.tual M rc¡l.f\cncc,micmo ~ co ruhc1.1ón • El l'nurrul, O ~•1.bcr \ 1. 1946
p 1 . and · Deb1Jtda.d w:xual , cnfcrmcd.1.,lcs sccret.¡s: b., e/.Jur. Apnl 19 14
•9 XC • Rcport;a¡c sráfico dd hr,mbrc q1.1C ,e'°"' ,e rcc en mu,cr • A BC, t.
1•\ 4 • 1 1 a ~ chn c-.cm :n dcc.i..J l1l a t ,rchco mm~ artKlc
- o Sandova.l Cama..M L = "'"1,,bu. wn ,xp,r1wu111;1/, 31- ,1 \ i
C.a=ho , C"Jaborators .,.ere ~1arc,, Antc,n,c, Dupor,t Muñoz. Carlm IJ
Brihtnca. and Antonio Mcrc~io Monees
- 1 lb.d . ,s - )6.

25,e • •.., A lt Y .J O -,. f ! M fXrCA N S[XOLOGY A~ O r,l/1,. l f· kO r,I OS(XU Al lf"f • 111