About Iucn

About IUCN
What is the World Conservation Union?
The World Conservation Union is the world’s largest and most important conservation
network. The Union brings together 83 States, 110 government agencies, more than 800 non-
governmental organizations (NGOs), and some 10,000 scientists and experts from 181
countries in a unique worldwide partnership.
The Union’s mission is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to
conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources
is equitable and ecologically sustainable.
The World Conservation Union is a multicultural, multilingual organization with 1100 staff
located in 40 countries. Its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland.
What does IUCN stand for?
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
Use of the name “World Conservation Union” began in 1990, but the full name and the
acronym are often used together as many people still know the Union as IUCN.
The World Conservation Union was founded in October 1948 as the International Union for
the Protection of Nature (or IUPN) following an international conference in Fontainebleau,
France. The organization changed its name to the International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources in 1956.
Why does the World need the World Conservation Union?
While the idea of conserving the environment has steadily gained political acceptance over
the past few decades, people still misunderstand and ignore the goods and services that
nature, biodiversity and ecosystems provide to us.
For example, 16,119 species of animals and plants are threatened with extinction and many
ecosystems – wetlands, forests – are being degraded and destroyed, while we know that
natural ecosystems provide humans with a large range of highly valuable services.
The importance of well-functioning ecosystems in helping reduce poverty and improve

livelihoods, societies and economies is increasingly clear to scientists. This knowledge needs
be integrated into the decisions and actions of local, national and international policy makers
in all sectors, as well as business leaders.
The World Conservation Union continues to improve scientific understanding of what natural
ecosystems provide to humans. But the Union also seeks to ensure this knowledge is used in
practical ways by bringing together scientists, policy makers, business leaders and NGOs to
impact the way the world values and uses nature.
What Does the Union do?
The World Conservation Union supports and develops cutting-edge conservation science;
implements this research in field projects around the world; and then links both research and
results to local, national, regional and global policy by convening dialogues between
governments, civil society and the private sector.
The priority of the Union’s current Programme (2005–2008) is to build recognition of the many
ways in which human lives and livelihoods, especially of the poor, depend on the sustainable
management of natural resources.
In its projects, the Union applies sound ecosystem management to conserve biodiversity and
builds sustainable livelihoods for those directly dependent on natural resources. The Union is
actively engaged in managing and restoring ecosystems and improving people’s lives,
economies and societies.
The Union’s databases, assessments, guidelines and case studies, prepared by its global
membership, Commissions and Secretariat, are among the world’s most respected and
frequently cited sources of information and reference on the environment.
As the world’s largest environmental knowledge network, the Union has helped over 75
countries to prepare and implement national conservation and biodiversity strategies. The
Union also has the official status of Observer at the United Nations General Assembly.
Some examples:
Knowledge
 Monitoring the state of the world’s species through the IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species
 Contributing to and supporting the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
 Convening multi stakeholder events such as the World Parks Congress in 2003
 Disseminating the Union’s knowledge and expertise through the World
Conservation Bookstore
Policy
 Giving policy advice and technical support to governments, UN organizations,

international conventions and other groupings such as the G8 and G77.
 Assessing all new sites nominated for natural World Heritage Site listing
 Contributing technical assistance to prepare national biodiversity strategies and
action plans
 Providing technical support for drafting environmental laws and natural resource
management strategies
Action
 Through the Water and Nature Initiative, working with 80 partners in a five-year
global action plan in 10 water basins
 Through the Forest for Life Strategy, promoting wise management through
guidelines for fire prevention and community management of forest resources
 Working with the corporate sector on energy and biodiversity, and mining and
protected areas
 Facilitating Parks for Peace between countries in areas of conflict
1. About ILO Türkçe
Goals and Objectives
The International Labour Organization founded in 1919 is the

UN specialized agency which seeks the promotion of social
justice and internationally recognized human and labour rights.
ILO formulates international labour standards in the form of

Conventions and Recommendations setting minimum standards
of basic labour rights; freedom of association, the right to
organize, collective bargaining, abolition of forced labour,
equality of opportunity and treatment, and other standards
regulating conditions across the entire spectrum of work related
issues. It provides technical assistance primarily in the fields of
vocational training and vocational rehabilitation; employment
policy; labour law and industrial relations; working conditions;
management development; cooperatives; social security;
labour statistics and occupational safety and health. It
promotes the development of independent employers’ and
workers’ organizations and provides training and advisory
services to those organizations. Within the UN system, ILO has
unique tripartite structure with workers and employers
participating as equal partners with governments in the work of
its governing organs.
FOUR CURRENT STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES OF THE ILO
1. Promote and realise fundamental principles and rights at

work.
2. Create greater opportunities for women and men to secure

decent employment and income.
3. Enhance the coverage and effectiveness of social protection

for all.
4. Strengthen tripartism and social dialogue. - The identification

and development of eight new international focus (InFocus)
programmes in support of the Strategic Objectives namely:
a) Promoting the Declaration (Declaration on Fundamental

Principles and Rights at Work which was adopted by the 86th
International Labour Conference, in June 1998).
b) Progressive elimination of child labour, promoting

development.
c) Reconstruction and employment-intensive investment.
d) Investing in knowledge, skills and employability.
e) Boosting employment through small enterprise

development.
f) SafeWork: Security and productivity through safety and

health at work.
g) Economic and social security in the twenty-first century.
h) Strengthening the social partners.

How the ILO works
The International Labour Conference meets annually. It

provides an International forum for discussion of world
labour and social problems and sets minimum
international labour standards and broad policies of the
Organisation. Every two years, the Conference adopts the
ILO’s biennial work programme and budget, which is
financed by member States.
Each member country has the right to send four

delegates to the Conference: two from the government
and one each representing workers and employers, each
of whom may speak and vote independently.
Between Conferences, the work of the ILO is guided by

the Governing Body, comprising 28 government
members and 14 workers and 14 employer members.
The International Labour Office in Geneva is the

Organisation’s secretariat, operational headquarters,
research centre and publishing house. Administration
and management are decentralized in regional area and
branch offices in more than 40 countries.
The work of the Governing Body and of the Office is aided

by tripartite committees covering major industries, and
by committees of experts on such matters as vocational
training, management development, occupational safety
and health, industrial relations, workers’ education and
special problems of women and young workers.
Regional conferences of the ILO member States are held

periodically to examine matters of special interest to the
regions concerned.
The International Labour Office is headed by a Director-

General appointed by the Governing Body. Since 1919,
nine men have led the ILO: the Frenchman Albert
Thomas (1919-1932), Harold Butler of Britain (1932-
1938), the American John Winant (1939-1941), Edward
Phelan of Ireland (1941-1948), The American David
Morse (1948-1970), Wilfred Jenks of Britain (1970-
1973), Francis Blanchard of France (1973-1989), Michel
Hansenne, former Minister of Employment and Labour of
Belgium (1989-1999), and since March 1999 Juan
Somavia of Chile.
WHAT IS "CHILD LABOR"?

"Child labor" is, generally speaking, work for children that harms them or
exploits them in some way (physically, mentally, morally, or by blocking
access to education).
BUT: There is no universally accepted definition of "child labor". Varying definitions of
the term are used by international organizations, non-governmental organizations,
trade unions and other interest groups. Writers and speakers don’t always specify
what definition they are using, and that often leads to confusion.
Not all work is bad for children. Some social scientists point out that some kinds of
work may be completely unobjectionable — except for one thing about the work that
makes it exploitative. For instance, a child who delivers newspapers before school
might actually benefit from learning how to work, gaining responsibility, and earn a bit
of money. But what if the child is not paid? Then he or she is being exploited. As
Unicef’s 1997 State of the World’s Children Report puts it, "Children’s work needs to
be seen as happening along a continuum, with destructive or exploitative work at one
end and beneficial work - promoting or enhancing children’s development without
interfering with their schooling, recreation and rest - at the other. And between these
two poles are vast areas of work that need not negatively affect a child’s
development." Other social scientists have slightly different ways of drawing the line
between acceptable and unacceptable work.
Not all work is bad for children. Some social scientists point out that some kinds of
work may be completely unobjectionable — except for one thing about the work that
makes it exploitative. For instance, a child who delivers newspapers before school
might actually benefit from learning how to work, gaining responsibility, and a bit of
money. But what if the child is not paid? Then he or she is being exploited. As Unicef’s
1997 State of the World’s Children Report puts it, "Children’s work needs to be seen
as happening along a continuum, with destructive or exploitative work at one end and
beneficial work - promoting or enhancing children’s development without interfering
with their schooling, recreation and rest - at the other. And between these two poles
are vast areas of work that need not negatively affect a child’s development." Other
social scientists have slightly different ways of drawing the line between acceptable
and unacceptable work.
International conventions also define "child labor" as activities such as soldiering and
prostitution. Not everyone agrees with this definition. Some child workers themselves
think that illegal work (such as prostitution) should not be considered in the definition
of "child labor." The reason: These child workers would like to be respected for their
legal work, because they feel they have no other choice but to work. For further
discussion of this dispute, see New Internationalist Magazine, No. 292, July 1997
issue on Child Labor.
To avoid confusion, when writing or speaking about "child labor," it’s best to explain
exactly what you mean by child labor — or, if someone else is speaking, ask for a
definition. This website uses the first definition cited in this section: "Child labor" is
work for children under age 18 that in some way harms or exploits them (physically,
mentally, morally, or by blocking children from education).
Back to Top
WHO IS A "CHILD"?
International conventions define children as aged 18 and under.
Individual governments may define "child" according to different ages or other criteria.
"Child" and "childhood" are also defined differently by different cultures. A "child" is not
necessarily delineated by a fixed age. Social scientists point out that children’s abilities
and maturities vary so much that defining a child’s maturity by calendar age can be
misleading. For a discussion, see Jo Boyden, Birgitta Ling, William Myers, "What
Works for Working Children" (Stockholm: Radda Barnen and Unicef, 1998), pp 9-26.
WHO ARE CHILD LABORERS? AND HOW MANY ARE THERE?

In 2000, the ILO estimates, "246 million child workers aged 5 and 17 were involved in
child labor, of which 171 million were involved in work that by its nature is hazardous
to their safety, physical or mental health, and moral development. Moreover, some 8.4
million children were engaged in so-called 'unconditional' worst forms of child labor,
which include forced and bonded labor, the use of children in armed conflict, trafficking
in children and commercial sexual exploitation." -- see "Every Child Counts"
(www.ilo.org/public/english/ standards/ipec/simpoc/others/globalest.pdf)
Unicef’s State of the World’s Children Report says only that although the exact
number is not known, it is surely in the hundreds of millions.
More information about who child laborers are, where they live, and new statistics on
the total number can be found on www.ilo.org; also, the US Dept. of Labor’s By The
Sweat and Toil of Children, Vol. VI: An Economic Consideration of Child Labor.
( http://www.dol.gov/)
For more information about individual child laborers, see stories produced by
Child Labor and the Global Village: Photography for Social Change.
Back to Top
WHERE DO CHILD LABORERS LIVE?

61% in Asia, 32% in Africa, and 7% in Latin America, 1% in US, Canada, Europe and
other wealthy nations In Asia, 22% of the workforce is children. In Latin America, 17%
of the workforce is children. The proportion of child laborers varies a lot among
countries and even regions inside those countries. See Child Labour: Targeting the
Intolerable, Geneva, 1998, p. 7; and other ILO publications.
"In Africa, one child in three is at work, and in Latin America, one child in five works. In
both these continents, only a tiny proportion of child workers are involved in the formal
sector and the vast majority of work is for their families, in homes, in the fields or on
the streets." -- Unicef’s 1997 State of the World’s Children Report
Back to Top
IS THERE CHILD LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES?

Yes, if you are talking about "child labor" as defined by the US law. The Fair Labor
Standards Act sets the minimum working age as 15, with some exceptions. For a copy
of the Fair Labor Standards Act, see the US Dept. of Labor’s Employment Standards
Administration of the Wage and Hour Division, http://www.elaws.dol.gov/flsa/docs/flsa-
child-pubs.htm.
In the United States: An estimated 290,200 children were unlawfully employed in

1996. Some — it’s not clear how many — were "older teens working a few too many
hours in after-school jobs." About 59,600 were younger than age 14, and some 13,100
worked in garment sweatshops, according to an Associated Press series on child
labor published in December 1997. (Available on www.igc.org, by searching for "child
labor" on IGC sites and IGC member sites.)
Unicef’s 1997 State of the World’s Children Report says "The growth of the service
sector and the quest for a more flexible workforce in industrialized countries, such as
the United Kingdom and the US, have contributed to an expansion of child labour."
"Hundreds of thousands" of children work in US agriculture, according to a report by

Human Rights Watch published in June 2000. See
http://www.hrw.org/reports/2000/frmwrkr/.
Back to Top
WHAT DO CHILD LABORERS DO?

Work ranges from taking care of animals and planting and harvesting food, to many
kinds of small manufacturing (e.g. of bricks and cement), auto repair, and making of
footwear and textiles. (See a list in US Dept. of Labor, By the Sweat & Toil of Children,
Vo. V: Efforts to Eliminate Child Labor, Appendix C. http://www.dol.gov
A large proportion of children whom the ILO classifies as child laborers work in
agriculture.
See Child Labour: Targeting the Intolerable (1998) "Every Child Counts" (2002) and
other ILO publications (http://www.ilo.org).
More boys than girls work outside their homes. But more girls work in some jobs: for
instance, as domestic maids. Being a maid in someone’s house can be risky. Maids
typically are cut off from friends and family, and can easily be physically or sexually
abused by their employers.
Note: Less than 5% of child laborers make products for export to other countries.
Sources for this statistic include Unicef’s State of the World’s Children Report 1997.
Back to Top
WHY SHOULD WE CARE?

Many children in hazardous and dangerous jobs are in danger of injury, even death.
Beyond compassion, consider who today’s children will become in the future. Between
today and the year 2020, the vast majority of new workers, citizens and new
consumers — whose skills and needs will build the world’s economy and society —
will come from developing countries. Over that 20-year period, some 730 million
people will join the world’s workforce — more than all the people employed in today's
most developed nations in 2000. More than 90 percent of these new workers will be
from developing nations, according to research by Population Action International.
How many will have had to work at an early age, destroying their health or hampering
their education?
Back to Top
HOW CAN ORDINARY PEOPLE HELP REDUCE CHILD LABOR?

Learn about the issue. Support organizations that are raising awareness, and
providing direct help to individual children.
HOW WAS CHILD LABOR REDUCED IN TODAY’S DEVELOPED

COUNTRIES?
Four main changes took place:
1. economic development that raised family incomes and living

standards
2. widespread, affordable, required and relevant education
3. enforcement of anti-child labor laws (along with compulsory
education laws)
4. changes in public attitudes toward children that elevated the
importance of education
Sources of information about the history of include Hugh Cunningham and Pier Paolo
Viazzo, eds, Child abour in Historical Perspective, 1800-1985: Case Studies from
Europe, Japan and Columbia (Florence: Unicef, 1996). Other sources of information
about history — and controversies about which of the four elements were most
important, are listed on the site www.childlabor.org.
Back to Top
WHAT ARE SOME "MYTHS" OR MISUNDERSTANDINGS ABOUT

CHILD LABOR?
Unicef lists four "myths":
1. It is a myth that child labor is only a problem in developing

countries. "But in fact, children routinely work in all industrialized
countries, and hazardous forms of child labour can be found in
many countries. In the US, for example, children are employed in
agriculture, a high proportion of them from immigrant or ethnic-
minority families. A 1990 survey of Mexican-American children
working in the farms of New York state showed that almost half
had worked in fields still wet with pesticides and over a third had
themselves been sprayed."
2. It is a myth that child labor will only disappear when poverty
disappears. Hazardous labor can, and should be eliminated by
even the poorest countries.
3. It is a myth that most child laborers work in sweatshops making
goods for export. "Soccer balls made by children in Pakistan for
use by children in industrialized countries may provide a
compelling symbol, but in fact, only a very small proportion of all
child workers are employed in export industries - probably less
than 5 per cent. Most of the world’s child labourers actually are to
be found in the informal sector - selling on the street, at work in
agriculture or hidden away in houses – far from the reach of
official labour inspectors and from media scrutiny."
4. It is a myth that "the only way to make headway against child
labour is for consumers and governments to apply pressure
through sanctions and boycotts. While international commitment
and pressure are important, boycotts and other sweeping
measures can only affect export sectors, which are relatively
small exploiters of child labour. Such measures are also blunt
instruments with long-term consequences that can actually harm
rather than help the children involved."
(Source: Unicef State of the World’s Children’s Report, 1997, "Four Myths about Child
Labor," http://www.unicef.org/sowc97/)
Back to Top
WHAT CAUSES CHILD LABOR TODAY?

Poverty is widely considered the top reason why children work at inappropriate jobs
for their ages. But there are other reasons as well -- not necessarily in this order:
1. family expectations and traditions

2. abuse of the child
3. lack of good schools and day care
4. lack of other services, such as health care
5. public opinion that downplays the risk of early work for children
6. uncaring attitudes of employers
7. limited choices for women
"The parents of child labourers are often unemployed or underemployed, desperate

for secure employment and income. Yet it is their children - more powerless and paid
less - who are offered the jobs. In other words, says UNICEF, children are employed
because they are easier to exploit," according to the "Roots of Child Labor" in Unicef’s
1997 State of the World’s Children Report.
The report also says that international economic trends also have increased child
labor in poor countries. "During the 1980s, in many developing countries, government
indebtedness, unwise internal economic policies and recession resulted in economic
crisis. Structural adjustment programmes in many countries accentuated cuts in social
spending that have hit the poor disproportionately. " Although structural adjustment
programs are being revised to spare education from deep cuts, the report says, some
countries make such cuts anyway because of their own, local priorities. In many
countries public education has deteriorated so much, the report declared, that
education itself has become part of the problem — because children work to avoid
going to school. This conclusion is supported by the work of many social scientists,
according to Jo Boyden, Birgitta Ling, and William Myers, who conducted a literature
search for their 1998 book, What Works for Working Children (Stockholm: Radda
Barnen, Unicef, 1998).
Children do some types of low-status work, the report adds, because children come
from minority groups or populations that have long suffered discrimination. " In
northern Europe, for example, child labourers are likely to be African or Turkish; in
Argentina, many are Bolivian or Paraguayan; in Thailand, many are from Myanmar. An
increasingly consumer-oriented culture, spurring the desire and expectation for
consumer goods, can also lead children into work and away from school."
Other sources: Child Labor: Targeting the Intolerable, published by ILO, Geneva,
1998. ILO information available using: www.ilo.org.
Back to Top
WHAT ARE SOME SOLUTIONS TO CHILD LABOR?

Not necessarily in this order:
1. Increased family incomes

2. Education — that helps children learn skills that will help them
earn a living
3. Social services — that help children and families survive crises,
such as disease, or loss of home and shelter
4. Family control of fertility — so that families are not burdened by
children
The ILO’s International Programme for the Elimination of Child Labor (IPEC) has
explored many programs to help child laborers. See IPEC documents on the
www.ilo.org site.
The 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child calls for children to participate in
important decisions that will affect their lives.
Some educators and social scientists believe that one of the most important ways to
help child workers is to ask their opinions, and involve them in constructing "solutions"
to their own problems. Strong advocates of this approach are Boyden, Myers and
Ling; Concerned for Working Children in Karnataka, India; many children’s "unions"
and "movements," and the Save the Children family of non-governmental
organizations.
More information about the need for families to have affordable access to methods to
control their fertility can be found in many analyses of the role of the "demographic
transition" in economic development. See Rodolfo Bulatao, The Value of Family
Planning Programs in Developing Countries ( Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 1998),
http://www.rand.org/publications/MR/MR978/
World Red Cross Day Celebration:

Nepal Declared Red Cross Emblem Misuse-free Country
Nepal has been declared Red Cross Emblem misuse free

country. The declaration was made amidst a function
organized to mark the World Red Cross Day, 2007 at
Basantapur Kathmandu. Every year, World Red Cross (WRC)
Day is celebrated by the national societies in 185 countries
of the world on May 8, the birthday of John Henry Dunant,
the pioneer of Movement. The theme of the WRC Day 2007
was "Together for Humanity".
In Nepal, the WRC Day 2007 was celebrated with different

programmes throughout the country. In Kathmandu, Red
Cross staff and volunteers rallied from the Open Theatre to
Basantapur Darbar Square with banners and placards of Red
Cross fundamental principles and movement slogans.
Together for Humanity: Partners of Red Cross
movement joining hands to mark the WRC Day
Following the rally, a special public event was organized at
Basantapur in which Chairman of Nepal Red Cross Society
(NRCS), Sanjeev Kumar Thapa said NRCS is the largest
humanitarian organization of Nepal with its over 9,80,000
members including thousands of volunteers providing humanitarian service all over the country. He added, "The
Society has been working together with other humanitarian organizations both within and outside the movement
to make the service wider and more effective." Appreciating the support obtained from these organizations at its
works, Chairman Thapa pointed out that NRCS aims to continue to lead the humanitarian activities both in times of
peace as well as armed conflict and disasters in the country.
Declaring Kathmandu free from Red Cross Emblem misuse

President of NRCS Kathmandu District Chapter Mukunda
Bahadur Pradhan said, "It is only Nepal Red Cross Society
which is authorized to use the Red Cross emblem." Similarly,
in his welcome speech, NRCS Secretary General Dev Ratna
Dhakhwa, highlighted the success of Red Cross Campaign
against Emblem Misuse and added that it can also be
emulated by other partner societies in South Asia. He
expressed a firm hope that this campaign might enhance
Red Cross image and its access in humanitarian activities.
Addressing the event at Basantapur, the ICRC Head of

Delegates Merry Werntz said "This is the day to share ideas
among the volunteers who are ready to serve the vulnerable
community at every moment. Similarly, Federation
Representative to Nepal Nick Russell said, "In the
Juniors observing the art works prepared by humanitarian service, including rescue and relief works, all
the contestants of "Kathmandu Valley
the Red Cross volunteers should work closely together
Children's Art Competition"
irrespective of geographical and other differences. He
added, "Red Cross Day helps us to remain united."
On the occasion, prizes and certificates were distributed to

the participants of Kathmandu Valley Children's Art
Competition. In the competition participated be 98 students
from more than 50 different schools, Supriya Joshi of D. A.
V. Shushil Kedia Vishwa Bharati had won the first prize.
Likewise, Ashmi Lama of Peace Point Boarding School, Subin
Shrestha of Balsewa Secondary School, and Madina Miya of
Maryland International English were awarded the second,
third and fourth prizes respectively.
Ashmi Lama, one of the contestants who had painted on the

theme "Together for Humanity" said, "Through my painting
I have tried to express that the power of all lies in humanity
and unity".
On the occasion, the first aid volunteers NRCS Kathmandu

and Lalitpur district chapters organized activities to
disseminate information on first aid. A first aid post was also Demonstration on 'Learn First aid in 15
installed at Basantapur where the celebration activities for minutes'
the day took place. One of the activities that drew public
attention was the 'simulation drill' of a motorcycle accident
in which first aid activities were simulated. The scene could
create such a realistic effect that most people took the event to be real till the end.
After that the First Aid team demonstrated a 'Learn first aid in 15 minutes', activity to deliver the message on first
aid to the public. Thus the public got chance to know some techniques on first aid application for bleeding, shock
and unconsciousness. It also made them realize the importance of knowledge on first aid.
The World Red Cross Day was jointly organized by the three partners of the movement The International
Federation, the ICRC and NRCS. The movement is always in the front line in terms of providing prompt
humanitarian service to vulnerable communities of the world.
The enthusiastic participation and wide media coverage of the event have indicated that Red Cross image and its
humanitarian work have been deeply rooted in Nepalese minds.
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Geography
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search
Map of the Earth

Geography (from the Greek words Geo (γη) or Gaea (γαια), both meaning "Earth", and graphein (γραφειν)
meaning "to describe" or "to write"or "to map") is the study of the earth and its features, inhabitants, and
phenomena.[1] A literal translation would be "to describe the Earth". The first person to use the word "geography"
was Eratosthenes (275-195 B.C.). Four historical traditions in geographical research are the spatial analysis of
natural and human phenomena (geography as a study of distribution), area studies (places and regions), study of
man-land relationship, and research in earth sciences.[2] Nonetheless, modern geography is an all-encompassing
discipline that foremost seeks to understand the world and all of its human and natural complexities-- not merely
where objects are, but how they have changed and come to be. As "the bridge between the human and physical
sciences," geography is divided into two main branches - human geography and physical geography. [3]
Contents
[hide]
 1 Introduction
 2 History of geography
 3 Branches of geography
o 3.1 Physical geography
o 3.2 Human geography
o 3.3 Environmental geography
o 3.4 Geomatics
o 3.5 Regional geography
o 3.6 Related fields
 4 Geographical techniques
o 4.1 Cartography
o 4.2 Geographic information
systems
o 4.3 Remote sensing
o 4.4 Geographic quantitative
methods
o 4.5 Geographic qualitative
methods
 5 Selective list of notable geographers
 6 References
 7 See also
 8 External links
[edit] Introduction
Traditionally, geography as well as geographers has been viewed as the same as cartography and people who
study place names. Although many geographers are trained in toponymy and cartography, this is not their main
preoccupation. Geographers study the spatial and temporal distribution of phenomena, processes and feature as
well as the interaction of humans and their environment.[4] As space and place affect a variety of topics such as
economics, health, climate, plants and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary.
mere names of places...are not geography... know by heart a whole gazetteer

“ full of them would not, in itself, constitute anyone a geographer. Geography
has higher aims than this: it seeks to classify phenomena (alike of the
natural and of the political world, in so far as it treats of the latter), to
compare, to generalize, to ascend from effects to causes, and, in doing so, to
trace out the great laws of nature and to mark their influences upon man.
This is 'a description of the world'—that is Geography. In a word Geography
is a Science—a thing not of mere names but of argument and reason, of
cause and effect. ”
— William Hughes 1863[5]
Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main sub fields: human geography and physical geography.
The former focuses largely on the built environment and how space is created, viewed and managed by humans
as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. The latter examines the natural environment and
how the climate, vegetation & life, soil, water and landforms are produced and interact.[6] As a result of the two
subfields using different approaches a third field has emerged, which is environmental geography. Environmental
geography combines physical and human geography and looks at the interactions between the environment and
humans.[4]
[edit] History of geography

See main article: History of geography
Geography
History of geography
 Age of Discovery
 Environmental determinism
 Regional geography
 Quantitative revolution
 Critical geography
The ideas of Anaximander of Miletus (c. 610 B.C.-c. 545 B.C.), considered by later Greek writers to be the true
founder of geography, come to us through fragments quoted by his successors. Anaximander is credited with the
invention of the gnomon,the simple yet efficient Greek instrument that allowed the early measurement of latitude.
Thales, Anximander is also credited with the prediction of eclipses. The foundations of geography can be traced to
the ancient cultures, such as the ancient, medieval, and early modern Chinese. The Greeks, who were the first to
explore geography as both art and science, achieved this through Cartography, Philosophy, and Literature, or
through Mathematics. There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the Earth is spherical in
shape, with the credit going either to Parmenides or Pythagoras. Anaxagoras was able to demonstrate that the
profile of the Earth was circular by explaining eclipses. However, he still believed that the Earth was a flat disk, as
did many of his contemporaries. One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by Eratosthenes.[7]
The first rigorous system of latitude and longitude lines is credited to Hipparchus. He employed a sexagesimal
system that was derived from Babylonian mathematics. The parallels and meridians were sub-divided into 360°,
with each degree further subdivided 60′ (minutes). To measure the longitude at different location on Earth, he
suggested using eclipses to determine the relative difference in time. [8] The extensive mapping by the Romans as
they explored new lands would later provide a high level of information for Ptolemy to construct detailed atlases.
He extended the work of Hipparchus, using a grid system on his maps and adopting a length of 56.5 miles for a
degree.[9]
During the Middle Ages, the fall of the Roman empire led to a shift in the evolution of geography from Europe to the
Islamic world.[10] Scholars such as Idrisi (produced detailed maps), Ibn Batutta, and Ibn Khaldun provided detailed
accounts of their Hajj. Further, Islamic scholars translated and interpreted the earlier works of the Romans and
Greeks and established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad for this purpose.[11] From the 3rd century onwards,
Chinese methods of geographical study and writing of geographical literature became much more complex than
what was found in Europe at the time (until the 13th century).[10] Chinese geographers such as Liu An, Shen Kuo,
Fan Chengda, Zhou Daguan, and Xu Xiake wrote important treatises, yet by the 17th century, advanced ideas and
methods of Western-style geography were adopted in China.
Self portrait of Alexander Von Humbolt, one of the early pioneers of geography
The Age of discovery during the 16th and 17th centuries where many new lands were discovered and accounts by
explorers such as Christopher Columbus, Marco Polo and James Cook, revived a desire for both accurate
geographic detail, and more solid theoretical foundations.[citation needed]
The 18th and 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete academic discipline
and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and Berlin). The development of
many geographic societies also occurred during the 19th century with the foundations of the Société de
Géographie in 1821,[12] the Royal Geographical Society in 1830,[13] Russian Geographical Society in 1845,[14]
American Geographical Society in 1851,[15] and the National Geographic Society in1888.[16] The influence of
Immanuel Kant, Alexander von Humbolt, Carl Ritter and Paul Vidal de la Blache can be seen as a major turning
point in geography from a philosophy to an academic subject.
Over the past two centuries the advancements in technology such as computers, have led to the development of
geomatics and new practices such as participant observation and geostatistics being incorporated into geography's
portfolio of tools. In the West during the 20th century, the discipline of geography went through four major phases:
environmental determinism, regional geography, the quantitative revolution, and critical geography. The strong
interdisciplinary links between geography and the sciences of geology and botany, as well as economics,
sociology and demographics have also grown greatly especially as a result of Earth System Science that seeks to
understand the world in a holistic view.
[edit] Branches of geography

[edit] Physical geography
Physical geography (or physiogeography) focuses on geography as an Earth science. It aims to understand the
physical features of the Earth, its lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, pedosphere and global flora and fauna
patterns (biosphere). Physical Geography can be divided into the following broad categories:
 Biogeography  Hydrology/Hydrograph
 Climatology and y
paleoclimatolog o Limnology
y  Landscape ecology
 Coastal/Marine  Oceanography
studies  Pedology
 Environmental The surface of the Earth as
Geography and  Palaeogeography seen from space (photo
management montage)
 Geodesy
 Geomorphology
 Glaciology
[edit] Human geography
Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape
human interaction with various environments. It encompasses human, political, cultural, social, and economic
aspects. While the major focus of human geography is not the physical landscape of the Earth (see physical
geography), it is hardly possible to discuss human geography without referring to the physical landscape on which
human activities are being played out, and environmental geography is emerging as a link between the two.
Human geography can be divided into many broad categories, such as:
 Economic  Political
geography geography
 Transportation , including
geography Geopolitic
 Development s*
geography  Historical
 Population geography
geography or  Time
Demography* geography
 Urban  Regional Population density by country, 2006
geography geography
 Social  Tourism
geography geography
 Behavioral  Strategic
geography geography
 Geosophy  Military
geography
 Cultural  Feminist
geography geography
 Children's
geographi
es
*
– Distinction between these fields of study have become increasingly blurred over time and the
above list should not be considered definitive.
[edit] Environmental geography
Environmental geography is the branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between
humans and the natural world. It requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human
geography, as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the environment.
Environmental geography has emerged as a bridge between human and physical geography as a result of the
increasing specialisation of the two sub-fields. Furthermore, as human relationship with the environment has
changed as a result of globalisation and technological change a new approach was needed to understand the
changing and dynamic relationship. Examples of areas of research in environmental geography include disaster
management, environmental management, sustainability and political ecology.
[edit] Geomatics
Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

Geomatics is a branch of geography that has emerged since the quantitative revolution in geography in the mid
1950s. Geomatics involves the use of traditional spatial techniques used in cartography and topography and their
application to computers. Geomatics has become a widespread field with many other disciplines using techniques
such as GIS and remote sensing. Geomatics has also lead to a revitalisation of some geography departments
especially in Northern America where the subject had a declining status during the 1950s.
Geomatics encompasses a large area of fields involved with spatial analysis, such as Cartography, Geographic
information systems (GIS), Remote sensing and GPS.
[edit] Regional geography

Main article: Regional geography
Regional geography is a branch of geography that studies the regions of all sizes across the Earth. It has a
prevailing descriptive character. The main aim is to understand or define the uniqueness or character of a
particular region which consists of natural as well as human elements. Attention is paid also to regionalization
which covers the proper techniques of space delimitation into regions.
Regional geography is also considered as a certain

approach to study in geographical sciences (similar
to quantitative or critical geographies, for more
informatioCauses of the French Revolution
The French Revolution has been viewed as the major turning point in European political and social history.
The revolution was an uprising that brought the regime of King Louis XVI to an end. The causes that led to
this bloody revolution can be looked at from an economic, political, social, and intellectual standpoint. Failed
reforms, famine, the Enlightenment, a corrupt bureaucracy, and a divided population are only some of the
many aspects that helped influence a revolution to take place in late eighteenth century France.
Economically, France’s government was virtually bankrupt and in debt. The immediate cause of the French
Revolution was the near collapse of government finances. Since 1614, which was the last meeting of the Estates
General before the revolutionary era, the French monarchy had carried out its business without resort to a
legislature. This led to a fiscal crisis in the French government. Due to the spending of Louis XVI on royal
extravagance, the Seven Years War, and aid to America during the American revolution, France was in debt and
had no means of instituting a fair taxation system. The main concern of the nobles in France was their privileges;
this also contribute
...
The Third Estate was against the traditional method and insisted on voting by head. Origins of the revolution can
be viewed socially; the Enlightenment and the American War for Independence also played a huge role influencing
revolutionary thinkers in France. The Declaration of Independence, written by Thomas Jefferson, affirmed the
Enlightenments natural rights of “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Every time a tax reform was proposed,
the First Estate voted against it. With the Estates-General being politically divided, the actions of the Third Estate
constituted the first step in the French revolution and was no doubt the most significant cause leading to the
revolution.
The attempted political reforms in France were weak and ineffective, not to mention to late. The Third Estate
represented 97% of the population and received double representation in elections. The financial crisis in France is
what forced a meeting of the Estates-General in May of 1789. The Estates-General opened at Versailles on May 5,
1789. The purpose of the emergency meeting called by Louis XVI was to address the financial crisis and propose
reforms. The monarchial system based on wealth an privileges tied in with the old social order based on estates
also did not please the commoners of France. Although serfdom did not exist anymore in France, peasants still
had obligations to their local landlords that they were not fond of. The First and Second Estates made up of the
clergy and the nobles were fixed on preserving and even expanding their privileges, while the Third Estate
concentrated on logical reforms based on equality and efficiency of government. When France came to the aid of
America in the American revolution, they witnessed how popular eighteenth century philosophies were among the
American colonists, and how united and efficient the American government was becoming. The actions of the Third
Estate is considered the first step in the revolution because the Third Estate itself had no right to act as the
National Assembly.
n see History of geography). Causes of the French

Revolution
...
revolution.
National Assembly.
Causes of the French Revolution

...
revolution.
National Assembly.
Causes of the French Revolution
...
revolution.
National Assembly.
Electrolysis

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Please help recruit one or improve this article yourself. See the talk page for details.
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This article is about the chemical process. For the cosmetic hair removal
procedure, see Electrology.
In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a method of separating bonded elements and compounds by
passing an electric current through them. This can be seen in isolating copper compound from its ore.
Contents
[hide]
 1 Overview (Explanation)
 2 Electrolysis of water
 3 Experimenters
 4 First law of electrolysis
 5 Second law of
electrolysis
 6 Industrial uses
 7 See also
[edit] Overview (Explanation)

An ionic compound is dissolved with an appropriate solvent, or melted by heat, so that its ions are available in the
liquid. An electrical current is applied between a pair of inert electrodes immersed in the liquid. The negatively
charged electrode is called the cathode, and the positively charged one the anode. Each electrode attracts ions
which are of the opposite charge. Therefore, positively charged ions (called cations) move towards the cathode,
while negatively charged ions (termed anions) move toward the anode. The energy required to separate the ions,
and cause them to gather at the respective electrodes, is provided by an electrical power supply. At the probes,
electrons are absorbed or released by the ions, forming a collection of the desired element or compound.
In electrolysis, the anode is the positive electrode, meaning it has a deficit of electrons; species in contact with the
anode can be stripped of electrons (i.e., they are oxidized). The cathode is the negative electrode, meaning it has
a surplus of electrons. Species in contact with the cathode tend to gain electrons (i.e., they are reduced).
The amount of electrical energy that must be added equals the change in Gibbs free energy of the reaction plus
the losses in the system. The losses can (theoretically) be arbitrarily close to zero, so the maximum
thermodynamic efficiency equals the enthalpy change divided by the free energy change of the reaction. In most
cases the electric input is larger than the enthalpy change of the reaction, so some energy is released in the form
of heat. In some cases, for instance in the electrolysis of steam into hydrogen and oxygen at high temperature, the
opposite is true. Heat is absorbed from the surroundings, and the heating value of the produced hydrogen is higher
than the electric input. (It is worth noting that the maximum theoretic efficiency of a fuel cell is the inverse of that of
electrolysis. It is thus impossible to create a perpetual motion machine by combining the two processes. See water
fuel cell for an example of such an attempt.)
A higher current flow (amperage) through the cell means it will be passing more electrons through it at any given
time. This means a faster rate of reduction at the cathode and a faster rate of oxidation at the anode. This
corresponds to a greater number of moles of product. The amount of current that passes depends on the
conductance of the electrodes and electrolyte, though it also depends on how much current the power source itself
can generate. Current also makes a difference in that it can shift chemical equilibria by sheer mass action. The
processes in an electrolytic cell with just two or three reactants can become very, very complex. Most of the time it
is best to search the literature to see what current density works best for a desired process. For instance, metals
plated at a certain current density might form a durable and shiny coating on the substrate, while some other
current density might form an excessively grainy, dull coating.
A higher potential difference (voltage) applied to the cell means the cathode will have more energy to bring about
reduction, and the anode will have more energy to bring about oxidation. Higher potential difference enables the
electrolytic cell to oxidize and reduce energetically more "difficult" compounds. This can drastically change what
products will form in a given experiment. On a practical level, both current and voltage determine what will form in
a cell.
The following technologies are related to electrolysis:
 Electrochemical
cells, including the
hydrogen fuel cell,
use the reverse of
this process.
 Gel
electrophoresis is
an electrolysis where
the solvent is a gel: it
is used to separate
substances, such as
DNA strands, based
on their electrical
charge.
[edit] Electrolysis of water
Hoffman electrolysis apparatus used in electrolysis of water

Main article: Electrolysis of water
One important use of electrolysis of water is to produce hydrogen.
2H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)

This has been suggested as a way of shifting society toward using hydrogen as an energy carrier for powering
electric motors and internal combustion engines. (See hydrogen economy.)
Electrolysis of water can be observed by passing direct current from a battery or other DC power supply (e.g.
computer power supply 5 volt rail) through a cup of water (in practice a saltwater solution increases the reaction
intensity making it easier to observe). Using platinum electrodes, hydrogen gas will be seen to bubble up at the
cathode, and oxygen will bubble at the anode. If other metals are used as the anode, there is a chance that the
oxygen will react with the anode instead of being released as a gas. For example using iron electrodes in a sodium
chloride solution electrolyte, iron oxide will be produced at the anode, which will react to form iron hydroxide. When
producing large quantities of hydrogen, this can significantly contaminate the electrolytic cell - which is why iron is
not used for commercial electrolysis.
The energy efficiency of water electrolysis varies widely. The efficiency is a measure of what fraction of electrical
energy used is actually contained within the hydrogen. Some of the electrical energy is converted to heat, a
useless by-product. Some reports quote efficiencies between 50–70%[1] This efficiency is based on the Lower
Heating Value of Hydrogen. The Lower Heating Value of Hydrogen is thermal energy released when Hydrogen is
combusted. This does not represent the total amount of energy within the Hydrogen, hence the efficiency is lower
than a more strict definition. Other reports quote the theoretical maximum efficiency of electrolysis. The theoretical
maximum efficiency is between 80–94%.[2]. The theoretical maximum considers the total amount of energy
absorbed by both the hydrogen and oxygen. These values only refer to the efficiency of converting electrical
energy into hydrogen's chemical energy. The energy lost in generating the electricity is not included. For instance,
when considering a power plant that converts the heat of nuclear reactions into hydrogen via electrolysis, the total
efficiency is more like 25–40%.[3]
About four percent of hydrogen gas produced worldwide is created by electrolysis, and normally used onsite.
Hydrogen is used for the creation of ammonia for fertilizer via the Haber process, and converting heavy petroleum
sources to lighter fractions via hydrocracking. There is some speculation about future development of hydrogen as
an energy carrier.
Electrolysis

Contents
[hide]
 3 Experimenters
 5 Second law of
electrolysis
 7 See also

a cell.
 Electrochemical
hydrogen fuel cell,
use the reverse of
this process.
 Gel
electrophoresis is
is used to separate
substances, such as
DNA strands, based
on their electrical
charge.

2H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)

an energy carrier.
Electrolysis

Contents
[hide]
 3 Experimenters
 5 Second law of
electrolysis
 7 See also

a cell.
 Electrochemical
hydrogen fuel cell,
use the reverse of
this process.
 Gel
electrophoresis is
is used to separate
substances, such as
DNA strands, based
on their electrical
charge.

2H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)

an energy carrier.
Electrolysis

Contents
[hide]
 3 Experimenters
 5 Second law of
electrolysis
 7 See also

a cell.
 Electrochemical
hydrogen fuel cell,
use the reverse of
this process.
 Gel
electrophoresis is
is used to separate
substances, such as
DNA strands, based
on their electrical
charge.

2H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)

an energy carrier.
ELECTROLYSIS
Contents for this page Related topics
Introduction
Electrolysis of water Introduction
Extraction of How to balance redox
aluminium reactions
Data
Electrorefining of The Cu-Zn cell
copper Standard electrode Glossary
Electroplating potentials
Faraday's laws of Examples of
electrolysis electrochemical cells
Worked example
Learning Outcomes
After studying this section, you will (a) be familiar with the processes
which take place during electrolysis, and (b) know the use of
electrolysis in the refining of certain metals.
Introduction:
Electrolysis takes place in an electrolytic cell, the
simplest form of which is shown below:
The components which make contact with the

electrolyte are called ELECTRODES. The electrode
which is attached to the negative pole of the battery,
and which supplies electrons to the electrolyte, is
called the CATHODE. Reduction takes place at the
cathode.
The electrode which is attached to the positive pole

of the battery, and which accepts electrons from the
electrolyte, is called the ANODE. Oxidation takes
place at the anode.
When a direct electric current is passed through an

ELECTROLYTE (such as a molten salt or an
aqueous solution of a salt, acid or base), chemical
reactions take place at the contacts between the
circuit and the solution. This process is called
ELECTROLYSIS
.
Various reactions take place at the electrodes during electrolysis. In general, reduction takes place at the
cathode, and oxidation takes place at the anode.
Electrolysis is a hugely important process - many elements were discovered by electrolysis of their salts (the alkali
metals, for example), and it is used industrially in a number of ways:
 The extraction of metals, notably aluminium, magnesium, and

sodium.
 The preparation of halogens, for example chlorine.
 The refining of metals, such as copper and zinc.
At the electrodes, ions become discharged, or the anode may become

oxidized and pass into solution. INERT ELECTRODES are electrodes
which do not undergo any change during electrolysis. Platinum and carbon
are frequently used when inert electrodes are required.
Let us consider what happens when a fairly
concentrated solution of copper(II) chloride (CuCl 2)
is electrolyzed in the cell shown below, where the
electrodes are made of carbon:
When the current is flowing, the following is seen to

happen:
 Metallic copper is
deposited on the cathode
 Chlorine gas is evolved at

the anode.
At the cathode, electrons are supplied to cations, which migrate to the cathode. The Cu2+ cation is discharged by
accepting electrons. At the anode, electrons are supplied to the anions, which migrate to the anode. The half
reactions are
Generally speaking, prediction of the nature of the products is complicated by (i) concentration effects and (ii) the
rate at which the oxidation and reduction of different ions takes place. Standard electrode potentials can give a
rough guide as to what may happen.
As a guide, in fairly concentrated aqueous solution, metals with a positive (reduction potential) will be formed at
the cathode. Otherwise, hydrogen is formed by reduction of water or of the H+ ion. Halogens (chlorine, bromine
and iodine) are formed at the anode when aqueous solutions of halides are electrolyzed. The sulphate ion is not
discharged (oxidized) at the anode in aqueous solution, rather, oxygen is formed by oxidation of water or of the
OH- ion. Thus, electrolysis of sulphates produce oxygen at the anode.
Electrolysis of water:
Water may be electrolyzed in the apparatus shown below. Pure water is however a very poor conductor of
electricity, and one has to add dilute sulphuric acid in order to have a significant current flow.
The electrodes consist of platinum foil. The electrolyte is dilute
sulphuric acid. Hydrogen gas is evolved at the cathode, and
oxygen at the anode.
The ratio, by volume, of hydrogen to oxygen, is exactly 2:1.
Remember that electron flow in the circuit is opposite to the

conventional current flow. Thus, the positive pole of a battery
supplies electrons to the cathode of the electrolytic cell. The
reaction at the cathode (tube A) is the reduction of protons:
Oxidation takes place at the anode (tube B). There are two anions competing to give up their electrons, namely
sulphate (SO42-), and hydroxide (OH-) from the ionization of water. The oxidation of OH- according to the reaction
has a standard electrode potential of -0.40V, compared to the oxidation of sulphate (-0.17V), and consequently,
OH- will be oxidized preferentially. The overall reaction is therefore
Extraction of aluminium:
Aluminium is obtained by the electrolytic reduction of its molten oxide, alumina (Al 2O3). Because alumina has a
very high melting point (2045 ºC), the mineral cryolite (Na 3AlF6) is added to lower the melting point in order that the
elctrolysis may be carried out at about 950 ºC. The electrolytic cell has carbon anodes and a carbon cathode
(which forms the lining of the tank in which the electrolysis takes place). Carbon dioxide is formed at the anodes,
and aluminium at the cathode. It is heavier than the molten alumina/cryolite mixture, and sinks to the bottom of the
cell, where it is tapped off. The procedure is known as the Hall-Heroult process.
Aluminium extraction is very demanding on electrical current (typically, 800 V and 70 000 A), and is economical
only where power is cheap.
Electrorefining of copper:
When copper is first obtained by reduction of its ores, it is cast as impure slabs or ingots, called blister copper. In
the electrorefining process, the blister ingots are used as anodes in an electrolytic cell, where an acid solution of
copper (II) sulphate is used as electrolyte. Initially, the cathodes consist of thin sheets of pure copper.
During electrolysis, copper passes into solution from the anodes, (leaving the impurities, normally containing silver,
gold and platinum) as an anode slime, which sinks to the bottom of the cell. The anode reaction is
At the cathode, copper (II) ions are discharged and the pure copper sheet becomes coated with an increasingly
thick layer of very pure copper:
Electroplating:
>Electroplating consists of depositing a thin layer of a metal on another, either for protection or for the sake of
appearance. Typically, a brass or nickel object is coated with a layer of silver by making use of electrolysis of a
silver solution, using the object to be coated as the cathode:
The anode consist of pure silver, and the cathode is the

object to be plated. The electrolyte is a mixure of silver
nitrate with potassium cyanide.
The reactions are:
At the anode: Ag Ag+ + e-
At the cathode: Ag+ + e- Ag
The cyanide ensures a low concentration of silver ions,

a condition for providing the best plating results.
Faraday's laws of electrolysis:

Faraday's first law may be stated as follows:
Faraday's First Law of Electrolysis

"The amount of any substance deposited, evolved, or dissolved at an
electrode is directly proportional to the amount of electrical charge
passing through the circuit."
The amount of electricity passing through the circuit in a given time is the number of moles of electrons passing
through the circuit in that time, and the charge Q is related to the current I by
The charge on the electron is 1.602 x 10-19 C, and Avogadro's number is 6.023 x 1023. It follows that one mole of
electrons is 9.65 x 104 C. This quantity is known as the Faraday or Faraday's constant (F).
Worked example
Faraday's second law may be stated as follows:
Faraday's Second Law of Electrolysis

"The mass of different substances produced by the same quantity of
electricity are directly proportional to the molar masses of the
substances concerned, and inversely proportional to the number of
electrons in the relevant half-reaction."
This means that z moles of electrons are needed to discharge an ion Xz+
or Xz-.
In the apparatus below,
1 Faraday will discharge 9 g Al (1/3 mole), 20 g Ca (1/2 mole) and 23 g Na (1 mole).
The relevant half reactions are:
Al3+ + 3e- Al
Ca2+ +2e- Ca
Na+ + e- Na
PROJECT
ELECTROPLATING COPPER
INTRODUCTION
Electroplating uses the process of electrolysis to remove copper molecules from

the anode, or positive electrode, and depositing them on an object acting as the
cathode, or negative electrode. With practice, and adjustment of procedures, you
can copper plate keys and other metal objects.
CAUTION: You are working with sulfuric acid. Keep safety goggles on at all
times, and be careful with drips and spills.
MATERIALS
Safety goggles
400 mL CuSO4 electrolyte solution*
DC power source (6 volt lantern battery)
2 lengths of insulated copper bell wire
4 alligator clips
400-mL beaker
Copper for anode ( copper sheet or coil of heavy gauge bare copper wire
Object to plate ( Key or other small metal object)
*To prepare 1 liter of copper sulfate electrolyte solution. use 200 grams of
CuSO4 * 5H2O and, 150 milliliters of 6 M H2SO4 or 50 milliliters of
concentrated H2SO4. Add the copper sulfate and then the sulfuric acid to
approximately 600 milliliters of water (take care of concentrated H2SO4 is used).
Add additional water to make 1 liter.
PROCEDURE
1. attach alligator clips to the ends of the wires.
2. The object you are plating needs to be clean and oil free. Cleaning with acetone
will remove any oils from the object. Remember, your fingers have oils on them.
3. Put approximately 300 milliliters of your electrolyte solution into the 400-mL
beaker.
4. connect the copper source to the positive terminal of the battery, and the object
to be plated to the negative terminal. Place them in the electrolyte solution.
5. You can use a wooden splint or other similar object, to keep the object being
plated suspended in the solution. Turn the object occasionally so it plates evenly.
there is no set time for plating. Practice will hopefully make perfect.
PROJECT
INTRODUCTION

MATERIALS
Safety goggles
4 alligator clips
400-mL beaker
PROCEDURE

beaker.
PROJECT
INTRODUCTION

MATERIALS
Safety goggles
4 alligator clips
400-mL beaker
PROCEDURE
beaker.
Acid-Base Reactions Index

When an acid and a base are placed together, they react to neutralize the acid and base
properties, producing a salt. The H(+) cation of the acid combines with the OH(-) anion of the base
Periodic
to form water. The compound formed by the cation of the base and the anion of the acid is called a Table
salt. The combination of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide produces common table salt,
NaCl:
Chemistry
concepts
Chemical
The word salt is a general term which applies to the products of all such acid-base reactions. reaction
concepts
Inorganic Compounds
R Go Back
HyperPhysics Nave
Acid and Base Properties
Substances have long been classified as acids or bases according to some general properties
which are summarized below. Their reactions with each other produce salts.
Acid Properties:
When dissolved in water, acids
Base Properties:
When dissolved in water, bases
Index
1. Conduct electricity
2. Change blue litmus to 1. Conduct electricity Periodic
red 2. Change red litmus to Table
3. Have a sour taste blue
4. React with bases to 3. Have a slippery Chemistry
neutralize their feeling concepts
properties
4. React with acids to
5. React with active neutralize their
metals to liberate properties.
hydrogen.
Inorganic Compounds
R Go Back
HyperPhysics Nave
What are Salts?

Go to The Hydrolysis of Salts in Water
Return to the Acid Base menu
Salts are the non-water product of an acid base neutralization. There are four possible acid base reactions that
produce salts. They are the reaction of a:
1) strong acid with a strong base.

2) weak acid with a strong base.
3) weak base with a strong acid.
4) weak acid with a weak base.
Example reactions of each are:
1) HCl + NaOH --> Na+ + Cl¯ + H2O

2) HC2H3O2 + NaOH --> Na+ + C2H3O2¯ + H2O
3) NH3 + HCl --> NH4+ + Cl¯
4) HC2H3O2 + NH3 --> NH4+ + C2H3O2¯
Please not that I only wrote the products in ionic form.
Brief Historical Note: Svante Arrhenius struggled with fitting NH 3 (ammonia) into his system, which called for bases
to produce OH¯ (hydroxide ion) in solution. He "solved" his problem by pronouncing that NH 3, when dissolved in
solution, produced NH4OH. This substance (ammonium hydroxide) was then the source of hydroxide he needed.
Unfortunately for Arrhenius, ammonium hydroxide does not exist. The NH3 reacts directly with the acid via its lone
electron pair and no water is produced.
The salts produced in the above four types have a characteristic pH range in water solution by themselves:
1) A salt of a strong acid and a strong base will produce a solution with pH = 7. Generally speaking, these types of
solutions are mentioned, then ignored in deeper discussions.
2) A salt of a weak acid and a strong base will produce a solution with pH greater than 7. In other words, a salt of a
weak acid produces a basic solution. Notice also, the mention of a strong base is usually omitted and the phrase
"salt of a weak acid" is used. Of course, the strong base had to be present to make the salt, but its presence is
assumed.
3) A salt of a weak base and a strong acid will produce a solution with pH less than 7. In other words, a salt of a
weak base produces an acidic solution. Notice also, the mention of a strong acid is usually omitted and the phrase
"salt of a weak base" is used. Of course, the strong acid had to be present to make the salt, but its presence is
assumed.
4) A salt of a weak acid and a weak base produces a solution whose pH depends on the strengths of the acid and
base which made the salt. Many times textbooks will show one example calculation only and then not provide any
additional problems.
The second and third types of solutions just above are very, very important in chemistry. It is critical that you
remember what pH range is associated with each type. Here they are again:
Salt Solution leads to pH Range

salt of a weak acid ---> greater than 7 (basic)
salt of a weak base ---> less than 7 (acidic)
When the ChemTeam was first learning this, he noticed that the salts produced an opposite pH to its "parent." The
salt of the weak acid came from an acid (which make solutions with pH less than 7). Therefore, since salts are
oppsite in behavior, the pH of the solution of a salt of a weak acid was greater than 7 (which, of course, is basic).
The last point has to do with anions of strong acids, such as Cl¯ and NO 3¯, and cations of strong bases, such as
Na+ and K+. They are usually deleted from both the chemical equation (resulting in a net ionic equation) and any
discussion of effects on pH. In every case, except possibly for some very extreme case, they will have no effect on
the pH.
Go to The Hydrolysis of Salts in Water
Return to the Acid Base menu
Copyright © 2002 by John L. Park
Vibrating Charges and Electromagnetic Waves
Use your mouse to drag the negative charge up or down, then let it go to start it
oscillating.
Use the slider to adjust spring tension.
This is cool. Yes, the wave here
Wiggling one consists of a wiggling
charge causes the line of electric force
field lines which you can think of
attached to it to wiggle, as being "attached" to the
and after a time the other vibrating charge. Notice that it
charge starts to wiggle! takes a certain time for the
It's just like a rope wave to move from one particle
connecting two rocks. to the other. Check out what
happens to the shape of the
wave as you increase the
frequency by wiggling it up
and down faster. (The wiggling
rate changes when you adjust
the tension in the spring.) Does
the distance between peaks
(wavelength) decrease or
increase?
Click here to learn more about the connection between wavelength,

frequency and the speed of light.
Yeah, that all makes sense, but don't expect me

to believe that particles as small as electrons
are attached to springs. How is an electron
made to wiggle -- I mean, how is its speed or direction
of motion changed?
That's an excellent question. You're right, there

are no springs -- so how do electrons wiggle?
And do they always produce radiation when
they wiggle? There are two answers, one for
"long" wavelength radiation, like microwaves, radio
waves and TV waves, and another answer for light
waves, ultraviolet and x-rays. In fact, the second
answer challenged the greatest physicists of the early
20th century, and led to the revolution in physics
called quantum mechanics. Now you have to decide
what kind of waves you want to see created.
For the advanced student:

Learn more about wave
shapes in order to Click "Quantum Atom" to
understand microwaves, learn how X-rays and light
radio and TV waves, waves are produced by
produced by oscillating electrons moving in
currents. andnear atoms.
Leaving Electromagnetic
Radiation
Vibrating Charges and Electromagnetic Waves

Use your mouse to drag the negative charge up or down, then let it go to start it
oscillating.
Use the slider to adjust spring tension.
This is cool. Yes, the wave here

Wiggling one consists of a wiggling
charge causes the line of electric force
field lines which you can think of
attached to it to wiggle, as being "attached" to the
and after a time the other vibrating charge. Notice that it
charge starts to wiggle! takes a certain time for the
It's just like a rope wave to move from one particle
connecting two rocks. to the other. Check out what
happens to the shape of the
wave as you increase the
frequency by wiggling it up
and down faster. (The wiggling
rate changes when you adjust
the tension in the spring.) Does
the distance between peaks
(wavelength) decrease or
increase?
Click here to learn more about the connection between wavelength,

frequency and the speed of light.
Yeah, that all makes sense, but don't expect me
to believe that particles as small as electrons
are attached to springs. How is an electron
made to wiggle -- I mean, how is its speed or
direction of motion changed?
That's an excellent question. You're right, there

are no springs -- so how do electrons wiggle?
And do they always produce radiation when
they wiggle? There are two answers, one for
"long" wavelength radiation, like microwaves, radio
waves and TV waves, and another answer for light
waves, ultraviolet and x-rays. In fact, the second
answer challenged the greatest physicists of the early
20th century, and led to the revolution in physics
called quantum mechanics. Now you have to decide
what kind of waves you want to see created.
For the advanced student:

Learn more about wave
shapes in order to Click "Quantum Atom" to
understand microwaves, learn how X-rays and light
radio and TV waves, waves are produced by
produced by oscillating electrons moving in
currents. andnear atoms.
Leaving Electromagnetic
Radiation
Electric Force Fields
Now that we've seen how electric charges interact,
we can discuss the concepts of electric force
fields and lines of force.
I've heard those terms before, but I'm not sure I

understand them. There seems to be a "force
field" in every episode of Star Trek; it's like an
invisible wall that nothing can penetrate. Is that
what a force field really is?
Not exactly. In physics, a force field is a way

to picture the effects that electric charges
have on one another. Instead of talking about
the force a positive (+) charge exerts on an
electron, we can say the charge creates a force
"field" in the empty space around it. An electron put
down at any place in this force field is pulled towards
the + charge; a positive charge set down at the same
place is pushed away.
Try putting down "test" electrons with the mouse to
see which way the field points and how strong it is;
the line points in the direction in which the electron
will move, and the length of the line tells you the
strength of the force at its current location. You can
drag the mouse, or you can press the "R" key to have
your computer put down electrons.
Click to place an electron. Click and drag to place lots
of them.
Press "Delete" to start over. Press 'R' to add a bunch of
random electrons. Press 'L' to show the entire force
field.
Check out an exciting new force field applet!
OK, I get what a force field is (although it's a

stretch to think of a force field as a property of
empty space). What is a "line of force"?
You can visualize "lines" of force by looking at

the forces created by the field in many different
places; imagine connecting the lines from all
the electrons you have placed. Press "L," and the
computer will show you the pattern formed by all
these connected lines. The lines in this pattern are
known as "lines of force." Force field lines "coming
out of" the big + charge "go into" the big - charge, so
those two charges are "connected" by field lines.
> 613782nd
Return to Einstein's Legacy
...and explore in which appliances these physical principles
are used:
X-Rays
Here we'll learn about how X-Ray
machines work, including how x-rays
are produced and why they work the
way they do.
CAT Scans
We'll explore three-dimensional "CAT
Scan" imaging, which uses x-rays to
obtain pictures from organs and bones
inside the human body.
Microwave Ovens
Microwave ovens are surely the most
misunderstood devices in the home.
Find out how they really work and
dispel a lot of mythology about their
dangers.
Return to Einstein's Legacy
...and explore in which appliances
these physical principles are used:
X-Rays
Here we'll
learn about
how X-Ray
machines
work,
including how
x-rays are
produced and
why they work
the way they
do.
CAT Scans
We'll explore
three-
dimensional
"CAT Scan"
imaging,
which uses x-
rays to obtain
pictures from
organs and
bones inside
the human
body.
Microwave
Ovens
Microwave
ovens are
surely the
most
misunderstood
devices in the
home. Find
out how they
really work
and dispel a
lot of
mythology
about their
dangers.
magnetism
magnetism, forceof attraction or repulsion between various substances, especially
those made of iron and certain other metals; ultimately it is due to the motion of
electric charges.
Sections in this article:

 Introduction
 Magnetic Poles, Forces, and Fields
 Magnetic Materials
 The Basis of Magnetism
 Evolution of Electromagnetic Theory
 Bibliography
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2007, Columbia University Press. All
rights reserved.

o Cite
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See more Encyclopedia articles on: Physics
Magnetic Poles, Forces, and Fields

Any object that exhibits magnetic properties is called a magnet. Every magnet has
two points, or poles, where most of its strength is concentrated; these are
designated as a north-seeking pole, or north pole, and a south-seeking pole, or
south pole, because a suspended magnet tends to orient itself along a north-south
line. Since a magnet has two poles, it is sometimes called a magnetic dipole, being
analogous to an electric dipole, composed of two opposite charges. The like poles of
different magnets repel each other, and the unlike poles attract each other.
One remarkable property of magnets is that whenever a magnet is broken, a north

pole will appear at one of the broken faces and a south pole at the other, such that
each piece has its own north and south poles. It is impossible to isolate a single
magnetic pole, regardless of how many times a magnet is broken or how small the
fragments become. (The theoretical question as to the possible existence in any
state of a single magnetic pole, called a monopole, is still considered open by
physicists; experiments to date have failed to detect one.)
From his study of magnetism, C. A. Coulomb in the 18th cent. found that the
magnetic forces between two poles followed an inverse-square law of the same form
as that describing the forces between electric charges. The law states that the force
of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the
product of the strengths of the poles and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
As with electric charges, the effect of this magnetic force acting at a distance is
expressed in terms of a field of force. A magnetic pole sets up a field in the space
around it that exerts a force on magnetic materials. The field can be visualized in
terms of lines of induction (similar to the lines of force of an electric field). These
imaginary lines indicate the direction of the field in a given region. By convention
they originate at the north pole of a magnet and form loops that end at the south
pole either of the same magnet or of some other nearby magnet (see also flux,
magnetic). The lines are spaced so that the number per unit area is proportional to
the field strength in a given area. Thus, the lines converge near the poles, where the
field is strong, and spread out as their distance from the poles increases.
A picture of these lines of induction can be made by sprinkling iron filings on a piece
of paper placed over a magnet. The individual pieces of iron become magnetized by
entering a magnetic field, i.e., they act like tiny magnets, lining themselves up along
the lines of induction. By using variously shaped magnets and various combinations
of more than one magnet, representations of the field in these different situations
can be obtained.
Magnetic Materials
The term magnetism is derived from Magnesia, the name of a region in Asia Minor
where lodestone, a naturally magnetic iron ore, was found in ancient times. Iron is
not the only material that is easily magnetized when placed in a magnetic field;
others include nickel and cobalt. Carbon steel was long the material commonly used
for permanent magnets, but more recently other materials have been developed that
are much more efficient as permanent magnets, including certain ferroceramics and
Alnico, an alloy containing iron, aluminum, nickel, cobalt, and copper.
Materials that respond strongly to a magnetic field are called ferromagnetic [Lat.
ferrum = iron]. The ability of a material to be magnetized or to strengthen the
magnetic field in its vicinity is expressed by its magnetic permeability. Ferromagnetic
materials have permeabilities of as much as 1,000 or more times that of free space
(a vacuum). A number of materials are very weakly attracted by a magnetic field,
having permeabilities slightly greater than that of free space; these materials are
called paramagnetic. A few materials, such as bismuth and antimony, are repelled by
a magnetic field, having permeabilities less than that of free space; these materials
are called diamagnetic.
The Basis of Magnetism

The electrical basis for the magnetic properties of matter has been verified down to
the atomic level. Because the electron has both an electric charge and a spin, it can
be called a charge in motion. This charge in motion gives rise to a tiny magnetic
field. In the case of many atoms, all the electrons are paired within energy levels,
according to the exclusion principle, so that the electrons in each pair have opposite
(antiparallel) spins and their magnetic fields cancel. In some atoms, however, there
are more electrons with spins in one direction than in the other, resulting in a net
magnetic field for the atom as a whole; this situation exists in a paramagnetic
substance. If such a material is placed in an external field, e.g., the field created by
an electromagnet, the individual atoms will tend to align their fields with the external
one. The alignment will not be complete, due to the disruptive effect of thermal
vibrations. Because of this, a paramagnetic substance is only weakly attracted by a
magnet.
In a ferromagnetic substance, there are also more electrons with spins in one
direction than in the other. The individual magnetic fields of the atoms in a given
region tend to line up in the same direction, so that they reinforce one another. Such
a region is called a domain. In an unmagnetized sample, the domains are of different
sizes and have different orientations. When an external magnetic field is applied,
domains whose orientations are in the same general direction as the external field
will grow at the expense of domains with other orientations. When the domains in all
other directions have vanished, the remaining domains are rotated so that their
direction is exactly the same as that of the external field. After this rotation is
complete, no further magnetization can take place, no matter how strong the
external field; a saturation point is said to have been reached. If the external field is
then reduced to zero, it is found that the sample still retains some of its magnetism;
this is known as hysteresis.
Sections in this article:
Evolution of Electromagnetic Theory

The connections between magnetism and electricity were discovered in the early part
of the 19th cent. In 1820 H. C. Oersted found that a wire carrying an electrical
current deflects the needle of a magnetic compass because a magnetic field is
created by the moving electric charges constituting the current. It was found that the
lines of induction of the magnetic field surrounding the wire (or any other conductor)
are circular. If the wire is bent into a coil, called a solenoid, the magnetic fields of the
individual loops combine to produce a strong field through the core of the coil. This
field can be increased manyfold by inserting a piece of soft iron or other
ferromagnetic material into the core; the resulting arrangement constitutes an
electromagnet.
Following Oersted's discovery the various magnetic effects of an electric current were
extensively investigated by J. B. Biot, Félix Savart, and A. M. Ampère. Ampère
showed in 1825 that not only does a current-carrying conductor exert a force on a
magnet but magnets also exert forces on current-carrying conductors. In 1831
Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry independently discovered that it is possible to
produce a current in a conductor by changing the magnetic field about it. The
discovery of this effect, called electromagnetic induction, together with the discovery
that an electric current produces a magnetic field, laid the foundation for the modern
age of electricity. Both the electric generator, which makes electricity widely available,
and the electric motor, which converts electricity to useful mechanical work, are
based on these effects.
Another relationship between electricity and magnetism is that a regularly changing

electric current in a conductor will create a changing magnetic field in the space
about the conductor, which in turn gives rise to a changing electrical field. In this
way regularly oscillating electric and magnetic fields can generate each other. These
fields can be visualized as a single wave that is propagating through space. The
formal theory underlying this electromagnetic radiation was developed by James Clerk
Maxwell in the middle of the 19th cent. Maxwell showed that the speed of
propagation of electromagnetic radiation is identical with that of light, thus revealing
that light is intimately connected with electricity and magnetism.
PARTS OF AN ATOM
So what are atoms made of? In the middle of each atom is a "nucleus." The nucleus
contains two kinds of tiny particles, called protons and neutrons. Orbiting around the
nucleus are even smaller particles called electrons. The 115 kinds of atoms are
different from each other because they have different numbers of protons, neutrons
and electrons.
It is useful to think of a model of the atom as similar to the solar system. The
nucleus is in the center of the atom, like the sun in the center of the solar system.
The electrons orbit around the nucleus like the planets around the sun. Just like in
the solar system, the nucleus is large compared to the electrons. The atom is mostly
empty space. And the electrons are very far away from the nucleus. While this model
is not completely accurate, we can use it to help us understand static electricity.
(Note: A more accurate model would show the electrons moving in 3- dimensional
volumes with different shapes, called orbitals. This may be discussed in a future
issue.)
ELECTRICAL CHARGES
Protons, neutrons and electrons are very different from each other. They have their
own properties, or characteristics. One of these properties is called an electrical
charge. Protons have what we call a "positive" (+) charge. Electrons have a
"negative" (-) charge. Neutrons have no charge, they are neutral. The charge of one
proton is equal in strength to the charge of one electron. When the number of
protons in an atom equals the number of electrons, the atom itself has no overall
charge, it is neutral.
ELECTRONS CAN MOVE

The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are held together very tightly. Normally the
nucleus does not change. But some of the outer electrons are held very loosely. They
can move from one atom to another. An atom that looses electrons has more
positive charges (protons) than negative charges (electrons). It is positively charged.
An atom that gains electrons has more negative than positive particles. It has a
negative charge. A charged atom is called an "ion."
Some materials hold their electrons very tightly. Electrons do not move through
them very well. These things are called insulators. Plastic, cloth, glass and dry air are
good insulators. Other materials have some loosely held electrons, which move
through them very easily. These are called conductors. Most metals are good
conductors.
How can we move electrons from one place to another? One very common way is to
rub two objects together. If they are made of different materials, and are both
insulators, electrons may be transferred (or moved) from one to the other. The more
rubbing, the more electrons move, and the larger the static charge that builds up.
(Scientists believe that it is not the rubbing or friction that causes electrons to move.
It is simply the contact between two different materials. Rubbing just increases the
contact area between them.)
Static electricity is the imbalance of

positive and negative charges.
OPPOSITES ATTRACT
Now, positive and negative charges behave in interesting ways. Did you ever hear
the saying that opposites attract? Well, it's true. Two things with opposite, or
different charges (a positive and a negative) will attract, or pull towards each other.
Things with the same charge (two positives or two negatives) will repel, or push
away from each other.
A charged object will also attract something that is neutral. Think about how you can
make a balloon stick to the wall. If you charge a balloon by rubbing it on your hair, it
picks up extra electrons and has a negative charge. Holding it near a neutral object
will make the charges in that object move. If it is a conductor, many electrons move
easily to the other side, as far from the balloon as possible. If it is an insulator, the
electrons in the atoms and molecules can only move very slightly to one side, away
from the balloon. In either case, there are more positive charges closer to the
negative balloon. Opposites attract. The balloon sticks. (At least until the electrons
on the balloon slowly leak off.) It works the same way for neutral and positively
charged objects.
So what does all this have to do with static shocks? Or static electricity in hair? When
you take off your wool hat, it rubs against your hair. Electrons move from your hair to the hat. A static
charge builds up and now each of the hairs has the same positive charge. Remember, things with the same charge
repel each other. So the hairs try to get as far from each other as possible. The farthest they can get is by standing
up and away from the others. And that is how static electricity causes a bad hair day!
(Get tips on how to eliminate

static electricity problems
in your home or office.)
As you walk across a carpet, electrons move from the rug to you. Now you have
extra electrons and a negative static charge. Touch a door knob and ZAP! The door
knob is a conductor. The electrons jump from you to the knob, and you feel the
static shock.
We usually only notice static electricity in the winter when the air is very dry. During
the summer, the air is more humid. The water in the air helps electrons move off you
more quickly, so you can not build up as big a static charge.
Discover the wonders of science.

It's easy with the Science Made Simple newsletter.
Click here to get yours now completely RISK FREE!
I CAN READ
What is Static Electricity?
Everything we see is made up of tiny little parts called atoms.

The atoms are made of even smaller parts. These are called
protons, electrons and neutrons. They are very different from
each other in many ways. One way they are different is their
"charge." Protons have a positive (+) charge. Electrons have a
negative (-) charge. Neutrons have no charge.
Usually, atoms have the same number of electrons and
protons. Then the atom has no charge, it is "neutral." But if
you rub things together, electrons can move from one atom to
another. Some atoms get extra electrons. They have a
negative charge. Other atoms lose electrons. They have a
positive charge. When charges are separated like this, it is
called static electricity.
If two things have different charges, they attract, or pull
towards each other. If two things have the same charge, they
repel, or push away from each other.
So, why does your hair stand up after you take your hat off?
When you pull your hat off, it rubs against your hair. Electrons
move from your hair to the hat. Now each of the hairs has the
same positive charge. Things with the same charge repel each
other. So the hairs try to move away from each other. The
farthest they can get is to stand up and away from all the
other hairs.
If you walk across a carpet, electrons move from the rug to
you. Now you have extra electrons. Touch a door knob and
ZAP! The electrons move from you to the knob. You get a
shock.
LEARN MORE ABOUT:
STATIC ELECTRICITY
TRIBOELECTRIC SERIES
When we rub two different materials together, which becomes positively charged and
which becomes negative? Scientists have ranked materials in order of their ability to
hold or give up electrons. This ranking is called the triboelectric series. A list of some
common materials is shown here. Under ideal conditions, if two materials are rubbed
together, the one higher on the list should give up electrons and become positively
charged. You can experiment with things on this list for yourself
TRIBOELECTRIC SERIES
your hand
glass
your hair
nylon
wool
fur
silk
paper
cotton
hard rubber
polyester
polyvinylchloride plastic
CONSERVATION OF CHARGE
When we charge something with static electricity, no electrons are made or
destroyed. No new protons appear or disappear. Electrons are just moved from one
place to another. The net, or total, electric charge stays the same. This is called the
principle of conservation of charge.
COULOMB'S LAW
Charged objects create an invisible electric force field around themselves. The
strength of this field depends on many things, including the amount of charge,
distance involved, and shape of the objects. This can become very complicated. We
can simplify things by working with "point sources" of charge. Point sources are
charged objects which are much, much smaller than the distance between them.
Charles Coulomb first described electric field strengths in the 1780's. He found that
for point charges, the electrical force varies directly with the product of the charges.
In other words, the greater the charges, the stronger the field. And the field varies
inversely with the square of the distance between the charges. This means that the
greater the distance, the weaker the force becomes. This can be written as the
formula:
F = k (q1 X q2) / d2
where F is the force, q1 and q2 are the charges, and d is the distance between the
charges. k is the proportionality constant, and depends on the material separating
the charges.
STATIC ELECTRICITY EXPERIMENTS & PROJECTS
SAFETY NOTE: Please read all instructions completely before starting the projects.
Observe all safety precautions.
Tip: Try to use the part of the charged object that has the biggest charge (the part
that was rubbed the most) when doing these experiments. Also, Projects 1-3 work
best on dry days.
PROJECT 1 - Swinging cereal

What you need:
a hard rubber or plastic comb, or a balloon
thread, small pieces of dry cereal (O-shapes, or puffed rice of wheat)
What to do:
1. Tie a piece of the cereal to one end of a 12 inch piece of thread. Find a place
to attach the other end so that the cereal does not hang close to anything
else. (You can tape the thread to the edge of a table but check with your
parents first.)
2. Wash the comb to remove any oils and dry it well.
3. Charge the comb by running it through long, dry hair several times, or
vigorously rub the comb on a wool sweater.
4. Slowly bring the comb near the cereal. It will swing to touch the comb. Hold it
still until the cereal jumps away by itself.
5. Now try to touch the comb to the cereal again. It will move away as the comb
approaches.
6. This project can also be done by substituting a balloon for the comb.
What Happened: Combing your hair moved electrons from your hair to the comb.
The comb had a negative static charge. The neutral cereal was attracted to it. When
they touched, electrons slowly moved from the comb to the cereal. Now both objects
had the same negative charge, and the cereal was repelled.
PROJECT 2 - Bending water

What you need:
a hard rubber or plastic comb, or a balloon
a sink and water faucet.
What to do:
1. Turn on the faucet so that the water runs out in a small, steady stream, about
1/8 inch thick.
2. Charge the comb by running it through long, dry hair several times or rub it
vigorously on a sweater.
3. Slowly bring the comb near the water and watch the water "bend."
4. This project can also be done using a balloon instead of the comb.
What happened: The neutral water was attracted to the charged comb, and moved
towards it.
PROJECT 3 - Light a light bulb with a balloon

You Need:
hard rubber comb or balloon
a dark room
fluorescent light bulb (not an incandescent bulb)
SAFETY NOTE: DO NOT USE ELECTRICITY FROM A WALL OUTLET FOR THIS
EXPERIMENT. Handle the glass light bulb with care to avoid breakage. The
bulb can be wrapped in sticky, transparent tape to reduce the chance of
injury if it does break.
What to do:
1. Take the light bulb and comb into the dark room.
2. Charge the comb on your hair or sweater. Make sure to build up a lot of
charge for this experiment.
3. Touch the charged part of the comb to the light bulb and watch very carefully.
You should be able to see small sparks. Experiment with touching different
parts of the bulb.
What happened: When the charged comb touched the bulb, electrons moved from it
to the bulb, causing the small sparks of light inside. In normal operation, the
electrons to light the bulb come from the electrical power lines through a wire in the
end of the tube. (Fluorescent and incandescent light bulbs will be discussed in a
future issue.)
PROJECT 4 - Static in the Summer

What you need:
a balloon, and a watch or clock
What you do:
1. Rub the balloon on your hair or sweater. Stick it to a wall and time how long
it stays before falling down.
2. Repeat step (1) in the bathroom, just after someone has taken a hot, steamy
shower.
What happened: In the bathroom, water in the air and on the walls helped move
electrons away from the balloon more quickly. In the summer, the air is more humid,
and static electricity does not build up as much as during the winter, when the air is
very dry.

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About Iucn

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About IUCN

What is the World Conservation Union?

What does IUCN stand for?

Why does the World need the World Conservation Union?

The importance of well-functioning ecosystems in helping reduce poverty and improve

What Does the Union do?

 Giving policy advice and technical support to governments, UN organizations,

 Facilitating Parks for Peace between countries in areas of conflict

1. About ILO Türkçe

Goals and Objectives

The International Labour Organization founded in 1919 is the

ILO formulates international labour standards in the form of

1. Promote and realise fundamental principles and rights at

2. Create greater opportunities for women and men to secure

3. Enhance the coverage and effectiveness of social protection

4. Strengthen tripartism and social dialogue. - The identification

a) Promoting the Declaration (Declaration on Fundamental

b) Progressive elimination of child labour, promoting

c) Reconstruction and employment-intensive investment.

d) Investing in knowledge, skills and employability.

e) Boosting employment through small enterprise

f) SafeWork: Security and productivity through safety and

g) Economic and social security in the twenty-first century.

h) Strengthening the social partners.

The International Labour Conference meets annually. It

Each member country has the right to send four

Between Conferences, the work of the ILO is guided by

The International Labour Office in Geneva is the

The work of the Governing Body and of the Office is aided

Regional conferences of the ILO member States are held

The International Labour Office is headed by a Director-

WHAT IS "CHILD LABOR"?

WHO ARE CHILD LABORERS? AND HOW MANY ARE THERE?

WHERE DO CHILD LABORERS LIVE?

IS THERE CHILD LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES?

In the United States: An estimated 290,200 children were unlawfully employed in

"Hundreds of thousands" of children work in US agriculture, according to a report by

WHAT DO CHILD LABORERS DO?

WHY SHOULD WE CARE?

HOW CAN ORDINARY PEOPLE HELP REDUCE CHILD LABOR?

HOW WAS CHILD LABOR REDUCED IN TODAY’S DEVELOPED

1. economic development that raised family incomes and living

WHAT ARE SOME "MYTHS" OR MISUNDERSTANDINGS ABOUT

1. It is a myth that child labor is only a problem in developing

WHAT CAUSES CHILD LABOR TODAY?

1. family expectations and traditions

"The parents of child labourers are often unemployed or underemployed, desperate

WHAT ARE SOME SOLUTIONS TO CHILD LABOR?

1. Increased family incomes

World Red Cross Day Celebration:

Nepal has been declared Red Cross Emblem misuse free

In Nepal, the WRC Day 2007 was celebrated with different

Declaring Kathmandu free from Red Cross Emblem misuse

Addressing the event at Basantapur, the ICRC Head of

On the occasion, prizes and certificates were distributed to

Ashmi Lama, one of the contestants who had painted on the

On the occasion, the first aid volunteers NRCS Kathmandu

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