2/21/2013

Introduction to Fault
Studies

Prof. Artemio P. Magabo

Prof. Rowaldo R. del Mundo

Per-Unit Quantities
Definition:

Actual Value
Per − Unit Value=
Base Value
Note:
1. The per-unit value is a dimensionless quantity.

2. The actual value may be complex but the base

value is always real.
3. Percent Value = Per-Unit Value x 100

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Advantages of Per-Unit Calculations

1. Manufacturers specify the impedances of their

equipment in percent (or per-unit) using the
nameplate rating of the equipment.

2. The per-unit impedances of electrical

equipment of the same type but different
ratings usually lie within a narrow range. This
makes the detection of an erroneous
impedance data easy. Also, if the impedance
of a particular equipment is not known, it is
acceptable for most studies to select from a
range of tabulated typical values.

Advantages of Per-Unit Calculations

3. In many instances, the base voltages can be
selected so that the per-unit turns ratio of
any transformer in the system is 1:1. This
makes the primary and secondary currents
(and voltages) of any transformer identical.

4. When per-unit values are used, the connection

of a three-phase transformer does not affect
its per-unit equivalent impedance. The
transformer connection, however, determines
the ratio of the base voltages on the two sides
of the transformer.

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Advantages of Per-Unit Calculations

5. Per-unit representation yields more relevant
information and easily correlated data.

6. Network calculations are the same for single-

phase and three-phase systems. There is less
chance of mix-up between phase and line
voltages, single-phase and three-phase
powers, and primary and secondary voltages.

7. Per-unit calculation is more convenient to use

when the solution requires a digital computer.

Per-Unit Values
Need to define base values for:
1. Voltage, V
1. Current, I
3. Impedance, Z
4. Volt-Ampere, VA
Note:

1. V, I, Z and VA are not independent of each

other.The base values must be chosen so that
basic electrical laws are satisfied .
2. The rating of electrical equipment specify KVA
(or MVA) and voltage (volts or KV).

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Choice of Per-Unit Values

1. Choose any two of the electrical parameters.
In general, the base Volt-Ampere and base
Voltage are chosen.
Note: For actual power systems, volt and volt-
ampere are small units. The bases are expressed
in kV and MVA.

2. Calculate the Base Impedance and Base

Current.
Note: The base MVA will also serve as base for
power and reactive power. The base Z will also be
used as base for resistance and reactance.

Single-Phase System
Given a base voltage Vp and a base volt-ampere
VAp, find the base current I and base impedance Z.

Since VA p = V p I , then
Base VA p
BaseI = in Amps
Base V p

Also, since V p = IZ , then

Base V p (Base V p ) 2
Base Z = = in Ω
Base I Base VA p

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Example: Given base Vp = 20,000 volts and

base VAp = 2,000,000 volt-amperes

Base VA p
BaseI = = 100 A
Base V p

(Base V p ) 2
Base Z = = 200 Ω
Base VA p

Note:
1. If base Vp=20,000 volts, then base kV=20 kV.

2. If base VAp=2,000,000 , then base kVAp=2,000

and base MVAp=2.

Single-Phase System
Other Formulas:

Base VA p
Base I = in Amps
Base V p
Base kVA p
= in Amps
Base kV p
Base MVA p x 1000
= in Amps
Base kV p

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Single-Phase System
Other Formulas:

(Base V p ) 2
Base Z = in Ω
Base VA p

(Base kV p ) 2 x 1000
= in Ω
Base kVA p

(Base kVp )2
= in Ω
Base MVAp

Example: For the single-phase system shown,

find the voltage, power and reactive power at the
source. 100+j300 Ω

r + Load
r + I r 100 KVA
Vs VL @ 0.9 PF lag
− −
V L=20kV

Solution using actual values:

r
Let V L = 20∠0 o kV , the reference phasor.
PL = KVA(PF)= 90 kW

Q L = PL tan ( cos − 1 0.9 ) = 43.59 kVars

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Solve for the current

r P − jQ 90 − j 43.59
I= L r L =
VL 20

= 4.5− j2.18= 5∠− 25.84A

From KVL,
r r r
Vs = ( 100+ j300)I +VL
= ( 0.32∠71.56o )( 5∠− 25.84)+ 20.0
= 21.1+ j1.13= 21.13∠3.07o kV
We get
rr
Ps + jQs = Vs I = ( 21.13 )( 5 )∠( 3.07o + 25.84o )
= 105.67∠28.91o = 92.5+ j51.09

Solution using per-unit values:

Assume Base KVAp=100 Base kVp=20

We get
Base KVA p 100
Base I = = = 5A
BasekV p 20

(Base KVp )2 ( 1000 )

Base Z = = 4 kΩ
BasekVAp
r
Let VL = 1.0∠0o p.u , the reference phasor.
PL = KVA(PF) = 90 kW = 0.9 p.u.

Q L = PL tan ( cos −1 0.9 ) = 0.44 p.u .

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Solve for the line impedance in per-unit

100 + j300
Z= = 0.025 + j0 .075 p.u.
4000
0.025+j0.075

r Load
r + I
+
r
Vs P L=0.9
VL
Q L=0.44
− − V L=1.0

r P − jQ L 0.9 − j0 .44
I = L r =
V 1.0
L

= 0.9 − j0.44= 1.0∠− 25.84p.u.

r r r
Vs = ( 0.025+ j0.075)I +VL
= ( 0.08∠71.56o )(1.0∠− 25.84) +1.0
= 1.06+ j0.05= 1.06∠3.07o p.u.
rr
Ps + jQs = Vs I = ( 1.06 )(1.0 )∠( 3.07o + 25.84o )
= 1.06∠28.91o = 0.925+ j0.5109p.u.
In actual values,
r
Vs = 1.06( 20 ) = 21.13 kV
Ps = 0.925( 100 ) = 92.5 kW
Qs = 0.5109( 100 ) = 51.09 kVar

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Three-Phase System
For a three-phase system,

VA3φ = 3VAp
VL = 3Vp
Define:

BaseVA3φ = 3 x BaseVAp
BaseVL = 3 x BaseVp

Note: The base current and base impedance will

still be I and Z, respectively.

Three-Phase System
Base kVA p
BaseI = in Amps
Base kV p

Base kVA 3φ in Amps

=
3 Base kVL

Base MVA 3φ x 1000 in Amps

=
3 Base kVL

(Base kV p ) 2
(Base kVL )2
Base Z = = in Ω
Base MVA p Base MVA 3φ

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Example: Given Base MVA3φ =30 and Base kVL=120,

find the base current and base impedance.
Base MVA 3φ x 1000
Base I =
3 Base kVL
30 x 1000
= = 144.34 A
3( 120 )

(Base kVL ) 2
Base Z =
Base MVA 3φ

( 120 ) 2
= = 480 Ω
30

If we use single-phase analysis, we get

Base MVAp=10 and Base kVp=69.28

Base MVA p x 1000

BaseI =
Base kV p
10 x 1000
= = 144.34 A
( 69.28 )
(Base kV p )2
Base Z =
Base MVA p

( 69.28 ) 2
= = 480 Ω
10

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Example: Determine the per-unit equivalent

circuit for the three-phase network shown.
0.381+j0.508 Ω 0.571+j0.762 Ω
G1 G2
12 MW
0.9 PF lag 18 MW
13.8 k V 0.95 PF lag
Single-phase equivalent circuit
0.381+j0.508 Ω 0.571+j0.762 Ω
P 1=4 MW +
r + r
PF=0.9 lag V1 V2
V1=7.97 k V − −
P L=6 MW
PF=0.95 lag

Define single-phase bases. Let Base MVAp=5 and

Base kVp=7.97.
5 x 1000
Base I = = 627.6 A
7.97
( 7.97 ) 2
Base Z = = 12.7 Ω
5
Per-unit single-phase equivalent circuit
0.03+j0.04 0.045+j0.06
P 1=0.8 p.u. +
r + r
PF=0.9 lag V1 V2
V1=1.0 p.u. − −
P L=1.2 p.u.
PF=0.95 lag

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Define three-phase bases. Let Base MVA3φ =15

and Base kVL=13.8.
15 x 1000
Base I = = 627.6 A
3( 13.8 )
( 13.8 ) 2
Base Z = = 12.7 Ω
15
Per-unit single-phase equivalent circuit
0.03+j0.04 0.045+j0.06
P 1=0.8 p.u. +
r + r
PF=0.9 lag V1 V2
V1=1.0 p.u. − −
P L=1.2 p.u.
PF=0.95 lag

Generator Impedances
Manufacturers provide the following impedances
in percent or per-unit:

1. Armature Resistance: Ra
2. Direct-Axis Reactances: X d ”, X d ’ and X d
3. Quadrature-Axis Reactances: X q ”, X q ’ and X q
4. Negative-Sequence Reactance: X 2
5. Zero-Sequence Reactance: X 0

Note: The impedances are based on the machine’s

nameplate rating: MVA (or kVA) and kV.

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Per Unit Values for Transformers

The ohmic values of the resistance and leakage
reactance of a transformer depend on whether the
impedances are measured on the high- or low-
voltage side of the transformer.
The impedance of a transformer is expressed in
percent (or per-unit) using its Rated MVA and
Rated kVs as bases, respectively.
The per-unit impedance is the same whether it is
referred to the high-voltage or low-voltage side.
The per-unit impedance of a three-phase
transformer bank, from identical single-phase
units, is the same regardless of the connection.

Example: Consider a single-phase transformer

with the following nameplate rating:
10 MVA 127-69 kV Z=8%

From
(Base kV p )2
Base Z =
Base MVA p
we get
127 2
Base Z = = 1,612.9 Ω at the HV side
10

69 2
= = 476.1 Ω at the LV side
10

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We get the actual impedance of the transformer

Z = 0.08( 1612.9 ) = 129Ω at the HV side

= 0.08( 476.1 ) = 38.1Ω at the LV side
129 Ω

Equivalent Circuit IH IX
at the HV side

38.1Ω

IH IX Equivalent Circuit
at the LV side

Assuming the current is rated

Rated MVA x1000
Rated I =
Rated kV
r 10000
IH = = 78.74 A at the HV side
127
r 10000
IX = = 144.93 A at the LV side
69
Per-unit equivalent circuit: Let Base MVAp=10
Base kVp=127 at the HV side
Base kVp=69 at the LV side

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We get Base Z=1612.9 Ω at the HV side

=476.1 Ω at the LV side

We also get Base I=78.74 A at the HV side

=144.93 A at the LV side

The transformer impedance is 0.8 p.u. regardless

of which side is chosen. The current is 1.0 p.u.
regardless of side. 0 . 08

Per-Unit Equivalent 1.0

Circuit

Example: Given 3 single-phase transformers each

rated 10 MVA, 127-69 kV, Z=8%. The transformers
are connected to form a three-phase bank, wye-
grounded at the HV side and delta-connected at
the LV side. What is the rating of the bank?

Volt-Ampere Rating=3x10=30 MVA

Voltage Rating= 127 3 = 220 kV at the HV side

= 69 kV at the LV side
220 2
Base Z = = 1,612.9 Ω at the HV side
30
69 2
= = 158.7 Ω at the LV side
30

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From the previous example, we get the actual

impedance of the transformer. At the HV side,
Z = 129 Ω , connected in wye
129
= = 0.08p.u.
1612.9
At the LV side,

Z = 38.1 Ω , connected in delta

Z = 12.7 Ω , connected in wye
12.7
= = 0.08 p.u.
158.7
The bank rating: 30 MVA, 220Y-69∆ kV, Z=8%

Change in Base Values

Given a per-unit impedance Zpu1 which is based on
kV1 and MVA1. Suppose the bases are changed to
kV2 and MVA2. Find Zpu2, the new per-unit value.

The actual value can be expressed as

2 2
( kV1 ) (kV 2 )
Z in Ω = Z pu1 = Z pu 2
MVA1 MVA 2

Solving for Zpu2, we get

2
 kV  MVA 2
Z pu 2 = Z pu 1  1  x
 kV2  MVA1

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Example: Consider a three-phase transformer

unit with the following nameplate rating:
50 MVA, 220Y-69∆ Z=10%
Find the percent Z when the bases are 100 MVA,
230 kV at the HV side.
From 2
 kV  MVA 2
Z pu 2 = Z pu 1  1  x
 kV2  MVA1
we get
2
 220  100
Z pu 2 = 10   x = 18.3
 230  50
Note: At the LV side, Base kV=72.1, Zpu2=18.3%.

Per-Unit Representation
Procedure:

1. Establish the Base MVA and the Base kVs

a. Assume a Base MVA for the entire system

b. Assume a Base Voltage for any power
system component (Generator,
Transformer or transmission line)
c. Compute the Base Voltages for the
remaining power system components using
the voltage ratios of the transformers

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Per-Unit Representation

2. Using the base MVA and the base voltages,

compute the base current and base impedance
of each subsystem.

3. Determine the per-unit impedance of every

system component.

a. If the impedance is expressed in ohms,

divide the actual value by the base value.
b. If the impedance is expressed in percent,
use the formula for changing base values.

Example: Draw the per-unit reactance diagram

using 50 MVA and 13.8 kV as bases in the circuit
of G1. T1 T2
L1 L2
G1 G2

T3

G3
G1: 20 MVA, 13.8 kV X=20%
G2: 30 MVA, 18 kV X=20%
G3: 30 MVA, 20 kV X=20%
T1: 25 MVA, 220Y-13.8∆ kV X=10%
T2: Single-phase each 10 MVA, 127-18 kV X=10%
T3: 50 MVA, 220Y-22Y kV X=10%
L1: X=80 Ω L2: X=100 Ω

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Three-phase rating of transformer T2:

30 MVA, 220Y-18∆ kV X=10%
Base MVA = 50
Base kV = 13.8 in generator G1
= 220 in lines L1 and L2
= 18 in generator G2
= 22 in generator G3
Convert all reactances to the new bases:
G1: X=0.2 x 50/20=0.5 p.u.
G2: X=0.2 x 50/30=0.33+ p.u.
G3: X=0.2 x (20/22)2 x 50/30=0.275 p.u.
T1: X=0.1 x 50/25=0.2 p.u.

T2: X=0.1 x 50/30=0.166+ p.u.

T3: X=0.1 p.u.
In lines L1 and L2,
220 2
Base Z = = 968 Ω
50
L1: X=80/968=0.083 p.u.
L1: X=100/968=0.103 p.u.
0.2 0.083 0.103 0.167

0.5 0.375 0.333

r + r + + r
EG1 EG3 EG2

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Symmetrical Components
In a three-phase system, a given set of unbalanced
phasors may be replaced by three sets of balanced
phasors which are referred to as the symmetrical
components of the original unbalanced phasors.
The positive-sequence phasors are three-phase
balanced and have the same phase sequence as
the original set of unbalanced phasors.
The negative-sequence phasors are three-phase
balanced but having a phase sequence opposite
to that of the original set of unbalanced phasors.
The zero-sequence phasors are single-phase,
equal in magnitude and in the same direction.

Unbalanced Conditions
Causes of unbalanced conditions:

1. Non-transposition of transmission lines

2. Single-phase transformers used in three-
phase banks are not identical

3. Single-phase loads are not distributed

equally among the phases
4. Faults

Note: Single-phase analysis cannot be used

when the system is unbalanced.

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Assume a sequence abc for the original set of

unbalanced phasors. r
r Vb2
Vc1
r
Va1
r
Positive- Va2
Sequence r
(abc) Vc2 Negative-
r Sequence
Vb1 (acb)

Zero-
Sequence
r r r
Va0 = Vb0 = V c0

The vector sum of the sequence components is

shown below to get the phase voltages.
r r r
Vc2 Vc1 Va2
r r r
r Va1 Va
Vc Vb r
r Vb1
Vb2

We get r r r r
Va =Va0 +Va1 +Va2
r r r r
Vb = Vb0 +Vb1 +Vb2
r r r r
Vc = Vc0 +Vc1 +Vc2

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Express all sequence components using phase a.

r r r
r Va0 = Vb0 = V c0
Vc1
r
Va1
r r
V b1 = a 2V a1
r r r
V c1 = aV a1 Vb2
r
Vb1 r r
Vb2 = aVa2
r 2
r
V c2 = a Va2 r
o Va2
Note: a = 1∠ 120 r
Vc2

Substitutionr gives
r r r
Va =Va0 +Va1 +Va2
r r r r
Vb =Va0 +a2Va1 + aVa2
r r r r
Vc = Va0 + aVa1 + a2Va2
Using matrix notation, we get
r r
Va 1 1 1 Va0
r r
Vb = 1 a2 a Va1
r r
Vc 1 a a2
Va2
or r r
Vabc = AV012

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We can show by matrix inversion that A-1 is

1 1 1 1
1 1 1
A= 1 a2 a A-1 =
3
1 a a2
1 a a2 1 a2 a

The inverse equations are

r r
Va0 1 1 1 Va
r 1 r
Va1 = 1 a a2 Vb
r 3 r
Va2 1 a2 a Vc
or r r
V012 = A−1Vabc

The transformation also applies to unbalanced

currents.
r r
Ia 1 1 1 Ia0
r r
Ib = 1 a2 a Ia1
r r
Ic 1 a a2 Ia2
r r
Ia0 1 1 1 Ia
r 1 r
I = 1 a a2 Ib
ra1 3 r
Ia2 1 a2 a Ic
or r r r r
I abc = AI 012 and I 012 = A−1 Iabc

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Example: Determine the symmetrical components

of the following unbalanced voltages:
r r r
Va = 4∠0o Vb = 3∠− 90o Vc = 8∠143.1o
We get
r 1 r r r
V a0 = (V a + Vb + V c )
3
1
= ( 4 − j3 − 6.4 + j4 .8 )
3

= −0.8+ j0.6 =1.0∠143.05o

r 1 r r r
V a1 = (V a + a V b + a 2 V c )
3
1 o o
= ( 4 + 3 ∠ 30 + 8 ∠ 23.1 )
3

= 4.9∠18.38 o

r 1 r r r
V a2 = ( V a + a 2V b + a V c )
3
1
= ( 4 + 3 ∠ 150 o + 8 ∠ 263.1 o
)
3

= 2.15 ∠ − 86.08 o

We also get r r
Vb0 = Va0 = 1.0∠143.05o
r r
Vb1 = a 2Va1 = 4.9∠258.38o
r r
Vb2 = aVa2 = 2.15∠33.92o
r r
Vc0 = Va0 = 1.0∠143.05o
r r
Vc1 = aVa1 = 4.9∠138.38o
r r
Vc2 = a 2Va2 = 2.15∠153.92o

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The sequence components are shown below

r
Vc1 r r
Vc2 Vb2
r
Va1 Negative
Sequence
Positive r
Sequence Va2
r r r
Va0 Vb0 Vc0
r
Vb1 Zero Sequence

The sum of the sequence components is shown

below.
r r
Vc Vc2
r
Vc1 r
Va1 r
r r r Va2
Va0 =Vb0 =Vc0
r
r Va
Vb1
r
Vb
r
Vb2

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Zero-Sequence Current
Zero-sequence current cannot flow in or out of a
delta connection.

In a wye-connection with neutral return, the

neutral carries the in-phase zero-sequence
currents. a
r
I0 r
3I0
n

c
r
I0
b
r
I0

Zero-Sequence Current
Zero-sequence current can circulate in the delta–
connected winding of a transformer. Balancing
ampere turns must be satisfied.

r
I0 a

r
I0
r
I0 b

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Example: Single Line-to-Ground Fault

a
r
Ia

r r b
Ic Ib
r r r c
Given: I a = 1500∠0o A Ib = Ic = 0
r 1 r r r o
I a0 = (Ia + I b + I c ) = 500 ∠ 0 A
3
r 1 r r 2
r o
I a1 = (I a + aIb + a I c ) = 500 ∠ 0 A
3
r 1 r 2
r r o
I a2 = (I a + a I b + a I c ) = 500 ∠ 0 A
3

Example: Line-to-Line Fault

a
r
Ia

r r b
Ic Ib
r r r c
Given: Ia = 0 I b = − I c = 1500∠0o A
r 1 r r r
I a0 = (I a + Ib + Ic )= 0
3
r 1 r r r
I a1 = (Ia + a I b + a 2 I c ) = 866 ∠ 90 o
A
3
r 1 r r r
I a2 = (I a + a 2
I b + a I c ) = 866 ∠ − 90 o
A
3

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Sequence Networks
When the system is unbalanced, currents and
voltages will contain positive-, negative- and zero-
sequence components. The ratio of a sequence
voltage to its corresponding sequence current
represents a sequence impedance. Thus, the
unbalanced power system can be replaced by
three sequence networks.
1. Positive-Sequence Network
2. Negative-Sequence Network
3. Zero-Sequence Network
Note: A balanced three-phase system is
modeled using the positive-sequence network.

The Fault Point

The system is assumed to be balanced except at
the fault point.
a
b
c
Line-to- r r r r
r r Ia Ib Ic
ground Va Vb Vc Fault
voltages Currents
Ground

Note: An equivalent network at the fault point

can be determined using Thevenin’s theorem.

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