'India and Adjacent Countries (IAC)' is a regional and arbitrary system for India and adjoining countries (largely

those
under British control/influence or of interest, during pre-independent India).

Topographical maps under this series was prepared by the Survey of India till the coming into existence of Delhi
Survey Conference in 1937. Henceforth, the preparation of maps for the adjoining countries was abandoned and the
Survey of India confined itself to preparing and publishing the topographical maps of India as per the specifications
laid down for the International Map of the World Series. A map numbering system was developed to give each map a
unique number.

The map series is based on Polyconic projection on Indian Geodetic Datum.

Map numbering is of the form '12A/1':

1. The first number indicates a 4°×4° area, with numbering increasing from north to south and then from west
to east, beginning with 1. The north western corner of this 4°×4° grid is at 44°E 40°N, but empty regions are
skipped (refer layout below). So sheet with Kalyanpur (77.65489°E 24.11981°N) would be in '54':

2. Each 4°×4° square is divided into 16 squares of 1°×1°. Each square is indicated serially by an alphabet
increasing first towards south and then towards east, starting with 'A'. So sheet for Kalyanpur (77.65489°E
 24.11981°N) falls within '54H':

3. Each 1°×1° square is further divided into 16 squares of 15'×15' (15 minutes×15 minutes). Each square is
indicated serially by a number increasing first towards south and then towards east, starting with '1'. So for
the map sheet for Kalyanpur (77°39.293'E 24°7.187'N) would be '54H/12':

India and Adjacent Countries map numbers are especially used by Survey of India maps, especially those printed
before adoption of the Open Series Map/Defence Series Map.

he International Map of the World and its Numbering System

In 1891 the Fifth International Geographical Congress agreed on the development of a world-wide,
1:1,000,000 (or 1:1 million) scale series of maps. This was to be called the International Map of the World
(or IMW for short). The maps were to be produced using an internationally agreed, consistent
specification.

For several reasons the development of the IMW maps was slow – reasons included two World Wars, the
Great Depression and lack of funding in poorer countries. International interest waned and by the 1980s
only 800-1000 of the proposed 2500 maps were completed. The project was abandoned by the mid-
1980s. The Australian component of the IMW was 49 maps. Work on these began in 1926 and was
completed in 1978.

This is the index for the IMW maps which cover Australia. Note that each IMW map/zone has:
 a unique name
 is located in an IMW latitudinal zone (starting with the letter C in the North and ending with
the letter K in the South)
 is located in an IMW longitudinal zone (starting with the number 49 in the West and ending
with the number 56 in the East)

The enduring legacy of the IMW map series is its map numbering conventions. The regular grid it
developed consisted of:

 4° wide latitudinal zones for the whole earth numbered A to V, away from the Equator; and with
the letter N or S (to identify either the Northern and Southern Hemispheres).
 6° wide longitudinal zones were for areas between the latitudes 60° numbered 1 to 60, East to
West starting at the 180°
 12° or 24° wide longitudinal zones between the latitudes 60° and 90°.

Using this method a regular grid was created, and each had a unique number. For example, in the case of
Sydney, Australia, its IMW grid cell (variably called an IMW zone, IMW map zone or IMW map) would be
identified as:

 S – for the Southern Hemisphere

 J – for the latitudinal zone it belongs to
 56 – for the longitudinal zone it belongs to

Add the three together and Sydney, Australia is found in the IMW zone of SJ56. This numbering systems
allows a map user to locate a map anywhere on the surface of the Earth – using only the number as a
guide.

In addition to this, each IMW map zone is uniquely named. In the case of the Sydney, Australia example
the map sheet is SJ56, Sydney. Where the extents of a map are different to the standard IMW zones (to
totally cover a city) the word 'Special' is added to the map name.
Numbering 1:250,000 Scale Topographic Maps
The next step in the numbering system is easy – based on convention, there are 12 individual 1:250,000
scale maps in an IMW zone. These are each numbered 1–12 in a regular pattern. This is added to the IMW
zone number and another unique number is created. In the case of the Sydney example above, the IMW
map sheet is SJ56 and the 1:250,000 scale map called Sydney the 5th map in the zone – ie the Sydney
1:250,000 scale map is numbered SJ56-5.

Numbering Other Scale Topographic Maps

Similar principles of a unique numbering system which had been developed for the 1:250,000 scale series
topographic maps were also developed for the 1:100,000, 1:50:000, 1:25,000 scale series topographic
maps.

The 1:100,000 scale topographic maps were nested within the IMW system. There are six 1:100,000 scale
maps contained within a 1:250,000 scale map.

In this case the system involved:

 using a two digit number which is sequentially given to each 1:100,000 scale map West-to-East
 using a two digit number which is sequentially given to each 1:100,000 scale map South-to-North

This results in a unique 4-digit number for every 1:100,000 map within the system.

As with the 1:250,000 scale maps having a number based on the number of IMW zone they are in; so to
do the 1:50:000 and 1:25,000 maps. They have a sequential number added to the number of the
1:100,000 map they occur in.

Note. This system is used for Series Topographic Maps by Australian government mapping agencies.
However, the old saying of "always expect the unexpected" applies. Some agencies use systems which are
based on the IMW grid, but they may be slightly different.

Also, this regular grid system creates a number of maps which cover small amounts of land and large
amounts of landless ocean. Many mapping agencies 'move' the map boundaries to maximise the amount
of land which is shown.

Compare these two indexes for mapping over north-western Australia. The one on the left is the the
International Map of the World (IMW) topographic maps. The one on the right is for the World Aeronautical
Charts (WAC) map series. Note how the WAC charts have been adjusted to maximise the amount of land
they cover.
General Reference Maps
These are simple maps showing important physical (natural and man–made) features in an area. Their
main purpose is to summarise the landscape to aid discovery of locations. They are usually easy to read
and understand. Most of the early mapping of the Earth falls into this group.

General Reference maps often enlarge or emphasis some features to aid users. For example, road maps
show roads boldly and may use road widths and colour to distinguish between major and minor roads.

As a general rule, General Reference Maps would only show relief (the difference in height between
features on the map) in a stylised manner. Street and tourist maps are good examples of general reference
maps.

A typical late-20th century general reference map of a country:

 is colourful
 cities are named
 major transport routes (highways and railways) are identified
 natural features such as rivers, lakes and mountains are named
 elevation is shown using a simple colour shading
 has themes included – eg city population size
This is an example of a map which is usually called a tourist map. It is a General Reference Map
which has been enhanced for a specific reason – that of highlighting places of interest that people
might like to visit. Because of this, it can also be described as a thematic map (the theme being
tourism).

Image courtesy of Mapland, Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources, SA.

The Street Map is well known to all maps users, indeed it may be the only map some people use.
Street maps contain all the elements of a general reference map in that they are a summary of the
landscape and that their primary purpose is to aid in the discovery of a location. In this example of a
street map, individual buildings are identified.
Types Of Maps – Thematic Maps
These are maps which depict information on a particular topic or theme. The detail portrayed on a
thematic map may be physical, statistical, measured, or interpreted, and sometimes requires specialist
knowledge by the map user.

Weather, population density and geology maps are examples of thematic maps.

Two very different thematic maps on the same topic – Australia's Maritime Boundaries. They
illustrate the principle that maps are made for a specific reason, and this dictates the amount of
detail they contain.

The first is a simple map, with very little base or location information. The second is a far more
detailed map. It has a significant amount of base information and a dense pattern of latitude and
longitude lines which allow the reader to accurately locate features shown on the map.

A typical stylised thematic map, where the map itself is secondary to the information being
supplied. The intent is to quickly give an impression of relative differences and the detail being
supplied as tables within the map.
This is an example of a map which is usually called a tourist map. It is a General Reference Map
which has been enhanced for a specific reason – that of highlighting places of interest that people
might like to visit. Because of this, it can also be described as a thematic map (the theme being
tourism).

Image courtesy of Mapland, Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources, SA.
This map of limestone caves in Tasmania is an excellent example of a common type of thematic
map. It is simple, with very little additional information, such as base map, a title, scale bar etc.
However, it has sufficient information to allow the subject of the map to be known and the message

("where are these caves?") to be clearly told. Types of Maps – Topographic

Maps

Contents
» Introduction
» Understanding Contours
» Topographic Maps as a Summary of the Landscape – an Example
» A 'Potted' Geography of Australia using Topographic Maps
» Explaining Some Jargon – Topographic Map Numbering Systems
» The International Map of the World and its Numbering System
» Numbering 1:250,000 Scale Topographic Map
» Numbering Other Scale Topographic Maps
» Further Reading

Introduction
Like General Reference Maps, Topographic Maps are a summary of the landscape and show important
physical (natural and man-made) features in an area. The primary difference is that they show elevation in
detail.

Characteristics of topographic maps include:

 they show elevation using contour lines. Put simply, a contour line is a line which joins points of
equal elevation above sea level
 they have an emphasis on showing human settlement (roads, cities, buildings etc), but may
include some thematic information such as vegetation or the boundaries of national parks
 they are typically produced by government agencies – these are often specialist mapping agencies
and may have either a civilian or defence purpose
 they have well defined standards (called Specifications) which are strictly adhered to – these vary
between mapping agencies and the scale of the map
 they have very good location reference systems – including latitude and longitude, but may also
have grid lines
 often have additional information such as an arrow pointing to Magnetic North as well as True
North.

As there is an exceptionally large amount of information about Topographic Maps available online (more
so than any other form of mapping) we shall give a very simple overview of it. See Further Reading below.

Topographic maps are usually part of a series of maps, but may be one–off / stand–alone maps.
Understanding Contours

This extract from a 1:50,000 scale map has been annotated in pink to highlight different landscape
features which can be identified using the contour lines. This map had a contour interval of 20
metres.

Elevation is usually shown using contour lines. In simplistic terms a contour line is a line which joins
points of equal elevation. Where these lines are above sea level they are simply called contour lines and
where they are below sea level they are called bathymetric contour lines.

Contour lines can tell an informed reader many things about the shape of the land and its
ruggedness. The closer contours are together the steeper the land and the further they are away from
each other the flatter the land. On the Nullarbor Plain, for instance, very few contour lines would be
shown, but over the Snowy Mountains an enormous number of contour lines would be shown.

A word of warning: topographic maps do not show every contour line, rather they choose sample of the
lines. For example every 20, 50, 200 metres – depending on the scale of the map. This is called the
contour interval of the map. As a result of this selection process, the difference in density of the contour
lines is only indicating relative changes in the shape of the landscape – on that map!

The reading of topographic maps and interpretation of contour lines, is a much written about topic.
Please refer to the Further Reading hyperlinks to learn more about contours and understanding what they
mean.

A bit of history: Contours were developed in the 19th century (1800s). Prior to this, various systems of
drawing the relief had been experimented with, including a system called hachuring. These systems have
largely disappeared from modern map making, but they are intriguing to read about. This site from the
University of Portsmouth has a very interesting historic summary of the changes over the
years: http://www.geog.port.ac.uk/webmap/hantscat/html/ftr_hil.htm
→ Read more about contours in A Map Users Guide to Reading Tactual and Low Vision Maps.

Topographic Maps as a Summary of the Landscape – an Example

This topographic map and photograph are of the same area – the Manly region within Sydney, NSW.
By comparing these two it is clear that the map is an excellent summary of the landscape of the
area. Note that the features which dominate the photograph also dominate the map. And, because
it is a topographic map, it also gives detailed information about the ‘bumpiness’ of the land.

A 'Potted' Geography of Australia using Topographic Maps

Four maps have been selected across Australia to illustrate the vast range of information which can be
contained in a topographic map. These maps are all part of a series of maps which cover the whole of
Australia and they have been produced using the same specification – i.e. any difference in appearance of
the map is the result of a difference in the landscape.
The first map is centred on the Pilbara region mining town of Paraburdoo. The area is lightly settled
and poorly vegetated. Because of this, the features shown on the map are less obscured compared
to other parts of Australia. In particular, the contour lines (shown in brown) are easily seen – where
they are close together the slope is greatest. Note the ranges (lines of hills) crossing this map. Also
note that the sparse settlement in this region is indicated by the small number of roads and
towns/buildings.

The second is centred in a broad–acre agricultural area (often called a wheat ⁄ sheep area) north of
Perth, Western Australia. Here the contour lines are far apart indicating gently sloping land and,
because there are no contours close together, it is clear that there are no ranges. A denser
settlement than our first example is indicated by the larger number of roads and the buildings (the
black squares) which are shown.
Our third map is in the wet tropical region around Darwin, Northern Territory. There are very few
contour lines, indicating that the land is very flat. Also, the much denser settlement is indicated by
the large number of buildings and the large city area (the area in pink – here the houses are too
close together to be shown separately – in mapping jargon this is called a built-up area).

A feature present here that has not been shown on the other two maps is vegetation. This doesn't
mean that there is no vegetation on the other maps, rather they have simply opted to not show it or
the vegetation is less dense. Forested land is shown in light green and mangrove areas in dark
green. Please note that this adds colour to the map, but can make the contour lines hard to see.

Finally, the fourth map is over Sydney, NSW. With a population of about 4 million people, this is
Australia's largest city. The contours are close together, indicating hilly land. The city area covers a
large part of the map and there are a large number of buildings shown surrounding the city. The
road network is also very complex.

Explaining Some Jargon – Topographic Map Numbering Systems

For series maps, particularly topographic series maps, a variety of map conventions have been developed.
One which can be confusing is the different map numbering systems.
In series maps it is essential that individual maps should be easily and uniquely identifiable. Map name
alone is not sufficient to easily identify and locate an individual map. This is especially a problem where
there are a large number of maps in a topographic map series. For example in Australia there are:

 513 individual 1:250,000 scale topographic maps, and

 3,066 individual 1:100,000 scale topographic maps

This problem was partly solved by the development of a numbering system for the International Map of
the World (IMW). This system hinged on two features:

 a well defined, regular, smaller scale grid was developed for the whole Earth’s surface
 larger scale maps were 'nested' inside this grid

It was agreed that the smaller scale grid should be for 1:1,000,000 (often called 1:1 million scale)
topographic mapping. The 'nested' smaller scales were 1:250,000, 1:100,000, 1:50,000, 1:25,000 etc.

The International Map of the World and its Numbering System

In 1891 the Fifth International Geographical Congress agreed on the development of a world-wide,
1:1,000,000 (or 1:1 million) scale series of maps. This was to be called the International Map of the World
(or IMW for short). The maps were to be produced using an internationally agreed, consistent
specification.

For several reasons the development of the IMW maps was slow – reasons included two World Wars, the
Great Depression and lack of funding in poorer countries. International interest waned and by the 1980s
only 800-1000 of the proposed 2500 maps were completed. The project was abandoned by the mid-
1980s. The Australian component of the IMW was 49 maps. Work on these began in 1926 and was
completed in 1978.

This is the index for the IMW maps which cover Australia. Note that each IMW map/zone has:
 a unique name
 is located in an IMW latitudinal zone (starting with the letter C in the North and ending with
the letter K in the South)
  is located in an IMW longitudinal zone (starting with the number 49 in the West and ending
with the number 56 in the East)

The enduring legacy of the IMW map series is its map numbering conventions. The regular grid it
developed consisted of:

 4° wide latitudinal zones for the whole earth numbered A to V, away from the Equator; and with
the letter N or S (to identify either the Northern and Southern Hemispheres).
 6° wide longitudinal zones were for areas between the latitudes 60° numbered 1 to 60, East to
West starting at the 180°
 12° or 24° wide longitudinal zones between the latitudes 60° and 90°.

Using this method a regular grid was created, and each had a unique number. For example, in the case of
Sydney, Australia, its IMW grid cell (variably called an IMW zone, IMW map zone or IMW map) would be
identified as:

 S – for the Southern Hemisphere

 J – for the latitudinal zone it belongs to
 56 – for the longitudinal zone it belongs to

Add the three together and Sydney, Australia is found in the IMW zone of SJ56. This numbering systems
allows a map user to locate a map anywhere on the surface of the Earth – using only the number as a
guide.

In addition to this, each IMW map zone is uniquely named. In the case of the Sydney, Australia example
the map sheet is SJ56, Sydney. Where the extents of a map are different to the standard IMW zones (to
totally cover a city) the word 'Special' is added to the map name.

Numbering 1:250,000 Scale Topographic Maps

The next step in the numbering system is easy – based on convention, there are 12 individual 1:250,000
scale maps in an IMW zone. These are each numbered 1–12 in a regular pattern. This is added to the IMW
zone number and another unique number is created. In the case of the Sydney example above, the IMW
map sheet is SJ56 and the 1:250,000 scale map called Sydney the 5th map in the zone – ie the Sydney
1:250,000 scale map is numbered SJ56-5.

Numbering Other Scale Topographic Maps

Similar principles of a unique numbering system which had been developed for the 1:250,000 scale series
topographic maps were also developed for the 1:100,000, 1:50:000, 1:25,000 scale series topographic
maps.

The 1:100,000 scale topographic maps were nested within the IMW system. There are six 1:100,000 scale
maps contained within a 1:250,000 scale map.
In this case the system involved:

 using a two digit number which is sequentially given to each 1:100,000 scale map West-to-East
 using a two digit number which is sequentially given to each 1:100,000 scale map South-to-North

This results in a unique 4-digit number for every 1:100,000 map within the system.

As with the 1:250,000 scale maps having a number based on the number of IMW zone they are in; so to
do the 1:50:000 and 1:25,000 maps. They have a sequential number added to the number of the
1:100,000 map they occur in.

Note. This system is used for Series Topographic Maps by Australian government mapping agencies.
However, the old saying of "always expect the unexpected" applies. Some agencies use systems which are
based on the IMW grid, but they may be slightly different.

Also, this regular grid system creates a number of maps which cover small amounts of land and large
amounts of landless ocean. Many mapping agencies 'move' the map boundaries to maximise the amount
of land which is shown.

Compare these two indexes for mapping over north-western Australia. The one on the left is the the
International Map of the World (IMW) topographic maps. The one on the right is for the World Aeronautical
Charts (WAC) map series. Note how the WAC charts have been adjusted to maximise the amount of land
they cover.

Both the International Map of the World (IMW) and the World Aeronautical Charts (WAC) are
international map series which show topographic (especially elevation) information.

The IMW topographic map series was developed in the early 1900s and the WAC series was
developed in the mid–1900s. As an Internationally agreed series with a standard specification and a
regular map grid, the IMW was the 'first of its type in the world.

The WAC series was able to build on the work of the IMW series. To suit its needs (aircraft
navigation) the WAC series adjusted the existing IMW sheet boundaries to maximise the amount of
land it contained. (For more information see Types of Maps – Navigation Charts and Purpose of Your
Map).
The interesting thing is that the WAC based its grid on the IMW grid, but on occasion it allowed for
map boundaries to be slightly different, and in some cases individual maps overlap.

Compare these two extracts from 1) an IMW map index and 2) a WAC map index. Observe:

1. How the IMW maps Brunswick Bay, Darwin and Roper River have been 'moved' to the east to
maximise the amount of land that is covered by the map.
2. That Brunswick Bay and Darwin have retained their IMW name, but Roper River has been
renamed Groote Eylandt - because the Roper River is no longer fully covered by the map, but
Groote Eylandt is fully covered.
3. That the Broome, Halls Creek and Newcastle Waters maps are unchanged in extent and name
4. How the Hammersley Range map has been extended a short distance to the north and west –
allowing for it to fully cover the land mass. The IMW sheet to the north and west are not part
of the WAC series.
5. Finally, the two series use a different numbering convention.

Types of Maps – Cadastral Plans and Maps

Contents
» What is a Cadastre?
» What is a Cadastral Plan?
» How is a Cadastral Map different to a Cadastral Plan?

What is a Cadastre?
The cadastre of a country is its register of property titles and is usually managed by government agencies
– in Australia these are often called Land Titles Offices. The information recorded includes an accurate
description of the location of a parcel of land and who owns it. It may also record what the land can be
used for (e.g. residential or not, national park etc) and may also show the location and shape of buildings.
In some countries it also records the value of a property. In these cases the cadastre may also be used for
land taxation purposes.

What is a Cadastral Plan?

This is an excellent example of a cadastral plan. Note the detailed information relating to points
along the boundary of both parcels of land and two of the adjoining roads.

Because 2 parcels of land are shown on the one plan it is most likely that this cadastral plan was
drawn when the parcel of land was sub–divided into 2 parcels.

The foundation block of a cadastre is the cadastral plan (or survey plan). This is produced by a registered ⁄
licensed surveyor who accurately measures and records the boundaries of each property. This occurs
whenever a new land parcel is created and each new survey produces a new survey plan. Because of this
each plan is static in time, i.e. it represents the shape and status of the cadastre at the time of survey.

Cadastral plans from different parts of the world, or indeed different parts of Australia, will contain
different information – this is dependent on local legislation relating to the registering of cadastral plans
into the local cadastre. A properly registered cadastral plan is a legal document.

How is a Cadastral Map different to a Cadastral Plan?

Cadastral maps are produced by joining together individual cadastral plans. A cadastral map is a general
land administrative tool which has no real legislative basis (as a cadastral plan does). It is often created on
demand and therefore not necessarily up–to–date. These maps are used by a broad range of people
(public and professional) for all manner of things including real estate sales, valuation, Land Title Office
management of the cadastre, planning etc.

Cadastral mapping is one of the best known forms of mapping, because it is the mapping that shows all of
the land parcels in relation to one another and to the adjoining roads. It is also one of the most ancient
forms of mapping – for example ancient Egyptians are known to have developed cadastral records so that
land ownership could be re–established after the annual flooding of the Nile River.
This is an example of a cadastral map and the area circled in red shows the cadastral plan which is
described above.

These maps are made from numerous cadastral plans. Please note that the information shown is
different to the plan. In particular, information which allows the precise dimensions of the parcel of
land is no longer shown, rather individual parcels of land are identified by their relationship to each
other. Some (but not all) parcels of land have additional information shown – for example how big it
is (in hectares), who owns it or what it is used for (eg Gravel Reserve, Water Reserve).

There is minimal base information supplied – mainly road and railway reserves and watercourses.

Types Of Maps – Navigation Charts

Contents
» Introduction
» Explaining Some Jargon – The Difference Between Maps and Charts
» Marine Navigation Charts
» Air Navigation Charts
» Further Reading

Introduction
Navigation Charts combine aspects of topographic, general reference and thematic maps and are
produced as navigation aids for ships, boats and aircraft. Specialist knowledge is usually required to read
charts.

Like topographic maps, charts are typically produced by government mapping agencies:
  marine navigation charts are usually produced by a country’s Navy and possibly also by civil
defence bodies and ⁄ or port management authorities
 air navigation charts are usually produced by a country’s Airforce plus a civilian agency which is
responsible for civilian air traffic control and regulation.

Also, navigation charts typically have well defined standards which are strictly adhered to.

Explaining Some Jargon – The Difference Between Maps and

Charts
When people started making maps 5,000 years ago a distinction gradually emerged regarding maps of
land and maps of the sea/ocean.

For the land they were called maps and for the sea/ocean they were called charts. Both would map the
coastline and its features. However the chart was more likely to show great detail about the water and the
water's edge, with little information about the land – the exact opposite of a map. In particular, features
which could be dangerous to ships (e.g. submerged rocks) were shown in as great a detail as knowledge
and the scale (size) of the chart would allow. Also, land features which would be an aid to navigation (e.g.
cliffs ⁄ headlands or lighthouses) would be shown, while features which are important to maps (e.g. main
roads or inland towns) would not be shown.

Another difference was that charts had specialist information which aided navigation, especially navigation
out–of–sight of land. This information included such things as water depth, location of lighthouses,
significant coastal features (e.g. a mountain or a headland), compass roses and text notes (examples of
text notes are ‘area usually covered in fog’, ‘strong tides occur in spring’ etc).

In the twentieth century, with the arrival of flight, a convention developed that maps which were
specifically made to aid aeroplane navigation would also be called charts. A key factor in this was that
they also needed specialist information to aid navigation.

Marine Navigation Charts

The chart images used here are with the permission of the Australian Hydrographic Service; for more
information regarding Australian marine navigation charts please visit their website www.hydro.gov.au.

Marine navigation charts (also referred to as nautical charts) are produced at a vast variety of scales –
depending on the information available and the nature of the area being mapped.
These are extracts from Australian charts which cover part of the Indian Ocean and include Ashmore
Reef.

The first extract is an example of the level of information that charts show over great expanses of
ocean. This includes information about the seabed depth below the surface of the water. The
numbers indicate known depth for an individual spot and the dotted line is an indication of lines of
equal depth — generally called bathymetric contours (or isobaths) to distinguish them from land
contours. The purple circle is a compass rose.

The second extract is the same as that shown in the first extract – it is shown here in a larger format
for ease of reading. See the section about maps being reproduced at different scales in the
Marginalia Section. Note that the level of information supplied about depth is far greater than on the
first image; this is because small changes in depth in shallow water can be a hazard to shipping,
whereas in deeper water it is not as critical.

This extract from a chart of the Timor Sea has a great deal more information about the water depths
around Ashmore Reef than the two extracts above from an Indian Ocean chart. Note that the Indian
Ocean extracts show only a few of the small reefs (the areas in green) within the lagoon, and most of
these are shown as symbols (stars). In this more detailed chart all the reefs are shown (and not
symbolised) and greater detail is supplied regarding water depth.
These chart extracts offer good examples of how the scale of a map and its purpose dictate what can
be/is included.

Both are designed to enhance ships’ safety, but in very different circumstances. The first two
extracts from an Indian Ocean map are designed for navigation over large areas, and in deep water.
This extract is designed for navigation in shallow waters around Ashmore Reef.

First of all, note a characteristic of marine navigation charts – they supply a great deal of information
about the water areas, but very little information for the land. This is a busy port area and it is
important that complex, accurate information is supplied to ensure that vessels don’t ‘run into’ each
other. Note the additional information which is supplied compared to the Ashmore Reef. These
include:
 a much more detailed coastline – including structures such as piers and jetties
 marine navigation aids such as the location of marine lights
 navigation control zones – e.g. shipping lanes and restricted areas.

The days of ‘black–and–white’ charts (old ‘fathom’ charts) are over. The International Hydrographic
Organisation (IHO) international specifications recommend that nautical charts have a minimum of four
colours (blue, black, grey and magenta).

Air Navigation Charts

Like the marine navigation charts, air navigation charts are produced at a vast variety of scales –
depending on the information available and the nature of the area being mapped. However, a
fundamental difference between the two is the functionality – to state the obvious:

 air navigation charts are used by fast flying aircraft which can be very high above the land and
have significant safety concerns when landing
 marine navigation charts are designed to be used by ships ⁄ boats on the surface of the water and
they have significant safety concerns when in shallow water and when docking.
Because of this, air navigation charts look very different to marine navigation charts. However, like marine
navigation charts, international convention is that if the chart is coloured then special navigation
information is shown in purple. Unlike marine navigation charts, air navigation chart heights are always
given in feet above sea level.

These two examples of air navigation charts are from a World Aeronautical Chart 1:1
million scale charts and are designed for use by aircraft flying long distances.

With this in mind, the main landscape features which are shown on the map are those which could
be easily seen from a high flying aircraft. Cities and towns are also shown; as are places which have
landing grounds (the round purple symbols).

An indication of the ruggedness of the land is given by hill shading and height values for individual
high points in an area (the large black numbers). Also, man-made features which could be a hazard
to low flying aircraft are also shown – examples on these charts are the purple wiggly lines (power
lines) and the purple triangles (towers and chimneys).
Visual Terminal Charts are made for the purpose of aircraft takeoff and landing. Note how this
extract over Perth when compared to the extract above has a great deal more information including
controlled airspace, the shape of landing strips and man

Types of Maps – Series Maps

Many maps are ‘one–off’ products – e.g. a map of a tourist resort. But an even larger number are what are
called Series Maps. All the maps types described elsewhere may be part of a map series.

Contents
» Topographic Series Maps
» Specialist Series Maps
» Time Series Maps

Topographic Series Maps

These maps typically have a constant scale (eg 1:100,000) and join together in a regular fashion such that
a large area is continuously mapped. Also, the selection and depiction of features – often utilising
complex sets of rules – is consistent for the whole series. Index maps are used to show the location and
extent of each map in the series.

See Topographic Maps for information about topographic series maps.

Series maps are most likely to be produced by government mapping agencies.

This is an index for 1:1 million scale maps over Australia, titled International Map of the World (IMW).

Note the index shows that the map sheets in this series have been produced using a regular grid
oflatitude and longitude. Each map has been given a unique number and name.

Worldwide a popular map scale for topographic mapping is 1:250,000. This scale is a good example
for a general map of a region because in most instances it is able to show a good selection of man-
made and natural features.

In the case of New Zealand, because of the north–east ⁄ south–west alignment of the country, the
producing agency (Land Information New Zealand) has opted to not use a regular grid, but rather has
chosen to position the map sheet edges to minimise the amount of ocean on each sheet. They have
called this series of map the New Zealand 262 series and each map has a unique number 1 to 18.

Specialist Series Maps

These typically have different scales depending on the area and detail being mapped. They do not
necessarily join together to form a continuous coverage but use a consistent design concept so that the
maps ‘look’ similar. A good example is street maps of cities and towns and marine navigation charts.

This is an index to report maps for the Tasmanian Crown Land Assessment and Classification Project
(CLAC). It is an excellent example of how maps on a topic can be regarded as part of a series of
maps, but are at different scales, they may overlap and they can be very different sizes.

Time Series Maps

These are commonly thematic maps showing change in a selected area over time. The most frequently
encountered time series maps are the daily weather charts produced by the Australian Bureau of
Meteorology.
 This is a good example of time series mapping. In this instance four months of the year have been
chosen to show the distribution of median (most likely to occur) rainfall. Note a particular feature of
time series mapping – all four maps use the same classification scale. This allows easy comparisons
between each map in the series.

Maps

Maps are representation of features on the surface of earth drawn to scale. Map scale is the ratio of the
distance between any two points on a map to the actual distance between the points on the ground.

Map scale may be expressed in

· by a statement.

· by a numerical statement.

· by a graphical section.

By statement: The scale or ratio is stated in words such as one centimetre to four kilometres.
This is referred to as representative fraction (R.F).
R.F = Distance on the Map/Distance on the ground.

Classification of Maps

Maps are mainly classified based on

· Scale

· Contents and purpose

Based on the scale, they are classified as

· Cadastral Maps or Revenue maps

· Topographical maps: Maps larger than 1:25000 scale.

· Geographical maps: Maps on scale smaller than 1:250000. They are further divided into

· International map of the world (IMW).

· World aeronautical charts (ICAO).

· India and adjacent countries, etc.

 · Atlas maps (They are of very small scale).

· Wall maps.

Based on contents and purpose, they are classified into physical and cultural maps.

Map Numbering

The map numbering systems used in India are:

· The International system (CIM)

· India and adjacent Countries (IAC) System

CIM system

This system is used for international map on 1:1 million scale. Each sheet covers an area of 40 latitude x
60 longitude. The geographical position of the sheet is defined by two letters and a number. The first
letter is N or S depending on whether the sheet is north or south of the equator. Next letter after the N
or S indicates latitude of sheet alphabetically with the capital letters in succession of each 40 band.
Numbering starts from 1800 longitude and goes from west to east, the number changing after
60 longitude, i.e. a map showing 00 to 40N and 00 to 60E will have a numbering of NA1.

IAC system

This is the system followed by the Survey of India maps. Each sheet is bound by 40 latitude and
40 longitude. The sheet numbering starts from NW corner 400 latitude N and 440 E as sheet no.1 and
increases from North to South. Sheets falling in the sea are not numbered. Sheets covering India are
numbered from 39 to 58. The sheets are called 1/M (or 1 Million) sheets.

The 1/M sheets are further sub-divided into 16 equal parts of 10 x10. The sheets are in 1:25000 scale.
These sheets are numbered from A to P and each grid is called by the sheet number followed by the
alphabet i.e. for the 1/M sheet 57, sixteen components are 57A to 57P.

A E I M
B F J N
C G K O
D H L P

57- 40 x 40 on 1:1M scale

Shaded cell shows 57G of scale 1: 250000.

The 10 x 10 map (degree sheet) is again subdivided into sixteen equal parts - each of fifteen minutes of
latitude and longitude in extent. These sheets are numbered from 1 to 16 (e.g.: 57G/1, 57G/2 to 57
G/16) and on the scale 1: 50000 scale maps.

1 5 9 13
2 6 10 14
3 7 11 15
4 8 12 16

57 G - 10 x 10 on 1: 250 000 scale

Shaded cell shows 57 G/12 of scale 1: 50000.

The 1:50000 sheet is further divided into four equal parts of 7.5' latitude x 7.5' longitude. The
sheets are numbered A/1/NW, A/1/NE, A/1/SW, A/2/SE and scale is 1:25000.
The International Map of the World (also called the Millionth Map, after its scale of 1:1000000) was a project begun in 1913 to create a
complete map of the world according to internationally agreed standards. Roads were depicted in red, towns and railways were depicted in
black, and the labels were written in the Roman alphabet.[1] The map was the brainchild of Albrecht Penck, a German geographer who first
proposed it in 1891.[2]

Map indexing system[edit]

Map index of northern and central Asia. Since it lies entirely north of the equator, prefix map index numbers with N.

Note longitudinal span increasing to 12° at 60°N, then to 24° at 76°N.

Map NL 39

A map indexing system was developed for dividing the globe into sections spanning six degrees of longitude by four degrees
latitude.[6] Longitudinal slices are numbered 1 (180-174°West) through 60 (174-180°East). Latitudinal slices are named NA (0-4°North)
through NV (84-88°North) and SA (0-4°South) through SV (84-88°South). For example

 Map NJ-10[7] covers 36-40°N, 120-126°W including San Francisco at 37°47′N 122°25′W.

 SG-35 covers 24-28°S, 24-30°E including Johannesburg at

[8]
26°12′S 28°03′E.

 NL-38(below, right) covers 44-48N, 48-54E including Astrakhan at 46°19′N 48°2′E.

 NI-54[9] covers 32-36°N, 138-144°E including Tokyo at 35°42′N 139°43′E.

Due to shortening of longitudinal distances with increasing latitude, longitudinal span beyond 60 degrees latitude doubles to twelve degrees.
Beyond 76 degrees it doubles again to 24 degrees.
This indexing system outlived the international project and is still used in national and international mapping programs by Australia,[10] Russia
and the United States.[11]

The International Map of the World and its Numbering System

In 1891 the Fifth International Geographical Congress agreed on the development of a world-wide,
1:1,000,000 (or 1:1 million) scale series of maps. This was to be called the International Map of the World
(or IMW for short). The maps were to be produced using an internationally agreed, consistent
specification.
For several reasons the development of the IMW maps was slow – reasons included two World Wars, the
Great Depression and lack of funding in poorer countries. International interest waned and by the 1980s
only 800-1000 of the proposed 2500 maps were completed. The project was abandoned by the mid-
1980s. The Australian component of the IMW was 49 maps. Work on these began in 1926 and was
completed in 1978.

This is the index for the IMW maps which cover Australia. Note that each IMW map/zone has:
 a unique name
 is located in an IMW latitudinal zone (starting with the letter C in the North and ending with
the letter K in the South)
 is located in an IMW longitudinal zone (starting with the number 49 in the West and ending
with the number 56 in the East)

The enduring legacy of the IMW map series is its map numbering conventions. The regular grid it
developed consisted of:

 4° wide latitudinal zones for the whole earth numbered A to V, away from the Equator; and with
the letter N or S (to identify either the Northern and Southern Hemispheres).
 6° wide longitudinal zones were for areas between the latitudes 60° numbered 1 to 60, East to
West starting at the 180°
 12° or 24° wide longitudinal zones between the latitudes 60° and 90°.

Using this method a regular grid was created, and each had a unique number. For example, in the case of
Sydney, Australia, its IMW grid cell (variably called an IMW zone, IMW map zone or IMW map) would be
identified as:

 S – for the Southern Hemisphere

 J – for the latitudinal zone it belongs to
 56 – for the longitudinal zone it belongs to

Add the three together and Sydney, Australia is found in the IMW zone of SJ56. This numbering systems
allows a map user to locate a map anywhere on the surface of the Earth – using only the number as a
guide.
In addition to this, each IMW map zone is uniquely named. In the case of the Sydney, Australia example
the map sheet is SJ56, Sydney. Where the extents of a map are different to the standard IMW zones (to
totally cover a city) the word 'Special' is added to the map name.

Numbering 1:250,000 Scale Topographic Maps

The next step in the numbering system is easy – based on convention, there are 12 individual 1:250,000
scale maps in an IMW zone. These are each numbered 1–12 in a regular pattern. This is added to the IMW
zone number and another unique number is created. In the case of the Sydney example above, the IMW
map sheet is SJ56 and the 1:250,000 scale map called Sydney the 5th map in the zone – ie the Sydney
1:250,000 scale map is numbered SJ56-5.

Numbering Other Scale Topographic Maps

Similar principles of a unique numbering system which had been developed for the 1:250,000 scale series
topographic maps were also developed for the 1:100,000, 1:50:000, 1:25,000 scale series topographic
maps.

The 1:100,000 scale topographic maps were nested within the IMW system. There are six 1:100,000 scale
maps contained within a 1:250,000 scale map.

In this case the system involved:

 using a two digit number which is sequentially given to each 1:100,000 scale map West-to-East
 using a two digit number which is sequentially given to each 1:100,000 scale map South-to-North

This results in a unique 4-digit number for every 1:100,000 map within the system.

As with the 1:250,000 scale maps having a number based on the number of IMW zone they are in; so to
do the 1:50:000 and 1:25,000 maps. They have a sequential number added to the number of the
1:100,000 map they occur in.

Note. This system is used for Series Topographic Maps by Australian government mapping agencies.
However, the old saying of "always expect the unexpected" applies. Some agencies use systems which are
based on the IMW grid, but they may be slightly different.

Also, this regular grid system creates a number of maps which cover small amounts of land and large
amounts of landless ocean. Many mapping agencies 'move' the map boundaries to maximise the amount
of land which is shown.

Compare these two indexes for mapping over north-western Australia. The one on the left is the the
International Map of the World (IMW) topographic maps. The one on the right is for the World Aeronautical
Charts (WAC) map series. Note how the WAC charts have been adjusted to maximise the amount of land
they cover.
Maps classified on the basis of their aims and objectives:
(a) Physical maps show the relief features of the earth with the help of hachures, contours or
colour tints between contour lines (e.g. plains in green; plateaus in yellow; mountains in brown;
streams/rivers/lakes/seas/other water bodies in blue).

(b) Political maps present a visual picture of the world, or a continent or a country through bold
boundary lines or by tints of colours along with boundaries.

(c) Statistical/Distribution maps are related to statistical .data. They may show physical
elements like relief, atmospheric temperature, rainfall, air pressure etc.; they may also be used
to show social and economic data e.g. agriculture, industry, trade, transport, population,
settlements etc.

(d) Topographic maps show physical features of the earth along with cultural aspects like
settlements and transportation facilities. Such maps are useful to geographers, military experts
etc.

(e) Geological maps show the rock formations, their ages, structures, mineral resources etc.
They are prepared on large scales for coal fields, mining areas, engineering, geological features
like dams, tunnels etc.

'Open Series Map' have been introduced as per the National Map Policy of 2005 by Survey of India. For the same a
new map numbering system has been adopted instead of the previous India and Adjacent Countries (IAC).

The map series is based on Transverse Mercator projection on WGS-1984 datum. A numbering system based
on International Map of the World (IMW) is used.

Map numbering is of the form 'A-12A-1':

1. The IMW numbering system with minor modification is used upto 1°×1°/1:250,000 scale.
a. Since the IMW map number for India will always start with 'N' (India being in the northern
hemisphere), the first letter is omitted.
 b. The next alphabet and number of the IMW map number denotes the 6°×4° region of the IMW
series. So sheet with Kalyanpur (77.65489°E 24.11981°N) would be in 'G-43' (from NG-43):

c. Each 6°×4° rectangle is further subdivided into 24 squares of 1°×1°. Each square is indicated
serially by an alphabet increasing first towards east and then towards south, starting with 'A'. So
sheet for Kalyanpur (77.65489°E 24.11981°N) falls within 'G-43X':

2. Each 1°×1° square is further divided into 16 squares of 15'×15' (15 minutes×15 minutes). Each square is
indicated serially by a number increasing first towards south and then towards east, starting with '1' (similar
to the system adopted in India and Adjacent Countries). So for the map sheet for Kalyanpur (77°39.293'E
24°7.187'N) would be 'G-43X-12':