Ch7 - 1 Antennas1

Topic 7_ Antennas 1
Antennas
Antenna/aerial  “a means for radiating or receiving radio

waves.” IEEE defn.
- structure between free-space and a guiding device
The guiding device / transmission line  a coaxial line or a

hollow pipe (waveguide),
used to transport electromagnetic energy from the

transmitting source to the antenna, or from the antenna to
the receiver.
transmitting antenna receiving antenna.
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1
A transmission-line Thevenin equivalent of the antenna
source  ideal generator
the transmission line  line with characteristic impedance

ZC
antenna  load ZA [ZA= (RL+ Rr) + jXA]
load resistance RL  represent the conduction and dielectric

losses associated with the antenna structure
Rr  radiation resistance, is used to represent radiation by

the antenna.
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1
The reactance XA  the imaginary part of the impedance

associated with radiation by the antenna.
Under ideal conditions  energy generated by the source

should be totally transferred to the radiation resistance Rr
However, in a practical system  conduction-dielectric

losses due to :
1) lossy nature of the transmission line and the

antenna,
2) reflections (mismatch) losses at the interface
between the line and the antenna.
Taking into account the internal impedance of the source

and neglecting line and reflection (mismatch) losses,
maximum power is delivered to the antenna under
conjugate matching.
The reflected waves from the interface create, along with

the traveling waves from the source toward the antenna,
constructive and destructive interference patterns, referred
to as standing waves.
- These represent pockets of energy concentrations and

storage, typical of resonant devices
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1
These represent losses  undesirable.
Losses
- due to the line  minimized by selecting low-loss lines
- due to antenna  decreased by reducing the loss

resistance RL
- due to standing wave(storage capacity)  minimized,

by matching the impedance of the antenna (load) to
the characteristic impedance of the line.
In addition to RX or TX energy, an antenna  usually

required to optimize or accentuate the radiation energy in
some directions and suppress it in others  directional
Antenna  may be a piece of conducting wire, an aperture,

a patch, an assembly of elements (array), a reflector, a
lens, and so forth.
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1
Wire Antennas
straight wire (dipole), loop, and helix
Loop antennas need not only be circular.

- may be rectangle, square, ellipse, or any other
configuration.
The circular loop  most common
dipole Circular (square loop)
helix
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1
Aperture Antennas
Pyramidal
horn
Conical
horn
Rectangular
waveguide
- very useful for aircraft and spacecraft applications,

because they can be very conveniently flush-mounted
on the skin of the aircraft or spacecraft.
- they can be covered with a dielectric material to

protect them from hazardous conditions of the
environment.
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1
Microstrip Antennas
- consist of a metallic patch on a grounded substrate.

- rectangular and circular patches  most popular
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1
- low cross-polarization radiation.
- The microstrip antennas are low profile, comformable

to planar and nonplanar surfaces, simple and
inexpensive to fabricate using modern printed-circuit
technology,
- mechanically robust when mounted on rigid surfaces,

compatible with MMIC (Monolithic Microwave
Integrated Circuit) designs,
- very versatile in terms of resonant frequency,

polarization, pattern, and impedance.
- can be mounted on the surface of high-performance

aircraft, spacecraft, satellites, missiles, cars, and even
handheld mobile telephones.
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1
Array Antennas
Many applications require radiation characteristics that may

not be achievable by a single element.
- may be possible that an aggregate of radiating

elements in an electrical and geometrical arrangement
(an array) will result in the desired radiation
characteristics.
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1
Reflector Antennas
- parabolic reflector
ideal antenna  radiate all the power delivered to it from

the transmitter in a desired direction or directions.
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1
RADIATION MECHANISM
How are the electromagnetic fields generated by the

source, contained and guided within the transmission line
and antenna, and finally “detached” from the antenna to
form a free-space wave?
Single Wire
Conducting wires are material whose prominent

characteristic is the motion of electric charges and the
creation of current flow.
Assume that an electric volume charge density,

represented by qv (coulombs/m3), is distributed uniformly
in a circular wire of cross-sectional area A and volume V.
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1
The total charge Q within volume V is moving in the z

direction with a uniform velocity vz (m/s).
It can be shown that the current density Jz (A/m2) over the

cross section of the wire is given by
Jz =qv vz
If the wire is made of an ideal electric conductor, the

current density Js (amperes/m2) resides on the surface of
the wire and it is given by
Js =qs vz
where qs (coulombs/m2) is the surface charge density.
If the wire is very thin (ideally zero radius), then the current
in the wire can be represented by
Iz =ql vz
where ql (coulombs/m) is the charge per unit length.
If the current is time varying,
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1
where dvz/dt = az (meters/sec2) is the acceleration.
If the wire is of length l, then
Equation states that to create radiation, there must be a

time-varying current or an acceleration (or deceleration) of
charge.
To create charge acceleration (or deceleration) the wire

must be curved, bent, discontinuous, or terminated.
Periodic charge acceleration (or deceleration) or time-

varying current is also created when charge is oscillating in
a time-harmonic motion.
Therefore:
1. If a charge is not moving, current is not created and
there is no radiation.
2. If charge is moving with a uniform velocity:
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1
a. There is no radiation if the wire is straight, and

infinite in extent.
b. There is radiation if the wire is curved, bent,
discontinuous, terminated, or truncated.
3. If charge is oscillating in a time-motion, it radiates even

if the wire is straight.
Two Wires
Consider a voltage source connected to a two-conductor

transmission line which is connected to an antenna.
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1
 Applying a voltage across the two-conductor

transmission line creates an electric field between the
conductors.
 The electric field has associated with it electric lines of

force which are tangent to the electric field at each point
and their strength is proportional to the electric field
intensity.
 The electric lines of force have a tendency to act on the

free electrons associated with each conductor and force
them to be displaced.
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1
 The movement of the charges creates a current that in

turn creates a magnetic field intensity.
 Associated with the magnetic field intensity are magnetic

lines of force which are tangent to the magnetic field.
 Magnetic field lines always form closed loops encircling

current-carrying conductors because physically there are
no magnetic charges.
 The electric field lines drawn between the two conductors

help to exhibit the distribution of charge.
 If we assume that the voltage source is sinusoidal, we

expect the electric field between the conductors to also
be sinusoidal with a period equal to that of the applied
source.
 The relative magnitude of the electric field intensity is

indicated by the density of the lines of force with the
arrows showing the relative direction (positive or
negative).
 The creation of time-varying electric and magnetic fields

between the conductors forms electromagnetic waves
which travel along the transmission line, as shown in
Figure above.
 The electromagnetic waves enter the antenna and have

associated with them electric charges and corresponding
currents.
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1
 If part of the antenna structure is removed, as shown

in Figure below, free-space waves can be formed by
“connecting” the open ends of the electric lines (shown
dashed).
The free-space waves are also periodic but a constant

phase point P0 moves outwardly with the speed of light and
travels a distance of λ/2 (to P1) in the time of one-half of a
period.
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Topic 7_ Antennas 1

Antenna/aerial  “a means for radiating or receiving radio

- structure between free-space and a guiding device

The guiding device / transmission line  a coaxial line or a

used to transport electromagnetic energy from the

transmitting antenna receiving antenna.

A transmission-line Thevenin equivalent of the antenna

source  ideal generator

the transmission line  line with characteristic impedance

antenna  load ZA [ZA= (RL+ Rr) + jXA]

load resistance RL  represent the conduction and dielectric

Rr  radiation resistance, is used to represent radiation by

The reactance XA  the imaginary part of the impedance

Under ideal conditions  energy generated by the source

However, in a practical system  conduction-dielectric

1) lossy nature of the transmission line and the

Taking into account the internal impedance of the source

The reﬂected waves from the interface create, along with

- These represent pockets of energy concentrations and

These represent losses  undesirable.

- due to antenna  decreased by reducing the loss

- due to standing wave(storage capacity)  minimized,

In addition to RX or TX energy, an antenna  usually

Antenna  may be a piece of conducting wire, an aperture,

straight wire (dipole), loop, and helix

Loop antennas need not only be circular.

dipole Circular (square loop)

- very useful for aircraft and spacecraft applications,

- they can be covered with a dielectric material to

- consist of a metallic patch on a grounded substrate.

- low cross-polarization radiation.

- The microstrip antennas are low proﬁle, comformable

- mechanically robust when mounted on rigid surfaces,

- very versatile in terms of resonant frequency,

- can be mounted on the surface of high-performance

Many applications require radiation characteristics that may

- may be possible that an aggregate of radiating

ideal antenna  radiate all the power delivered to it from

How are the electromagnetic ﬁelds generated by the

Conducting wires are material whose prominent

Assume that an electric volume charge density,

The total charge Q within volume V is moving in the z

It can be shown that the current density Jz (A/m2) over the

If the wire is made of an ideal electric conductor, the

where qs (coulombs/m2) is the surface charge density.

where ql (coulombs/m) is the charge per unit length.

If the current is time varying,

where dvz/dt = az (meters/sec2) is the acceleration.

If the wire is of length l, then

Equation states that to create radiation, there must be a

To create charge acceleration (or deceleration) the wire

Periodic charge acceleration (or deceleration) or time-

2. If charge is moving with a uniform velocity:

a. There is no radiation if the wire is straight, and

3. If charge is oscillating in a time-motion, it radiates even

Consider a voltage source connected to a two-conductor

 Applying a voltage across the two-conductor

 The electric ﬁeld has associated with it electric lines of