Vessels can be heated in a number of different ways. This tutorial will deal with indirect heating.

In these systems, the heat is transferred across a heat transfer surface. Options include:

 Submerged steam coils - A widely used form of heat transfer involves the installation
inside a tank of a steam coil immersed in a process fluid.
 Steam jackets - Steam circulates in the annular space between a jacket and the vessel
walls, and heat is transferred through the wall of the vessel.

Submerged steam coils

The use of tank coils is particularly common in marine applications where cargoes of crude oil,
edible oils, tallow and molasses are heated in deep tanks. Many of these liquids are difficult to
handle at ambient temperatures due to their viscosity. Steam heated coils are used to raise the
temperature of these liquids, lowering their viscosity so that they become easier to pump.

Tank coils are also extensively used in electroplating and metal treatment. Electroplating
involves passing articles through several process tanks so that metallic coatings can be deposited
on to their surfaces. One of the first stages in this process is known as pickling, where materials
such as steel and copper are treated by dipping them in tanks of acid or caustic solution to
remove any scale or oxide (e.g. rust) which may have formed.

Steam coil sizing

Having determined the energy required (in Tutorial 2.9), and with knowledge of the steam
pressure/temperature in the coil, the heat transfer surface may be determined using Equation
2.5.3:

Equation 2.5.3

The heat transfer area calculated is equivalent to the surface area of the coil, and will enable an
appropriate size and layout to be specified.

Determining the 'U' value

To calculate the heat transfer area, a value for the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, must be
chosen. This will vary considerably with the thermal and transport properties of both fluids and a
range of other conditions.

On the product side of the coil a thermal boundary layer will exist in which there is a temperature
gradient between the surface and the bulk fluid. If this temperature difference is relatively large,
then the natural convective currents will be significant and the heat transfer coefficient will be
high.

Assisted circulation (such as stirring) that will induce forced convection, will also result in
higher coefficients. As convection is partially dependent on the bulk motion of the fluid, the
viscosity (which varies with temperature) also has an important bearing on the thermal boundary
layer.

Additional variations can also occur on the steam side of the coil, especially with long lengths of
pipe. The coil inlet may have a high steam velocity and may be relatively free from water.
However, further along the length of the coil the steam velocity may be lower, and the coil may
be running partially full of water. In very long coils, such as those sometimes found in seagoing
tankers or in large bulk storage tanks, a significant pressure drop occurs along the length of the
coil. To acheive the mean coil temperature, an average steam pressure of approximately 75% of
the inlet pressure may be used. In extreme cases the average pressure used may be as low as 40%
of the inlet pressure.

Another variable is the coil material itself. The thermal conductivity of the coil material may
vary considerably. However, overall heat transfer is governed to a large extent by the heat
resistant films, and the thermal conductivity of the coil material is not as significant as their
combined effect. Table 2.10.1 provides typical overall heat transfer coefficients for various
conditions of submerged steam coil application. 'U' values for steam pressures between 2 bar g
and 6 bar g should be found by interpolation of the data in the table.

The range of figures shown in Table 2.10.1 demonstrates the difficulty in providing definitive 'U'
values. Customary figures at the higher end of the scale will apply to installations that are
supplied with clean dry steam, small coils and good condensate drainage. The lower end is more
applicable to poor quality steam, long coils and poor condensate drainage.

The recommended overall heat transfer coefficients will apply to typical conditions and
installations. These recommended rates are empirically derived, and will generally ensure that a
generous safety margin applies to the coil sizing.

In the case of fluids other than water, the heat transfer coefficient will vary even more widely
due to the way in which viscosity varies with temperature. However, the values shown in Table
2.10.2 will serve as a guide for some commonly encountered substances, while Table 2.10.3
gives typical surface areas of pipes per metre length.
Example 2.10.1

Continuing from Example 2.9.1 determine:

Part 1. The average steam mass flowrate during start-up. (Mean heat load = 367 kW)

Part 2. The heat transfer area required.

Part 3. A recommended coil surface area.

Part 4. The maximum steam mass flowrate with the recommended heat transfer area.

Part 5. A recommendation for installation, including coil diameter and layout.

The following additional information has been provided:

 Steam pressure onto the control valve = 2.6 bar g (3.6 bar a).
 A stainless steel steam coil provides heat.
 Heat transfer coefficient from steam/coil/liquid, U = 650 W/m²°C

Part 1 Calculate the average steam mass flowrate during start-up

Steam pressure onto the control valve = 2.6 bar g (3.6 bar a)

Critical pressure drop (CPD) will occur across the control valve during start-up, therefore the
minimum steam pressure in the heating coil should be taken as 58% of upstream absolute
pressure. An explanation of this is given in Block 5.

Part 2 Calculate the heat transfer area required.

Part 3 A recommendation for coil surface area

Because of the difficulties in providing accurate 'U' values, and to allow for future fouling of the
heat exchange surface, it is usual to add 10% to the calculated heat transfer area.
Part 4 The maximum steam mass flowrate with the recommended heat transfer area

Maximum heat transfer (and hence steam demand) will occur when the temperature difference
between the steam and the process fluid is at its maximum, and should take into consideration
the extra pipe area allowed for fouling.

(a) Consider the maximum heating capacity of the coil (coil)

Using Equation 2.5.3: = UAΔT

(b) Steam flowrate to deliver 519 kW

Part 5 A recommendation for installation, including coil diameter and layout

(a) Determine coil diameter and length

From Table 2.10.3, a 100 mm pipe has a surface area of 0.358 m²/m run. This application will
require:

It may be difficult to accommodate this length of large bore heating pipe to install in a 3 m × 3 m
tank.

One solution would be to run a bank of parallel pipes between steam and condensate manifolds,
set at different heights to encourage condensate to run to the lower (condensate) manifold. The
drain line must fall from the bottom of the condensate manifold down to the steam trap (or
pump-trap). See Figure 2.10.1 for a suggested layout.
 Fig. 2.10.1
Possible layout of coils in a rectangular tank

Note the steam supply is situated at one end of its manifold, whilst the trap set is at the other end.
This will help steam to flow and push condensate through the coils.

In the application, the steam and condensate headers would each be 2.8 m long. As the
condensate manifold is holding condensate, the heat from it will be small compared to the steam
manifold and this can be ignored in the calculation.

The steam manifold should be 100 mm diameter as determined by the previous velocity
calculation. This will provide a heating area of:

2.8 m x 0.358 m²/m = 1.0 m²

Consequently 7 m² - 1 m² = 6 m² of heat transfer area is still required, and must be provided by

the connecting pipes.

Arbitrarily selecting 32 mm pipe as a good compromise between robustness and workability:

The lengths of the connecting pipes are 2.5 m.

CHECK

It is necessary to confirm the steam velocity through the connecting tubes:

On the basis of proportionality of heat transfer area, the steam header will condense:

This leaves 86% of the 850 kg/h = 731 kg/h of steam which must pass through the 18 connecting
pipes and also into the lower (condensate) manifold.

Other steam coil layouts

The design and layout of the steam coil will depend on the process fluid being heated. When the
process fluid to be heated is a corrosive solution, it is normally recommended that the coil inlet
and outlet connections are taken over the lip of the tank, as it is not normally advisable to drill
through the corrosion resistant linings of the tank side. This will ensure that there are no weak
points in the tank lining, where there is a risk of leakage of corrosive liquids. In these cases the
coil itself may also be made of corrosion resistant material such as lead covered steel or copper,
or alloys such as titanium.

However, where there is no danger of corrosion, lifts over the tank structure should be avoided,
and the steam inlet and outlet connections may be taken through the tank side. The presence of
any lift will result in waterlogging of a proportion of the coil length, and possibly waterhammer,
noise and leaking pipework.

Steam heating coils should generally have a gradual fall from the inlet to the outlet to ensure that
condensate runs toward the outlet and does not collect in the bottom of the coil.

Where a lift is unavoidable, it should be designed to include a seal arrangement at the bottom of
the lift and a small bore dip pipe, as shown in Figure 2.10.2.
 Fig. 2.10.2
Tank with a rising discharge pipe

The seal arrangement allows a small amount of condensate to collect to act as a water seal, and
prevents the occurrence of steam locking. Without this seal, steam can pass over any condensate
collecting in the bottom of the pipe, and close the steam trap at the top of the riser.

The condensate level would then rise and form a temporary water seal, locking the steam
between the bottom of the riser and the steam trap. The steam trap remains closed until the
locked steam condenses, during which time the coil continues to waterlog.

When the locked steam condenses and the steam trap opens, a slug of water is discharged up the
riser. As soon as the water seal is broken, steam will enter the rising pipe and close the trap,
while the broken column of water falls back to lie at the bottom of the heating coil.

The small bore dip pipe will only allow a very small volume of steam to become locked in the
riser. It enables the water column to be easily maintained without steam bubbling through it,
ensuring there is a steady and continuous condensate flow to the outlet.

When the seal is ultimately broken, a smaller volume of water will return to the heating coil than
with an unrestricted large bore riser, but as the water seal arrangement requires a smaller volume
of condensate to form a water seal, it will immediately re-form.

If the process involves articles being dipped into the liquid, it may not be convenient to install
the coil at the bottom of the tank - it may be damaged by the objects being immersed in the
solution. Also, during certain processes, heavy deposits will settle at the bottom of the tank and
can quickly cover the heating surface, inhibiting heat transfer.

For these reasons side hung coils are often used in the electroplating industry. In such cases
serpentine or plate-type coils are arranged down the side of a tank, as shown in Figure 2.10.3.
These coils should also have a fall to the bottom with a water seal and a small bore dip-pipe. This
arrangement has the advantage that it is often easier to install, and also easier to remove for
periodic cleaning if required.

Fig. 2.10.3
Side hung coils

If articles are to be dipped into the tank, it may not be possible to use any sort of agitator to
induce forced convection and prevent temperature gradients occurring throughout the tank.
Whether bottom or side coils are used, it is essential that they are arranged with adequate
coverage so that the heat is distributed evenly throughout the bulk of the liquid.

The diameter of the coil should provide sufficient length of coil for good distribution. A short
length of coil with a large diameter may not provide adequate temperature distribution. However
a very long continuous length of coil may experience a temperature gradient due to the pressure
drop from end to end, resulting in uneven heating of the liquid.

Whilst the next two headings, 'Sizing the control valve' and 'The condensate removal
device' are included in this Tutorial, the new reader should refer to later Tutorials for full
and comprehensive information, before attempting sizing and selection of equipment.

Control valve arrangement

The control valve set may be either one or two valves in parallel. A single control valve, large
enough to cope with the maximum flowrate encountered at start-up, may be unable to control
flow accurately at the minimum expected flowrate. This could cause erratic temperature control.
An alternative is to fit two temperature control valves in parallel:

 One valve (running valve) sized to control at the lower flowrate.

 A second valve (starting valve) to pass the difference between the capacity of the first
valve, and the maximum flowrate.
The starting valve would have a set-point slightly lower than the running valve, so it would close
first, leaving the running valve to control at low loads.

Sizing the control valve

The control valve set (either one valve or two valves in parallel).

The coil has been sized on mean heat transfer values. However, it may be better to size the
control valve to supply the maximum (start-up) load. With large coils in tanks, this will help to
maintain a degree of steam pressure throughout the length of the coil when the steam is turned
on, helping to push condensate through the coil to the steam trapping device. If the control valve
were sized on mean values, steam pressure in the coil at start-up will tend to be lower and the
coil may flood.

Using one valve

Continuing with Example 2.10.1 the maximum steam load is 850 kg/h and the coil is designed to
deliver this at a pressure of 1.1 bar g. A steam valve sizing chart would show that a Kv of about
20 is required to pass 850 kg/h of steam with a pressure of 2.6 bar g at the inlet of the control
valve, and Critical Pressure Drop (CPD) across the valve. (Tutorial 6.4 will show how the valve
size can be determined by calculation).

A DN40 control valve with a larger Kvs of 25 would therefore need to be selected for the
application.

If one valve is to be used, this valve must ensure the maximum heat load is catered for, while
maintaining the required steam pressure in the coil to assist the drainage of condensate from it at
start-up. However, for reasons previously explained, two valves may be better.

The running load is 52 kW and with the coil running at 1.1 bar g, the running steam load:

The steam valve sizing chart shows a Kv of 2 is required to pass 85 kg/h with 3.6 bar upstream,
operating at critical pressure drop.

A DN15 KE type valve (Kvs = 4) and a DN25 piston actuated valve (Kvs = 18.6) operating
together will cater for the start-up load. When approaching the control temperature, the larger
valve would be set to shut down, allowing the smaller valve to give good control.

The condensate removal device

The selection and sizing of the condensate removal device will be very much influenced by the
condensate backpressure. For the purpose of this example, it is assumed the backpressure is
atmospheric pressure. The device should be sized so it is able to satisfy both of the following
conditions:

 Pass 850 kg/h of condensate with 1.1 bar g in the coil, i.e. the full-load condition.
 Pass the condensate load when steam pressure in the coil equals the condensate
backpressure, i.e. the stall load condition.

If the steam trap is only sized on the first condition, it is possible that it may not pass the stall
load (the condition where the product approaches its required temperature and the control valve
modulates to reduce steam pressure). The stall load may be considerable. With respect to non-
flow type applications such as tanks, this may not be too serious from a thermal viewpoint
because the contents of the tank will almost be at the required temperature, and have a huge
reservoir of heat.

Any reduction in heat transfer at this part of the heating process may therefore have little
immediate effect on the tank contents.

However, condensate will back up into the coil and waterhammer will occur, along with its
associated symptoms and mechanical stresses. Tank coils in large circular tanks tend to be of
robust construction, and are often able to withstand such stresses. Problems can however occur in
rectangular tanks (which tend to be smaller), where vibration in the coil will have more of an
effect on the tank structure. Here, the energy dissipated by the waterhammer causes vibration,
which can be detrimental to the life of the coil, the tank, and the steam trap, as well as creating
unpleasant noise.

With respect to flow-type applications such as plate heat exchangers, a failure to consider the
stall condition will usually have serious implications. This is mainly due to the small volume in
the heat exchanger.

For heat exchangers, any unwanted reduction in the heating surface area, such as that caused by
condensate backing up into the steam space, can affect the flow of heat through the heating
surface. This can cause the control system to become erratic and unstable, and processes
requiring stable or accurate control can suffer with poor performance.

If heat exchangers are oversized, sufficient heating surface may remain when condensate backs
up into the steam space, and reduction of thermal performance may not always occur. However,
with heat exchangers not designed to cope with the effects of waterlogging, this can lead to
corrosion of the heating surface, inevitably reducing the service life of the exchanger.
Waterlogging can, in some applications, be costly. Consider a waterlogging air heater frost coil.
Cold air at 4°C flowing at 3 m/s can soon freeze condensate locked in the coils, resulting in
premature and unwarranted failure. Proper drainage of condensate is essential to maintain the
service life of any heat exchanger and air heater.

Steam traps are devices which modulate to allow varying amounts of condensate to drain from
applications under varying conditions. Float traps are steam traps designed to modulate and
release condensate close to steam temperature, offering maximum plant performance, maximum
plant life, and maximum return on plant investment.

When stall conditions occur, and a steam trap cannot be used, an automatic pump-trap or pump
and trap in combination will ensure correct condensate drainage at all times, thus maximising the
thermal capability and lifetime costs of the plant.

Steam jackets

The most commonly used type of steam jacket consists simply of an outer cylinder surrounding
the vessel, as shown in Figure 2.10.4. Steam circulates in the outer jacket, and condenses on the
wall of the vessel. Jacketed vessels may also be lagged, or may contain an internal air space
surrounding the jacket. This is to ensure that as little steam as possible condenses on the outer
jacket wall, and that the heat is transferred inwards to the vessel.

Fig. 2.10.4
A conventional jacketed vessel

The heat transfer area (the vessel wall surface area), can be calculated in the same manner as
with a steam coil, using Equation 2.5.3 and the overall heat transfer coefficients provided in
Table 2.10.4.

Although steam jackets may generally be less thermally efficient than submerged coils, due to
radiation losses to the surroundings, they do allow space for the vessels to be agitated so that heat
transfer is promoted. The U values listed in Table 2.10.4. are for moderate non-proximity
agitation.

Commonly the vessel walls are made from stainless steel or glass lined carbon steel. The glass
lining will offer an additional corrosion resistant layer. The size of the steam jacket space will
depend on the size of the vessel, but typically the width may be between 50 mm and 300 mm.
eating Vats and Tanks by Steam Injection

Direct steam injection involves the discharge of a series of steam bubbles into a liquid at a lower
temperature. The steam bubbles condense and give up their heat to the surrounding liquid.

Heat is transferred by direct contact between the steam and the liquid, consequently this method
is only used when dilution and an increase in liquid mass is acceptable. Therefore, the liquid
being heated is usually water. Direct steam injection is seldom used to heat solutions in which a
chemical reaction takes place, as the dilution of the solution would reduce the reaction rate and
lower the productivity.

Direct steam injection is the most widely used method for boiler feedtank heating throughout
industry. This method is often chosen because of its simplicity. No heat transfer surface or steam
trap set is required, and there is no need to consider the condensate return system.

Steam consumption calculations

During direct steam injection, heat is transferred in a different manner to indirect heat exchange.
As the heat is not transferred across a surface, and the steam mixes freely with the process fluid
being heated, the amount of usable heat in the steam must be calculated in a different way. This
can be found using Equation 2.11.1:

Equation 2.11.1

Where:

s = Mean steam flowrate (kg/s)

 = Mean heat transfer rate kW (kJ/s)

hg = Specific enthalpy of steam (taken at the pressure supplying the control valve) (kJ/kg)

T = Final temperature of the water (°C)

cp = Specific heat capacity of water (kJ/kg °C)

Equation 2.11.1 shows that steam injection utilises all of the enthalpy of evaporation (or latent
heat) and a proportion of the liquid enthalpy contained in the steam. The actual proportion of the
liquid enthalpy used will depend on the temperature of the water at the end of the injection
process.

One major difference between indirect heating and direct steam injection, is that the volume (and
mass) of the process fluid is increased as steam is added, by the amount of steam injected.

Another difference is that, when calculating the steam flowrate to a steam coil, the pressure in
the coil is considered, but for steam injection, the pressure before the control valve is considered.

In some cases (where the liquid surface is not at the overflow pipe level), this will increase the
head of liquid over the injector as time progresses. However, this increase is likely to be small
and is rarely taken into account in calculations.

Factors influencing the heat transfer rate

In Equation 2.11.1, the steam consumption rate is directly related to the heat requirement. Unless
the steam injection system is designed so that all conditions are conducive to maximum heat
transfer, the steam bubbles may simply break the surface of the liquid and escape to the
atmosphere; some of the heat contained in the steam will be lost to atmosphere and the actual
heat transfer rate to the water will be less than anticipated.

In the case of a submerged coil, the maximum heat transfer rate at the start of the warm-up
period will depend on the maximum steam flowrate allowed through the control valve and its
associated pipework, and the maximum heat output allowed by the coil surface area.

During direct steam injection, it might be expected that the maximum heat transfer rate at the
very start of the warm-up period is dependent on the maximum flowrate through the control
valve, and the pipe or injector itself. However, as implied above, it will also depend on other
factors such as:

 Size of the steam bubble - Condensation of a steam bubble will depend on the heat transfer
across the surface of the bubble. To ensure that the steam bubble is completely condensed, the
surface area/volume ratio must be as large as possible. Smaller bubbles have a greater surface
area per unit volume than larger bubbles, so it is desirable to produce very small bubbles. The
differential pressure (between the steam pipe and the point where the steam is discharged into
 the water) as the bubble emerges will also affect the size of the steam bubble. The specific
volume of steam will increase as the pressure is reduced, so that a drop in pressure will increase
the size of the steam bubble as it escapes into the liquid. Even if the steam bubble is emitted
from a very small hole, the bubble may increase significantly in size if the steam pressure is high.
Consequently, a lower pressure in the sparge pipe is better.
 Head of liquid over the injection point - The head of liquid over the injection point will create a
backpressure so that the differential pressure will be less than the steam pressure. If the head of
liquid is large and the steam pressure in the sparge pipe is low, there may only be a very small
change in pressure so that the size of the bubbles formed is kept to a minimum.

A greater head of liquid over the point of injection will give the steam bubbles maximum
opportunity to condense before they reach the surface.
 Velocity of the bubble - The velocity of the bubble at the point of injection will also depend on
the difference between the steam pressure and the liquid head. It is desirable to keep this
differential pressure as low as possible, so that bubble velocities are also as low as possible and
the bubbles are given the maximum time to condense before they reach the surface.
 Temperature of the liquid - The rate at which the steam will condense is directly proportional to
the temperature difference between the steam and the liquid being heated. As with all heat
transfer processes, the rate of heat exchange is directly proportional to the temperature
differential.

It is always advisable to ensure that the temperature of the liquid is correctly controlled and is
kept to the minimum required for the application, so that the maximum heat transfer rate is
maintained and there is no wastage of energy.

Top

Sparge pipes

This is simply a pipe mounted inside the tank, with the holes drilled at regular positions
(typically 4 o'clock and 8 o'clock) when viewed from the end, equally spaced along the length of
the pipe, and with the end blanked off. The steam exits the pipe through the holes as small
bubbles, which will either condense as intended or reach the surface of the liquid (see Figure
2.11.1).

Sparge pipes are inexpensive to make and easy to install, but are prone to cause high levels of
vibration and noise. A much more effective method is to use a properly designed steam injector.
 Fig. 2.11.1
Sparge hole orientation

Example 2.11.1 - Determine the steam load to heat a tank of water by steam
injection

Fig. 2.11.4
The tank used in Example 2.9.1

These calculations (steps 1 to 5) are based on Examples 2.9.1 and 2.10.1 as far as heat losses are
concerned, but with the tank containing water (cp = 4.19 kJ/kg °C), instead of weak acid solution
and the water being heated by steam injection rather than a steam coil.
Step 1 - find the energy required to heat up 12 000 kg of water from 8°C to 60°C in 2 hours by
using Equation 2.6.1:

Equation 2.6.1

Where:

= Mean heat transfer rate to heat the water (kW)

m = 12 000 kg

cp = 4.19 kJ/kg °C

ΔT = 60 - 8 = 52°C

t = 2 hours x 3 600 = 7 200 seconds

Steam is supplied to the control valve at 2.6 bar g. In order to calculate the mean steam flowrate,
it is necessary to determine the total enthalpy in the steam (hg) at this pressure. It can be seen
from Table 2.11.1 (an extract from steam tables) that the total enthalpy of steam (hg) at 2.6 bar g
is 2733.89 kJ/kg.

Table
2.11.1
Extract from steam tables

Step 2 - find the mean steam flowrate to heat the water by using Equation 2.11.1:

Equation 2.11.1
Where:

s = Mean steam flowrate to heat the water in the tank (kg/s)

= (water) = Mean heat transfer rate to heat the water = 363 kW

hg = Total enthalpy in the steam supplying the control valve = 2733.89 kJ/kg

T = Final water temperature = 60°C

cp = Specific heat of water = 4.19 kJ/kg °C

Therefore, from Equation 2.11.1;

Step 3 - find the mean steam flowrate to heat the tank material (steel). From Example 2.9.1, the
mean heat transfer rate for the tank material = (tank) = 14 kW

The mean steam flowrate to heat the tank material is calculated by again using Equation 2.11.1:

Equation 2.11.1

Where:

s = Mean steam flowrate to heat the tank material (kg/s)

= (tank) = Mean heat transfer rate to heat the tank material = 14 kW

hg = Total enthalpy in the steam supplying the control valve = 2733.89 kJ/kg

T = Final tank temperature = 60°C

cp = Specific heat of the tank material (steel) = 0.5 kJ/kg °C

Therefore, from Equation 2.11.1

Step 4 - find the mean steam flowrate to make up for the heat losses from the tank during warm-
up. From Example 2.9.1:

The mean heat losses from the tank and water surface = (sides) + (surface)

The heat losses from the tank and water surface = 7 kW + 8 kW

The heat losses from the tank and water surface = 15 kW

Whilst it is reasonable to accept that the steam's liquid enthalpy will contribute to the rise in
temperature of the water and the tank material, it is more difficult to accept how the steam's
liquid enthalpy would add to the heat lost from the tank due to radiation. Therefore, the equation
to calculate the steam used for heat losses (Equation 2.11.2) considers only the enthalpy of
evaporation in the steam at atmospheric pressure.

Equation 2.11.2

Where:

s = Mean steam flowrate to provide the heat losses from the tank (kg/s)

= (sides) + (surface) (kW)

2256.7 = Enthalpy of evaporation at atmospheric pressure (kJ/kg)

Therefore, from Equation 2.11.2;

Step 5 - Determine the steam load to heat a tank of water by steam injection. The total mean
steam flowrate can be calculated as follows:
It is important to remember with steam injection systems that the final mass of liquid is equal to
the mass of cold liquid, plus the mass of steam added.

In this example, the process started with 12 000 kg of water. During the required heat-up period
of 2 hours steam has been injected at the rate of 569 kg/h. The mass of liquid has therefore,
increased by 2 h x 569 kg/h = 1 138 kg.

The final mass of the liquid is:

12 000 kg + 1 138 kg = 13 138 kg

The additional 1 144 kg of condensate has a volume of about 1 144 litres (1.44 m³) and will also
have increased the water level by:

Clearly, the process tank needs to have sufficient space above the starting water level to allow
for this increase. For safety, an overflow should always be included in the tank construction
where steam injection is involved.

Alternatively, if the process requirement had been to finish with a mass of 12 000 kg, the mass of
water at the beginning of the process would be:

Top

Steam injectors

A more effective alternative to the sparge pipe is the steam injector as shown in Figure 2.11.6.
The injector draws in cold liquid and mixes it with steam inside the injector, distributing heated
liquid to the tank.

The engineered design of the injector body is more sophisticated than the simple sparge pipe, and
allows steam at higher pressures to be used. A turbulent zone is created within the body of the
injector, which ensures that thorough mixing of the steam and liquid occurs, even at relatively
high pressures. This has the effect of agitating and circulating the liquid so that a constant
temperature is maintained throughout the tank, without temperature stratification or cold spots.

These injectors are more compact than sparge pipes, consequently any interference with objects
that may be dipped in the tank can be avoided. They are more robust and generally quieter than
sparge pipes, although noise problems may still be encountered if not installed correctly.

Noises pertaining to steam injectors

When using high pressure steam injectors three distinct noise levels are produced under the
following conditions:

 Normal running - Where steam pressures at the injector inlet are above 2 bar g, the noise
produced during normal running conditions can be described as a soft roar.

Noise is caused by the condensation of steam inside the discharge tube, as it mixes with
recirculating water drawn through the holes into the casting body. Under normal conditions the
discharge from the injector tube is approximately 10°C hotter than the incoming water.

This type of noise increases with steam pressure, water temperature and the number of
injectors, but it is rarely objectionable at steam pressures below 8 bar g. Although strong
circulation of the tank contents occurs at pressures above 8 bar g, little vibration should be
experienced.
 Incomplete condensation - This is characterised by a soft bumping noise and is sometimes
accompanied by heavy vibration. It occurs when the liquid temperature is too high (usually
above 90°C). When the liquid is too hot the injector becomes less efficient and a proportion of
the steam escapes from the discharge tube.

At higher steam pressures, condensation of the steam may cause vibration, which is not
recommended for atmospheric tanks. However, in cylindrical pressure vessels of a robust
design, this may not cause any problems.
 Low flowrates - When the steam pressure at the inlet to the injector falls below 1.5 bar g, a
distinctive crackling can be heard. Under these conditions steam is unable to give up its enthalpy
of evaporation before it leaves the injector tube.

At low flowrates the steam is travelling at a lower velocity than in the other modes of operation,
and collapsing steam bubbles are found on the body casting and in the connecting pipework,
inducing cavitation. This noise is often considered objectionable, and may be found if the steam
injector system has been oversized.

Noise may also be caused by poor installation of the injector. The sides of a rectangular tank
may be made from fairly flexible panels. Connecting an injector to the middle of a flexible panel
may induce vibration and noise. It may often be better to mount the injector nearer the corner
of the tank where the structure is stiffer.

Example 2.11.2

Based on data from Example 2.11.1, propose a steam injection system.

Required steam injection rate = 569 kg/h

The steam injection pressure = 1.0 bar

The largest injector (IN40M) has a capacity of 400 kg/h at 1.0 bar, so this application will
require:

Ideally, because of the low pressures involved, the injectors would be installed at opposite ends
of the tank to give good mixing.

An alternative would be to use higher pressure steam. This would allow the use of just one,
smaller injector, reducing costs and still providing good mixing.

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Alternative method of calculating injected steam load

The previous method used in this Tutorial to calculate the mean steam flowrate requires the
mean heat load to be calculated first. This is depicted by Equation 2.11.1:

Equation 2.11.1

Where:
= Mean heat transfer rate (kW)

If the mean heat transfer rate is not known, another method can be used to determine the mean
steam flowrate. This requires the use of a heat balance as described below.

It should be noted that both methods return exactly the same result, so whichever is used depends
upon the user's choice.

Calculating the mean steam flowrate by means of a heat balance

A heat balance is considered where the initial heat content in the water plus the heat added by the
steam equals the final heat content. The heat balance equation for the water in the tank is shown
in Equation 2.11.4:

Equation 2.11.3

Where:
m = Initial mass of water in the tank (kg)

h1 = The heat in the water at the initial temperature (kJ/kg)

ms = The mass of steam to be injected to raise the water temperature (kg)

hg = The total enthalpy of the steam onto the control valve (kJ/kg)

h2 = The heat in the water at the final temperature (kJ/kg)

Mass of steam to be injected

The mass of steam to be injected can be determined more directly from Equation 2.11.4, which is
developed from Equation 2.11.3.

Equation 2.11.4

Where:

ms = The mass of steam to be injected (kg)

m = Initial mass of water in the tank (kg)

h2 = The heat in the water at the final temperature (kJ/kg)

h1 = The heat in the water at the initial temperature (kJ/kg)

hg = The total enthalpy of the steam upstream of the control valve (kJ/kg)

Example 2.11.3

Consider the same conditions as that in Example 2.11.1.

Conducting a heat balance on the water in the tank by using Equation 2.11.4:

Equation 2.11.4

Where:

ms = The mass of steam to be injected to raise the water temperature (kg)

m = 12 000 kg

h2 = 251.4 kJ/kg

h1 = 33.5 kJ/kg

hg = 2 733.9 kJ/kg

Conducting a heat balance on the tank material

Using the heat balance Equation 2.11.4 with regard to the steel tank.

Equation 2.11.4

Where:

ms = Mass of steam to be injected to raise the tank temperature

m = 3 886 kg

h2 = 30 kJ/kg

h1 = 4 kJ/kg

hg = 2 733.9 kJ/kg

The heat losses from the sides of the tank and the water surface are the same as previously
calculated, that is 24 kg/h.

This is the same result as that obtained previously in this Tutorial from Equations 2.11.1 and
2.11.2, and proves that either method can be used to calculate the mean steam flowrate to heat
the tank and its contents.