EE301 – Lesson 18

Reading: 14.6-14.10 and 14.12

PHASORS AND COMPLEX NUMBERS IN AC
Learning Objectives
a. Define a phasor and use phasors to represent sinusoidal voltages and currents.
b. Determine when a sinusoidal waveform leads or lags another. Graph a phasor diagram that illustrates
phase relationships.
c. Define and graph complex numbers in rectangular and polar form.
d. Perform addition, subtraction, multiplication and division using complex numbers and illustrate them
using graphical methods.
e. Represent a sinusoidal voltage or current as a complex number in polar and rectangular form.
f. Define time domain and phasor (frequency) domain
g. Use the phasor domain to add/subtract AC voltages and currents.

Suppose you had to shape a block of steel into the USNA logo. One option would be to hammer and
grind and bend and chisel the steel into shape—basically to use brute force.
Another option would be to heat the steel to a temperature at which it becomes soft. Then we can easily
shape the steel into the desired form. Of course we must then cool the steel back to room temperature.
So, in this second approach, we might say we transform the steel into another domain where it is easier
to work with, do the necessary work (which is much easier since the steel is soft), then transform the
steel back to its familiar form (by cooling it).
Stretching the analogy, we see that we invest work in transforming the steel and transforming it back,
but in its transformed state it is much easier to work with (so that the effort in transforming and
transforming back is worth it).
This general idea is useful in solving many engineering problems. We transform our problem into
“another domain” where the problem is much easier to work with, solve the problem in the other
domain, and then transform back to the “real world.” You may have heard of several of these transform
techniques: the Lapalce Transform, the Fourier Transform, the Hilbert Transform, the Z Transform, etc.
Solving AC circuit problems is greatly simplified through the use of the phasor transform. In fact,
investing in this transform makes solving AC circuits no more difficult than solving DC circuits. But to
understand phasors, we have to understand complex numbers… so let’s review that first.

Complex numbers As we discuss complex numbers, do not waste time contemplating the philosophy
of complex numbers—complex numbers are merely an invention designed to allow us to talk about the
quantity j= −1 —nothing more. Your only concern should be visualizing complex numbers on a
plot, and manipulating complex numbers.

A complex number is a number of the form C = a + jb where a and b are real and j= −1 . a is the
real part of C and b is the imaginary part. Note that the letter j is used in electrical engineering to
represent the imaginary component since the letter i already has heavy use as the symbol for current (i).

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 EE301 – Lesson 18
Reading: 14.6-14.10 and 14.12
Geometric Representation We represent complex numbers geometrically in two different forms.
In the rectangular form, the x-axis serves as the real axis and the y-axis serves as the imaginary axis. So,
for example, the complex number C = 6 + j8 can be plotted in rectangular form as:

C = 6 + j8 C = 10∠53.13º
(rectangular form) 10∠53.13º
(polar form)

Example. Sketch the complex numbers 0 + j 2 and -5 – j 2.

Solution:

The alternative geometric representation for complex numbers is the polar form. Since a complex
number can be represented as a point in the real-imaginary plane, and points in this plane can also be
represented in polar coordinates, a complex number can be represented in polar form by C= Z ∠θ
where Z is the distance, or magnitude, from the origin, and θ is the angle measured counterclockwise
from the positive real axis. Wow, that was a long sentence!

Figure taken from Boylestad, Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12th ed., Prentice Hall, 2010

So, for example, C= 10∠53.13 would be plotted as:

C = 6 + j8 C = 10∠53.13º
(rectangular form) (polar form)
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 EE301 – Lesson 18
Reading: 14.6-14.10 and 14.12
Example. Sketch the complex numbers 2∠20 , 3∠ − 120 and −2∠45 .
Solution:

Conversion Between Forms We often need to convert between rectangular and polar forms.
To convert between forms where
C= a + jb (rectangular form)
C= C∠θ (polar form)
apply the following relations
a = C cosθ
b = C sin θ
=
C a 2 + b2
b
θ = tan −1
a

Example. Convert (5∠60) to rectangular form.

Solution:

Example. Convert 6 + j 7 to polar form.

Solution:

Example. Convert -4 + j 4 to polar form.

Solution:

Example. Convert (5∠220) to rectangular form.

Solution:

Properties of j j= −1 has a number of fascinating, dare we say stupefying, properties:

j2 =( −1)( −1) =−1

1 1  j j
= × == −j
j j  j  j 2
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 EE301 – Lesson 18
Reading: 14.6-14.10 and 14.12
Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers This is easiest to perform in rectangular form. We
simply add/subtract the real and imaginary parts separately. For example:

(6 + j12) + (7 + j 2) = (6 + 7) + j (12 + 2) = 13 + j14

(6 + j12) − (7 + j 2) = (6 − 7) + j (12 − 2) = − 1 + j10

Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers This is easiest to perform in polar form.
For multiplication: multiply magnitudes and add the angles
(6∠70) ⋅ (2∠30) = 6 ⋅ 2∠(70 + 30) = 12∠100
For division: Divide the magnitudes and subtract the angles
(6∠70) 6
= ∠(70 − 30) =∠
3 40
(2∠30) 2
Two last points about complex numbers:

The reciprocal of C = C∠θ , is 1 1

= ∠ −θ
C∠θ C

The conjugate of C is denoted C*, and has the same real value but the opposite
imaginary part:

C =a + jb = C∠θ
C∗ = a − jb= C∠ − θ

Important You need to become very comfortable with doing complex arithmetic on your calculator!!!

Let’s take a moment for you to do the following problems on your calculator. For each problem, the
answers are shown. Raise your hand if you are baffled (I mean baffled by these problems—not just in
general).

(3-i4) + (10∠44) = ____________ ANS: 10.6∠16.1

Convert this to rectangular: ___________ ANS: 10.2 + 2.9i
ans(1)►rect

(22000+i13)/(3∠-17) = _________ ANS: 7.3E3∠17.0

Convert this to rectangular:___________ ANS: 7.0E4 + 2.1E3i
ans(1)►rect

Convert 95-12j to polar: __________

(95-12i)►polar ANS: 95.8∠-7.2

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 EE301 – Lesson 18
Reading: 14.6-14.10 and 14.12
Example

Convert these rectangular forms to polar:

a. Z1 = 4 + j2 = ________________ b. Z2 = -6 + j3 = ________________

Convert these polar forms to rectangular:

c. Z3 = 4∠30 = ________________ b. Z4 = 6∠70 = ________________

Example Given: A =1 + j1 and B =2 – j3, determine A + B, A – B, A / B and A * B.

Solution:

So, remember all that talk on page one about transforms….

To solve problems that involve sinusoids (such as AC voltages and currents) we use the phasor
transform. That is, we transform sinusoids into complex numbers in polar form, solve the problem
using complex arithmetic (as described above), and then transform the result back to a sinusoid.

So, first things first, how do we transform a sinusoid into a complex number in polar form? Here is how:

• Looking at the sinusoid, determine V pk and the phase offset θ .

V pk
• Using V pk , determine VRMS using the formula VRMS =
2
• The phasor is then VRMS ∠θ .

Example. Express 100sin ωt as a phasor.

Solution:

Example. Express 50sin (ωt + 45 ) as a phasor.

Solution:

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 EE301 – Lesson 18
Reading: 14.6-14.10 and 14.12
Phase Difference with Phasors Note that the waveform generated by the leading phasor leads the
waveform generated by the lagging phasor.

Formulas from Trigonometry The following fun formulas from trigonometry are sometimes used to
express phasors, particularly if we are dealing with signals expressed in cosines instead of sines.
cos(ωt +=
θ ) sin(ωt + θ + 90 )
sin(ωt +=
θ ) cos(ωt + θ − 90 )
cos(ωt ± 180 ) =
− cos(ωt )
sin(ωt ± 180 ) =
− sin(ωt )

∴ cos(ωt + 70 ) =
sin(ωt + 160 ) =
− sin(ωt − 20 )

Example. Express 50 cos (ωt + 45 ) as a phasor.

Solution:

So, again, phasor representations can be viewed as a complex number in polar form.

E = Em∠θ

=e (t ) 2 Em sin (ωt + θ )

By replacing e(t) with it’s phasor equivalent E, we have transformed the source from the time domain to
the phasor domain.

Important Notes Peak values are only useful for time domain representations of signals. RMS values
are the standard when dealing with phasor domain representations. If you need to represent something
in the time domain, you will need to convert RMS to Peak voltage to obtain Em

E = VRMS ∠θ → Em = VRMS 2 → e(t ) = Em sin(2π ft + θ )

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 EE301 – Lesson 18
Reading: 14.6-14.10 and 14.12
Example Determine the phasor form of this waveform:

Solution:

Example Given i(t) = 40 sin(ωt + 80º) and v = -30 sin(ωt - 70º) , draw the phasor diagram,
determine phase relationships, and sketch the waveforms.

Example Given:
a. 100 Hz current source that leads 45° where IRMS = 3.5 A.
b. 13 kHz current that lags 36° where IPP = 36 mA.

REQD: Express these AC current sources as sinusoidal equations and as phasors. Graph these phasors.

SOLN:

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 EE301 – Lesson 18
Reading: 14.6-14.10 and 14.12
Example. Graph these complex numbers as phasors:
a. Z1 = 4 + j2
b. Z2 = -6 + j3
c. Z3 = 10 – j6

Solution:

Example Given:
I1 = 20 sin (ω t) mA.
I2 = 10 sin (ω t + 90˚) mA.
i3 = 30 sin (ω t - 90˚) mA.
Determine iT(t).
Solution:

=
Example (from text) Find em in the circuit below if va 50sin ( 377t + 30=

) and vb 30sin ( 377t + 60 ) .