COMPACT CITY STRATEGY the Bangkok Metropolis are close to the

compact city concept, which means the

OF BANGKOK MEGA-CITY1 residents utilize urban structure in an
area not more than 20 kilometers distant
Chaweewan Denpaiboon2 from their residences. The study was
designed to show the necessity of urban
Hidehiko Kanegae3 policy that pursues "a compact city" in
the Bangkok Mega-city.
Abstract
Keywords: Compact City Policy,
The objectives of this study encompass Mega-city, Bangkok Metropolitan
three aspects. First, it analyzes the Regions
Bangkok Mega-city Model in three sub-
areas around the New Suvarnabhumi Introduction
International Airport.4 Second, it analyzes
the compact city policy to measure A mega-city5 is one of the most rapidly
factors of the compact city based on growing and increasingly populated cities,
affordable transportation costs related in addition to having the greatest amount
to household income, jobhousing balance, of urban infrastructure in the world.
and facilities. Third, it analyzes household Bangkok Metropolis is considered one of
commuting travel using modeling displays the world’s 21 mega-cities (Guest 2000). It
with visual simulation. The results show has a rapidly increasing population. The
that the compact city strategy can shed surrounding areas will also increase by
light on the lifestyle of residents in a millions, meaning an additional 1.5 million
mega-city. Moreover, the study reveals people will live in the Greater Bangkok
that the patterns of urban structure in Area and a million people will be located
in the surrounding provinces. As of 2001,
populations and built up areas are showing
1
The paper is part of the findings of our study urban sprawl (see Figure 1 and Figure 2).
on the compact city simulation strategy in What we are witnessing today requires new
Bangkok Mega-city, Thailand (2006). The concepts and strategies for the management
study was supported by a grant provided by the
of this urban environment especially for
Center of Excellence of Ritsumeikan
University. We are grateful to the Faculty of
the largest human agglomerations. All the
Architecture and Planning for kind assistance specific problems of this century’s
in the conduct of the study and to the fourth- development appear most obvious in
year students of Urban Environmental mega-cities: population migration, changes
Planning and Managemen. Thanks also go to in regional patterns, and fast growing
Miss Chonthicha Thamasith, who prepared the cities. Moreover, the character and spatial
paper and document. distribution of the mega-cities has led to
2
Faculty of Architecture and Planning,
Thammasat University, Patumthani, Thailand
3 5
Graduate School of Policy Science, The term “mega-city” is frequently used as a
Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto, Japan synonym for such word as “super-city,”
4
The three areas are Bang Kapi, Lat Krabang, “conurbation,” “megalopolis,” “world city,”
and Bang Phli. and so on.
 Compact City Strategy of Bangkok Mega City

the 21st century being called the age of are associated with less automobile use for
urbanization, during which period towns improving sustainability, and more creation
and cities have experienced an increase of of pedestrian areas in order to support the
50% in population. The effects of development of a “health city”. However,
urbanization are not the same world-wide; there is a limitation for Asian mega cities.
rather, they differ regionally. While the Bangkok Mega-city also has been
situation in the industrialized nations of experiencing a rapid increase in automobile
the world is challenging, it is still under use, and empirical studies in the high-
control. However, we have to face the fact density context have been scarce. The
that the inferior situation in the mega- studies have shown that the process of
cities of developing nations is escalating urbanization presents enormous challenges
and is, in many cases, out of control. for government, social and environmental
Hence, development of the subcenters planners, architects, and inhabitants of the
concept was selected as the solution to city. There are three points, as follow: (1)
Bangkok Metropolis’ problems. Nine What urban population should be realized
subcenters were developed in Bangkok to mega-city growth? (2) How should
Mega-city. The subcenters within the compact city policy and subcenter policy6
jurisdiction of Bangkok Mega-city serve serve as guidelines for the mega-city? And
the purposes of travel time and metropolitan (3) how should the urban population
structure, of improving the quality of life commute in order to carry out urban
in the mega-city in view of the current activities in the mega-city?
state of urban problems, and of discussion
of ideal urban infrastructures from the
standpoint of realizing the feasibility of
the paper proposed for land-use planning
policy.

In recent years, city planners, developers,

and policymakers have increasingly looked
towards designing a more ‘compact city’
in order to achieve a more sustainable
urban form. There are many perceived
benefits of the compact city over “urban
sprawl”, including less car dependency (and,
hence, lower emissions), reduced energy
consumption, better public transportation
services, increased overall accessibility, Figure 1: Bangkok metropolis growth in
re-use of infrastructure and previously 2001
developed land, rejuvenation of existing
urban areas and urban vitality, higher
quality of life, the preservation of green
space, and the creation of a milieu for
6
enhanced business and trading activities Subcenter policy was proposed by Bangkok
(Thomas and Cousins 1996). However, the Metropolitan Administration (BMA) as a
major findings of US mega-city research measurement of urban development policy.
found that denser and more mixed land use

39
MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities 11.2, 2008

and street lighting, can be provided cost-

effectively. Many planners and policymakers
believe that “sustainable communities are
places that exhibit a compact urban form.”
(Beatley 1995) However, there is debate
about the very definition of a ‘compact
city’ and, in particular, about what policies
need to be undertaken to achieve urban
compaction, whether these particular policies
do in fact, contribute to sustainability.
According to Breheny (2001) “policies of
urban compaction involve the promotion
of urban regeneration, the revitalisation of
town centers, restraint on development in
rural areas, higher densities, mixed-use
development, promotion of public transport
Figure 2: Built-up area around Suvarnabhumi and the concentration of urban development
Airport at public transport nodes.” Researchers have
renounced many of these policies as being
uneconomic and against the wishes of the
Literature review general population, who have characterized
the twentieth century by a rejection of
Williams (2000) argued that compact cities inner-city living and the invention of
were explained by four characteristics. suburbia. The nature of intensification is
First, compact cities are efficient for more also important; development in mixed-use
sustainable modes of transportation. The town centers is usually perceived to have a
population densities are high enough to positive effect, especially if landscaping
support public transportation and to make and urban design improvements are
it feasible to operate. Also, the theory is subsequently implemented. Infill housing
that, because compact cities have high developments in residential suburbs are
density and mixed use, people can live frequently perceived as being of poor
near to their workplace and leisure quality and therefore having a detrimental
facilities. Hence, people can walk and effect on the environment and sustain-
cycle easily and the demand for travel is ability in general. A model of an existing
reduced overall. Second, compact cities context is built to a consistent quality, and
allow sustainable use of land by reducing developers and/or architects are required
sprawl. Land in the countryside is preserved, to “plug-in” their model of a proposed
and land in towns can be recycled for development and various alternatives at
development. Third, in social terms, the same level of detail, accuracy, and
compactness and mixed use are associated visual quality as the existing contextual
with diversity, social cohesion, and model. Additionally, the so-called activity-
cultural development. Some also argue based approach (Jones 1990) is a useful
that it is an equitable form because it conceptual framework for the travel
offers good accessibility to everyone. activities study. Nearly all travel activities
Fourth, compact cities are economically are derived from the need or wish to fulfill
viable because infrastructure, such as roads physiological needs (eating, sleeping),

40
 Compact City Strategy of Bangkok Mega City

institutional needs (work, education), pattern of residents who travel downtown

personal obligations (child-care, shopping) and commute to work. The surveys were
and personal preferences (leisure activities). designed to test certain effects on people,
such as affordable transportation costs related
Objectives of the study to household income, job-to-housing balance,
and to facilitate in the change of the urban
This paper tries to achieve a better structure with the new development of three
understanding of the mega-city as an subcenters. Descriptive statistics were also
introduction to what the quality of life of analyzed within this study with the intention
the residents will be if urban reconstruction of exploring the different characteristics of
can not be achieved by the compact city Bangkok’s commuting behavior of detailed
policy. The objectives of the study encompass daily travel investigations among the
three aspects: participants of this survey. The questionnaires
consisted of questions about individual
1. to analyze the commuting behaviour of travel behavior, participation in activities
the Bangkok Mega-city Model in three related to commuting, and social relations
subareas around the new Suvarnabhumi or routines likely to influence travel behavior.
International Airport, consisting of the The main survey included questions about
Bang Kapi, Bang Phli, and Lat Krabang the distance traveled by each method on
subareas; each day during a week. In addition, the
study utilized simulation software integrating
2. to analyze the compact city policy in existing systems, such as Sketch Up,
order to measure factors of the compact Maya, 3D Max, Flash, and Premier
city based on affordable transportation costs programs, and also used visual simulation
related to household income, jobhousing to facilitate the modeling, display, and
balance, and facilities; and evaluation of the proposed alternative
environment.
3. to analyze household commuting behavior Population, urban economics and
using modeling displays created with urban growth
simulation software that integrates an existing
system using the Sketch Up, Maya, 3D In brief, the population in the Bangkok
Max, Flash, and Premier programs and Metropolitan Region (BMR7) reached 3.3
also includes visual simulation. million, 6.6 million, and 10.0 million in
1960, 1980, and 2006, respectively (see
Data collection Table 1). Thus, the BMR represented a
high percentage of the total population of
The study methods employed travel surveys Thailand in 2006. Annual population
of residential areas in three subareas (Bang
Kapi area, Lat Krabang; Rom Klao Housing 7
BMR = BMA + Vicinity (Bangkok
Project, Bang Phli; Bang Phli New Town Metropolitan Regions) BMA = Bangkok
Project and Bang-Chalong Housing Project Metropolitan Administration, and vicinity
for a total of 278 samplings). A household including the provinces of Nonthaburi, Samut
travel survey compiled by the authors in Prakan, Pathum Thani, Samut Sakhon, and
August 2006 was employed to investigate Nakhon Pathom
the urban structure and the commuting

41
MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities 11.2, 2008

growth in the BMR has been slowing mixing of conflicting functions, such as
down and turned negative between the the mixing of residential and industrial
years 2000 and 2006, dropping from 4.5% areas, which is potentially hazardous to
per annum during 1960–1970 to –1.0% per residents, insufficient provision of public
annum during 2000 to 2006. According to services, and the resultant deterioration of
the Department of City Planning, BMA, the living environment. However, the
the built-up area had expanded by nearly majority of economic and social activities
10% per annum from 1993 to 1995. are still located in Bangkok Metropolis
Depicted by aerial photography in 1995, and its vicinity. In addition, Table 2
there were about 39% of the built-up areas indicates a real household income of
in the BMA. Subsequently, the built-up 18,800 baht per month in the BMA and of
area is 700 kilometers2, out of a total of 18,000 baht per month in the BMR in
1,568 kilometers2 in the city’s administrative 2000. Moreover, the employment structure
area. However, the population density of in Bangkok varies greatly across its area.
Bangkok Metropolis increased from 4,001 Secondary employment structures such as
to 7,001 inhabitants per sq.km by 2006 commercial, financial, and service sectors
(Bang Kapi), from 1,001 to 4,000 play an important role as major sources of
inhabitants per sq.km in Lat Krabang, and employment. In the vicinity of Bangkok,
from 500 to 1,000 inhabitants per sq.km in the production sector was still the major
Bang Phli (see Figure 3). The characteristics source of employment in 2000 (see Table
of urbanization that indicate a change to 3). Thus, urban sites are initiated primarily
urban sprawl are as follows: (1) residential by the private sector. This is thought to be
population has declined in the central area; one of the reasons why the road network is
(2) commercial and office buildings are to poorly designed in built-up areas, and this
be found in areas such as Petchaburi, Rama I, situation is causing serious congestion in
Rama IV, Sukhumvit, Asok-Rachadapisek, town.
Victory Monument, and Central Plaza; (3)
suburban residential developments are
expanding in the eastern and northern
corridors; (4) areas within a 10 kilometers
radius from the center have vertical
extension; and (5) areas outside 10 kilometers
have horizontal extension. Unplanned
urban sprawls are currently in progress.
They cause not only traffic jams, but also
various problems relating to the urban
living environment. Problems include the

42
 Compact City Strategy of Bangkok Mega City

Table 1: Total population of the Bangkok Metropolitan Regions (BMR) and its growth rate
classified by province in 1980, 1988, and 2006 (Unit: 1,000,000)
Total population (millions) Annual growth rate (%)
Province 1960 1970 1980 1990 2001
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2006 – – – – –
1970 1980 1990 2000 2006
Bangkok Metropolitan
2.1 3.1 4.7 5.9 6.3 5.7 4.8 5.2 2.6 0.7 -1.0
Area (BMA)
Samut Prakan
Nonthaburi
Pathum Thani Vicinity 1.2 1.4 1.9 2.7 3.8 4.3 1.7 3.6 4.2 4.7 1.3
Samut Sakhon
Nakhon Pathom
Total BMR 3.3 4.8 6.6 8.6 10.1 10.0 4.5 3.7 3.0 1.7 -0.1

Sources: Population and Housing Census, 1960, 1970, 1980, 1990 and Preliminary Report of
Population and Housing Census, 2000,
*National Statistical Office (NSO); National Economic and Social Development Board
(NESDB).

Table 2: Real household income in 1995 Table 3: Employment structure of BMR in

(unit: baht/month) 2000 (unit: baht/month)

Name of Province 1995 2000 1995-2000 Name of Province Primary Secondary Tertiary
Bangkok 21,000 18,800 -2.19%
Bangkok 1.90% 34.70% 63.40%
Nakhon Pathom 15,100 13,500 -2.22%
Nakhon Pathom 41.20% 31.90% 26.90%
Nonthaburi 27,100 24,200 -2.44%
Nonthaburi 18.10% 39.70% 42.30%
Pathum Thani 17,700 15,800 -2.25%
Pathum Thani 14.40% 59.50% 26.00%
Samut Prakan 15,200 13,600 -2.20%
Samut Prakan 7.80% 65.00% 27.20%
Samut Sakhon 13,000 11,600 -2.25%
Samut Sakhon 15.60% 62.20% 22.20%
BMR 20,100 18,000 -2.18%
BMR 7.60% 41.20% 51.20%
Source: UTDM (1995) and URMAP (2000)
Source: URMAP estimates (2000)

Commuting mode in greater employed. The areas of greater Bangkok

Bangkok are linked to the center by a set of roads
radiating northwards and southwards to
There are three modes of transport for Nonthaburi and Samut Prakan provinces and
commuting in greater Bangkok. These are eastwards and westwards to Chachoengsao
private vehicle, public transport, and non- and Nakhon Pathom provinces respectively
motorized vehicle. All types are variably (see Figure 3).

43
MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities 11.2, 2008

Table 4: Mode of transport to work place

in greater Bangkok
__________________________________
Mean Commute School Private Business Total

Walk 631,539 766,952 481,135 112,775 1,992,401

(10.9%) (21.6%) (11.9%) (5.2%) (12.8%)

Bicycle 1,056,735 299,310 981,123 450,581 2,787,749

(18.24%) (8.42%) (24.28%) (20.93%) (17.94%)

Personal 1,297,121 303,490 1,301,277 1,268,848 4,170,736

Car (22.4%) (8.5%) (32.2%) (58.9%) (26.8%)

Public 2,809,052 2,183,071 1,276,633 320,680 6,589,436

Transport (48.5%) (61.4%) (31.6%) (14.9%) (42.4%)

Total 5,794,447 3,552,823 4,040,168 2,152,884 15,540,322

(37.3%) (22.9%) (26.0%) (13.9%) (100.0%)

Source: JICA (1990, 1997)

Figure 3: Direction commuting travel to

work place around Suvarnabhumi Airport
Table 5: Share transport systems in greater
Bangkok
Within the BMA, private cars and motorcycles
(44.7%) and public transportation systems Description Share (%)
(42.4%) are chiefly employed for journeys. Bus 72.0
Among the public transportation systems, Railway 0.4
buses command an outstanding share of Surface
72%. This indicates that mass transportation 4.2
Transport
is a striking feature of transportation Others (taxi, etc.) 23.4
within the BMA. There are various
commuting modes in place in the BMA. In Source: JICA (1990, 1997)
terms of approximate contribution of
passengers per kilometer traveled, city buses
are the largest contributors. This transport
mode thereby contributes significantly to
either improvement or degradation of the
urban air quality in Bangkok. Improvement
of urban air quality could be accomplished
by instituting appropriate policies regarding
city buses. In the same fashion, private
cars are the biggest contributors in terms
of vehicle-kilometer traveled. This indicator
signifies that private cars have an
important effect on the quality of urban air
in the Bangkok Metropolitan Area. The
passenger-kilometers traveled and vehicle-
kilometers traveled in 2005 for different
transport modes are shown in Table 6.

44
Table 6: Passenger-kilometer traveled and vehicle-kilometer traveled in Bangkok in 2005 for
various transports modes

Transport Capacity Number Vehicle- Passenger-

Mode (Passengers) in Fleet kilometers kilometers
Traveled Traveled
Taxies 4 53,000 286,200,000 572,400,000

Tuk-tuk 3 7,500 20,286,000 40,500,000

BTS Sky 1,000 40 2,032,380 1,728,000,000

train

City Buses 35–60 8,177 288,036,000 6,623,370,000

Microbuses/ 12 5,519 238,400,000 2, 384,208,000

Vans

Express 100 47 472,320 28,350,000

Boats

MRT- 1,000 44 1,944,000 972,000,000

Subway

Motorcycle 2 50,000 28,800,000 57,600,000

Taxis

Private 4 1,700,000 1,834,560,000 3,672,000,000

Cars

Motorcycles 2 2,300,000 1,490,400,000 1,490,400,000

Source: Thanaprayochsak 2005

Tables 5 and 6 show that city buses and integration of all public transportation
private-car users are potential shareholders modes with smooth transit systems are
in the issue of alleviating congestion necessary to compensate for the comfort
problems and air quality issues. Prior to that will have to be sacrificed by private-
taking this action, expansion of excellent car users. There are encouraging signs
but affordable public transportation and that some car users have changed to the
MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities 11.2, 2008

elevated light rail and the subway. This is 500

very visibly indicated by the popularity of

Amount distance from resident to downtown

400
the park-and-ride facilities near certain
railway stations. Therefore, the park-and- 300
ride system needs more promotion and
expansion to attract more car users to mass 200

transit systems.
100

Results and discussions 0

-100
10 20 30 40 50
Activities and travel in three
subareas Distance from resident to downtown (km)

Figure 4: Average, expected travel distances

This study of activity-based approaches is (km) over five days
based on the work-day and holiday behavior
for leisure trips by analysis of daily travel
behavior and of the relationship between Trip frequencies in subareas
residential locations, urban facilities, the
location of the activity, trip distances, Trip frequency analysis was based on data
activity participation, and journey frequency from the daily travel investigation. In
in the three subareas. For some facility particular, close interdependence of activity
types, the results almost always show that participation could be expected. However,
commuters choose the closest facility because of the possibility of combining
because the various facilities are more or several activities, such as shopping at
less equal (such as post offices) or have different locations, and thus making several
regulated catchment areas (such as social journeys in connection with the same activity,
security offices). Conversely, symbolic on average, the travel daily respondents
differences within each facility category made three journeys per day during the
may make people travel beyond the closest investigated weekdays and during the
facility, other recreational facilities, many weekend. The total number of journeys
types of shops, and, not the least, workplaces. appears to be influenced by the urban
Furthermore, there are a number of structure. The effect of local area density
features other than proximity that are on the number of journeys at the weekend
important when choosing among facilities. is more difficult to explain, but it might
Figure 4 shows the relationship between reflect a tendency found among residents
residents and workplaces and the distance of dense, inner city areas to reduce the
traveled for five workdays. It indicates that number of shopping and visiting trips
the distance from residence to workplace carried out at the weekend. However, some
of commuters was around 40 – 50 theorists have assumed that “distance
kilometers on average. The cost of travel decay” will, by and large, also have an
and distance were significantly related. effect on the number of days per week that
Additionally, distance is less significantly the workplace is visited, since information
related to duration of travel. technology and improved communication
have made it possible for an increasing
number of employees to do some of their

46
 Compact City Strategy of Bangkok Mega City

work from home. Location of the residence Urban structural Number of residents
in hierarchy relation centers in the factor for traveling to
metropolitan area has some influence on downtown (%)
the frequency of participation in different Less 21– 31– 41–
than 30 40 50
activities. Visits to typical “urban” facilities 20 km km km
like cinemas and restaurants are more km
common among inner city dwellers, while Number of grocery
residents of outer suburbs go to other stores within 1.5 km
200 - -
distance of the
provinces more frequently, and spend dwelling
more time on recreation (see Table 7). Distance from
residence to closest 1 km - - -
primary school
Distance from
500
Table 7: Number of residents and urban residence to closest
m
- - -
structural characteristics of dwellers grouped kindergarten
Distance from
into three subareas near Suvarnabhumi residence to closest
500
- -
m
Airport daycare
Distance from
500
residence to closest - - -
Urban Number of residents for m
post office
structural traveling to downtown (%) Proportion of
factor Less 21– 31– 41– residence with a
than 30 40 50 green recreational 1:1 1:1 1:1 1:1
20 km km km area of at least 5 rai
within 1 km distance
km
Distance from
residence to
14.39 16.19 24.46 44.96
downtown BKK Figure 5 shows daily commuting and
(km)
Distance from traveling that demonstrates the visual
residence to activity by using 3D graphical program
closest second 55.04 44.96 - - presentation. This figure aims to describe
order urban
center (km) the activity through urban facilities like
Distance from convenience shops, workplaces, and other
residence to facilities around their residential area.
30.58 69.42 - -
closest urban
rail station (km) Residents in three subareas, Bang Kapi,
Local area Lat Krabang, and Bang Phli, use the
population 18– 18– 18–
density
18–20
20 20 20
nearest urban facilities to their homes and
(dwellers/rai) commute around 41–50 kilometers to their
Local area workplaces. In daily life, travelers start
workplace 3:1 2:1 2:1 2:1
density (jobs/rai)
from home, take breakfast around their
Distance from residential area, and take a bus to the
residence to
500
railway station, a distance of 12 kilometers
closest grocery - - -
stores m with a trip duration of 30 minutes. After
spending 30 minutes on the bus, they
switch to various other modes of
transportation, such as the sky train, i.e.,
Bangkok Mass Transit System (BTS), or
the subway i.e., Mass Rapid Transit System
(MRT), which takes only 10–30 minutes

47
MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities 11.2, 2008

of travel to the vicinity of their workplace. minutes and 10–20 minutes for doing
Then they go to their place of work on other activities and participating in other
foot, which takes less than 10 minutes. So urban services also situated near their
it can be assumed that the shorter distance workplace. After finishing work they will
may take a longer time and the longer go to department stores for relaxation,
distance may take a shorter time if they other venues for recreational activities,
use an appropriate mode of transportation. and then back home using the
At lunch time people will go for lunch transportation modes mentioned above.
near to their workplace for about 5–10

Figure 5: Daily life commuting travelling

48
A behavioral model
N u m b er o f
This is a simplified behavioral model of r e s p o n d e n ts
80
the residential urban structure and other 70
social conditions which individuals are 60
50
assumed to influence daily through 40
traveling distances, accessing facilities, 30

and participating in activities. This is 20

10
correlated with the locations of the 0

activities, the frequencies of activity L e ss 2 1 -3 0 3 1 -4 0 4 1 -5 0 M ore

tha n 2 0 tha n 5 0
participation, and the locations of the D i s ta n c e
facilities. The location of residences
relative to various centers and facilities N u m b er o f
combined with the transport infrastructure res p o n d en ts
80
on the relevant stretch determine how 70

accessible these centers and facilities are 60

50
from the dwelling. There are also mutual 40
30
influences between the urban structural 20
situation of the dwelling (location relative 10
Time
0
to various centers and facilities and local L e ss 3 1 -6 0 6 1 -9 0 9 1 -1 2 0 M or e
transport infrastructure) and the individual tha n tha n

and household characteristics. The study 30 120

suggests that urban structure, in addition to Movie Meeting relatives

Shopping
its direct effects, may influence active Meeting friends Other provinces Social work
participation and travel behaviors indirectly Others
via car ownership, transport attitudes, and
some other variables. We found that the Figure 6: Distance and time of travel for
average distance of holiday travel falls in respondents in three subareas
the range of 21–30 kilometers, while travel
time was 30–60 minutes on average (see
Figure 6). The majority of respondents used
We also found that residents in the study
bus and/or train as the major mode of
area go shopping, watch movies, meet
travel.
family and friends, do social work, and
engage in other activities at venues that are
less than 20 kilometers from their homes.
This means that they are satisfied with
going out to other places around their
residential area. In addition, they are also
satisfied with the aforementioned activities,
spending less than 30 minutes and spending
at least 7 baht to go shopping, watch
movies, or meet family and friends. They
also spend around 300 baht on shopping,
159 baht on watching movies, 1,800 baht
on meeting their family, 500 baht on
MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities 11.2, 2008

meeting friends and on other activities, Distance of commuting to social functions for
250 baht on social work, and 3,500 baht residents in Bang Kapi subarea
on travelling to other provinces (see Table Number of
8). residents
20
15

Table 8: Cost of commuting to social 10

functions for residents in study areas 5
(Baht) 0
Less 21- 31- 41- More
Cost of travel Min Max Mean SD than 30 40 50 than
(Baht) 20 50
Shopping 7 300 46.99 59.019
T ime of commuting to social functions for
Movie 7 159 40.00 47.476
Meeting relatives 7 1,800 209.96 415.773 residents in Bang Kapi subarea
Meeting friends 6 500 89.76 129.379 Number of
Other 80 3,500 851.32 803.358 residents
provinces 20
Social work 50 250 133.33 104.083
Others 15
10 500 124.17 159.837
10
5
Figure 7 shows the distance and time 0
residents of Bang Kapi subarea spend Less 31-60 61-90 91- More
commuting when they are engaging in than 120 than
certain social functions. It shows that 30 120
Meeting
when residents go out for social functions, Shopping Movie
relatives
they usually travel less than 20 kilometers Meeting Other Social work
friends provinces
and spend less than 30 minutes traveling. Others
For some activities, they may spend less
time; for example, they may travel to meet
family and friends more than 50 Figure 7: Distance and time of commuting
kilometers in less than 30 minutes. This in Bang Kapi subarea
relates to the chosen mode of transportation.
Table 9 shows the cost of travel to social
functions in the Bang Kapi subarea. The
minimum costs for commuting in Bang Kapi Table 9: Cost of commuting to social
to go shopping, watch movies, meeting functions for residents in Bang Kapi
family, meeting friends, other provinces, subarea (Baht)
and other activities were 7, 8, 75, 14, 270,
and 290 baht, respectively. Cost of travel
(Baht)
Min Max Mean SD

Shopping 7 200 67.00 77.454

Movie 8 50 21.50 19.485
Meeting relatives 75 300 158.33 123.322
Meeting friends 14 150 83.50 56.883
Other provinces 270 3,500 897.86 1,021.945
Social work 0 0 0 0
Others 290 20 20.00 0

50
 Compact City Strategy of Bangkok Mega City

Figure 8 shows the distance and time that Table 10: Cost of commuting to social
residents of the Lat Krabang subarea spent functions for residents in Bang Kapi
commuting to engage in certain social subarea (Baht)
functions. The satisfaction of Lat Krabang
residents to perform social functions, go
shopping, watch movies, meet family, Cost of travel Min Max Mean SD
(Baht)
meet friends, and engage in other activities Shopping 7 100 37.94 26.016
is correlated with a distance of less than 20 Movie 0 0 0 0
kilometers and a time of less than 30 Meeting 30 1,800 379.17 703.821
relatives
minutes. Table 10 shows the cost of Meeting 6 100 68.67 54.271
commuting to social functions for friends
Other 200 2,800 914.29 933.503
residents in the Bang Kapi subarea. The provinces
cost for commuting to meet friends is 6– Social work - - - -
100 baht less than that for other activities, Others 14 500 184.67 273.396
such as meeting family at 30–1,800 baht
and shopping at 7–100 baht. Figure 9 shows the distance and time that
residents of Bang Phli subarea spent
T ime of commuting to social functions for commuting to engage in certain social
Number residents functions. The results for social functions
of in Lat Krabang subarea in Bang Phli show that the residents are
residents
16 satisfied with doing these activities near
14
12
their homes, and this minimizes time and
10 cost. The distances shown for shopping,
8
6
watching movies, meeting family, meeting
4 friends, going to other provinces, doing
2
0 social work, and other activities are less
Less than 30 31-60 61-90 91-120 More than
120
than 20 kilometers and time is less than 30
minutes, with the minimum cost being
around 7–80 baht and the maximum cost
Time of commuting to social functions for residents
being around 150–2,000 baht (see Table
in Lat Krabang subarea
Number of 11).
residents
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Less 31-60 61-90 91-120 More
than 30 than 120

Shopping Movie Meeting relatives

Meeting friends Other provinces Social work
Others

Figure 8: Distance and time for

commuting in Lat Krabang subarea

51
 MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities 11.2, 2008

Distance of commuting to social functions for Conclusion

residents in Bang Phli subarea

Number of In this study, we try to develop a guideline

residents 40 Compact Policy for a newly developed
35
international aero-city. Points of view are
30

25
based not only on job and housing balance
20 but also on technical points of view
15
measured by activity and functionality.
10

5
These are important when considering the
0 quality of life in mega-cities. Although
Less t han 20 21-30 31-40 41-50 M or e t han
50
Meeting
government policy is attempting to
Shopping Movie
relatives develop new connections between urban
Meeting
friends
Other
provinces
Social work structures and various dimensions of
Others poverty affecting quality of life through
mega housing projects for low income
people, the low income people still meet
Time of commuting to social functions for the problems of which points of view are,
residents in Bamg Phli subrea
Number of
for example, considerations of the meaning
residents of cities as fields of transportation, as well
35 as those for securing urban spaces suitable
30 as a rearing environment for children
25
where such children can come into contact
20
with nature.
15

10

5
Neuman has proposed the compact city
0 fallacy on problems of urban sprawl and
Less t han
30
31-60 61-90 91-120 M or e t han
120
Meeting
how to mitigate it. This is the goal of
Shopping Movie
relatives sustainability, which should focus on the
Meeting
friends
Other
provinces
Social work process more than the form (Neuman,
Others 2005). He has argued that a compact city
should be created in the form of new
Figure 9: Distance and time for commuting
urbanism, and health community in such a
in Bang Phli subarea
way that social interaction is fostered
when communities are closer to one
another. Also it should be more pedestrian
Table 11: Cost of commuting to social
friendly, more convenient in terms of mass
functions for residents in Bang Phli
transit, and generally more sustainable
subarea (Baht)
than urban sprawl. Our study agrees with
Cost of travel Min Max Mean SD
Neuman. It concurs with “the compact city
(Baht) form of urbanism” and shows that the
Shopping 7 300 42.92 61.078 residents in three study areas enjoy living
Movie 7 150 52.33 58.078
Meeting relatives 7 1,200 156.19 307.195
in these projects with accessibility to
Meeting friends 7 500 98.60 166.650 facilities and services.
Other provinces 80 2,000 787.06 555.965
Social work 50 250 133.33 104.083
Others 10 300 114.50 124.761 We found that low-income residents enjoy
living there and having their workplace

52
 Compact City Strategy of Bangkok Mega City

near their living area (not more than 20 unit areas under separate administrative
kilometers distant). Upper middle income zones, thus enhancing the quality of daily
groups, on the other hand, still work in the life.
Center Business District, commuting a
distance of 41–50 kilometers. For holiday The BMA’s policy has solved these
activities, most of them prefer staying at problems and the future of mega-cities,
home rather than participating in holiday with view over the growth stages of those
shopping around residential areas. Moreover, cities. The role of the mega-city, however,
the project location of Bang Chalong is far with large-scale urbanization, has taken a
from the public transportation project. toll in lifestyle terms, with Bangkok
residents sacrificing affluence and healthy
This study reveals that the urban structure living. A network structure has now been
of Bangkok Metropolis is close to the formed by transferring the functions to
compact city form of urbanism. This means Bangkok Metropolis vicinity areas, while
that the residents utilize urban structures promoting compact city policies from the
such as grocery stores, kindergartens, day- standpoint of residents, such as the
care centers, schools, post offices, etc., in division of mega-city areas into unit areas
and around the area of their residences or under separate administrations as places
not more than 20 kilometers distant. In for everyday life...
addition, the residents’ time for daily life
travel and distance for accessibility to The conclusion of this study shows that (1)
urban facilities, activity participation, and the problems facing the Bangkok mega-
local activities were related to the city have to be solved to a significant
efficiency of the transport infrastructure. extent; (2) the low-income quality of life
This implies that the urban structure has to be improved, although access and
directly affects travel behaviour through approach remain problems; (3) there is
car ownership and transport attitudes. inadequate low-income housing due to
Hence, the compact city policy in BMR high land prices around the restructured
should plan to use urban land for city; and (4) mega-cities create urban
sustainable development. There are three sprawl, which is not beneficial to the
aspects which must be emphasized in environment or the national economy.
Bangkok Mega-city, as follows:
Recommendations
1. Urban redevelopment projects
should be resized and the number of large- This study has included some measures of
scale urban redevelopments should be the urban living environment. The examination
reduced from now on, while a large number of the Compact City concept could provide a
of small-scale unit area development guideline for policy development for
projects should be promoted. mega-cities in the future. However, city or
2. Building of a network structure urban plans should be promoted as small-
should now be formed by transferring its scale urban redevelopments in each
functions to Bangkok Metropolis vicinity subcenter, connected with each other by
areas. mass rapid transportation (BTS or MRT).
3. Mega-city policies should be Additionally, Bangkok Sustainable City
promoted from the standpoint of residents, conditions should consist of the most
such as the division of mega-city areas into efficient social structures and balance of

53
MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities 11.2, 2008

urban areas to rural areas. Moreover, the Journal of Transport Geography 3:

security of social equality should be taken 105–116.
into account. Finally, the success of the
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