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FOREWORD
This Maintenance and Operations (MO) Manual contains information on the

operation, inspection, troubleshooting, repair and maintenance of liquid solar
heating systems. That is, solar heating or cooling systems using liquid, rather than
air, to gather heat, pumps to move it and tanks of water to store it.
The standards and methods presented are intended to accomplish the inspection,
maintenance, and repair of liquid solar heating and cooling systems in the most
efficient and cost effective manner.
Recommendations or suggestions for modification, or additional information and

instructions that will improve the publication and motivate its use, are invited and
should be forwarded to the Commander, Naval Facilities Engineering Command
(Attention: Code 163), 200 Stovall Street, Alexandria, VA, 22332-2300. Telephone:
Commercial (202)-325-0045, Autovon 221-0045.
This publication has been reviewed and is approved for certification as an official
publication of this command in
Deputy Commander for

Public Works
i
NOTICE
The preparation of this manual was sponsored by the United States Government.
Neither the United States, nor the United States Department of Defense, nor any of
their employees, nor any of their contractors, subcontractors or their employees,
makes any warranty, expressed or implied, or assumes any legal liability or
responsibility, for the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of any information,
apparatus, product or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not
infringe privately owned rights.
The practices and procedures presented in this manual are recommendations only
and do not supersede any applicable local, state or national building, electrical,
plumbing or other code requirements. The reader is responsible for determining the
applicable code requirements and remaining in compliance with them.
ii
ABSTRACT
This manual is a guide for engineers, planners, maintenance supervisors and all
maintenance personnel involved in the operation, inspection, troubleshooting, repair
and maintenance of liquid solar heating systems. That is, solar heating or cooling
systems using liquid, rather than air, to gather heat, pumps to move it and tanks of
water to store it. The manual is designed to be used in the field by the personnel
performing the actual inspection, maintenance or repair of solar systems.
i i i
CHANGE CONTROL SHEET
Document all changes, page replacements, and pen and ink alterations posted in this manual.
AMENDMENT AMENDMENT POST DATE POSTED BY

NUMBER DATE (LAST NAME)
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Purpose of this Manual. . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Scope of this Manual. . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 How to Use this Manual. . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Review of Manual Structure. . . . . . 3
1.3.2 Worksheets. . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.3 Self-study Questions. . . . . . . . 3
1.3.4 Appendices. . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.5 Notes, Cautions and Warnings. . . . . 3
1.3.6 Chapter and Page Format. . . . . . . 4
2. Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Basic System Configuration. . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1 Definition of Loops . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.2 Common Components. . . . . . . . 6
2.1.3 Common Load Connections. . . . . . 8
2.2 Basic Configuration of Closed-Loop Systems. . . . 14
2.3 Basic Configuration of Drainback Systems . . . . 16
2.4 Basic Configuration of Draindown Systems. . . . 17
2.5 Basic Configuration of Thermosiphon Systems . . . . 18
2.6 Basic Configuration of Integrated Collector-Storage
System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.7 Component Operation . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.7.1 Solar Collectors . . . . . . . . . 20
2.7.2 Pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.7.3 Piping. . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.7.4 Solar Fluids. . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.7.5 Heat Exchangers. . . . . . . . . 28
2.7.6 Storage Tanks. . . . . . . . . . 30
2.7.7 Valves and Other Components. . . . . 33
2.7.8 Pipe and Tank Insulation. . . . . . . 47
2.7.9 Controls and Sensors. . . . . . . 50
vii
2.7.10 Gauges. . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.8 Questions for self-study. . . . . . . . . . 58
3. Inspection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.1 Inspection Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.1.1 Solar Collectors. . . . . . . . . . 62
3.1.2 Exterior Piping. . . . . . . . . . 70
3.1.3 Interior Piping. . . . . . . . . . 72
3.1.4 Pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.1.5 Heat Exchangers. . . . . . . . . 81
3.1.6 Solar Fluids. . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.1.7 Controls . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1.8 Storage Tanks. . . . . . . . . . 93
3.2 Sample Inspection Checklist. . . . . . . . 94
3.3 Simplified Inspection Procedures for Small Systems . 99
3.4 Questions for Self-study . . . . . . . . . 102
4. Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.1 Troubleshooting Techniques . . . . . . . . 105
4.2 Troubleshooting Chart. . . . . . . . . 108
4.3 Specific Troubleshooting Operations. . . . . . 111
4.3.1 Sensor and Sensor Wiring . . . . . 111
4.3.2 Controls . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.3.3 Airbound Loops . . . . . . . . . 120
4.3.4 Pumps. . . . . . 123
4.3.5 Flow Rates . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.3.6 Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.3.7 Piping Joints . . . . . . . . . 129
4.3.8 Valves . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.3.9 Heat Exchangers. . . . . . . . . 131
4.3.10 Insulation. . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.3.11 Gauges . . . . . . 132
4.3.12 Storage Tanks . . . . . . . . . 132
5. Repair. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.1 Repair or Replace? . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.2 Repair and Replacement Procedures . . . . . 141
5.2.2 Interior and Exterior Piping . . . . . 154
5.2.3 Dry Rotor Pumps . . . . . . . . 162
5.2.4 Wet Rotor Pumps . . . . . . . . 168
5.2.5 Heat Exchangers. . . . . . . . . 171
5.2.6 Solar Fluids . . . . . . . . . . 175
viii
5.2.7 Solar Controls . . . . . . . . . 187
5.2.8 Storage Tanks . . . . . . . . . 190
5.3 Sample Repair Record Sheet. . . . . . . . 195
6. Preventive Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . 201

6.1 Maintenance Procedures . . . . . . . . . 201
6.1.2 Interior and Exterior Piping . . . . . 209
6.1.3 Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.1.4 Heat Exchangers. . . . . . . . . 214
6.1.5 Solar Fluids . . . . . . . . . . 216
6.1.6 Controls . . . . . . 217
6.1.7 Storage Tanks . . . . . . . . . 220
6.2 Sample Maintenance Checklist . . . . . . . 222
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bibliography-1
Appendix A. Standardized System Designs. . . . . . . A-1

Appendix B: Rules of Thumb for Solar Systems . . . . . B-1
Appendix C: Tool, Material and Spare Parts Lists . . . . C-1
Appendix D: Product and Supplier Information . . . . . D-1
Appendix E: Fluids and Materials Compatibility. . . . . . E-1
Appendix F: Answers to Self-study Questions . . . . . . F-1
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Index-1
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1: A Piping Loop . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Figure 2-2: A Recirculating DHW System . . . . . . 6
Figure 2-3: A Simplified Solar System . 7
Figure 2-4: A Properly Piped Flat-Plate Collector Array . . . 8
Figure 2-5: Solar Storage Tank in Series With DHW Auxiliary
Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Figure 2-6: A Forced Air Heating System . . . . . . . 10
Figure 2-7: A Hydronic Heating System . . . . . . . 11
Figure 2-8: An Absorption Cooling System . . . . . . 12
Figure 2-9: A Pool Heating System. . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 2-10: Fluid in a Loop . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 2-11: A Closed-Loop Solar Heating System. . . . . 15
Figure 2-12: A Drainback Solar Heating System . . . . . 16
Figure 2-13: A Draindown Solar Heating System . . . . . 17
Figure 2-14: A Thermosiphon System . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 2-15: An ICS System . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 2-16: Direct, Diffuse and Reflected Solar Radiation . . 20
Figure 2-17: A Typical Flat-plate Solar Collector . . . . . 21
Figure 2-18: Single and Double Wall Evacuated Tube Collectors 22
Figure 2-19: An Unglazed Pool Heating Solar Collector . . . 23
Figure 2-20: Wet Rotor Circulating Pumps . . . . . . . 24
Figure 2-21: Dry Rotor Circulating Pumps . . . . . . . 25
Figure 2-22: A Tube-in-Tube Heat Exchanger . . . . . . 29
Figure 2-23: A Coil-in-Tank Heat Exchanger . . . . . . 29
Figure 2-24:A Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger . . . . . 30
Figure 2-25: Glass Lined Storage Tank . . . . . . . 31
Figure 2-26: Stone Lined Storage Tank . . . . . . . 32
Figure 2-27: A Gate Valve and a Ball Valve . . . . . . . 34
Figure 2-28: Balancing Valves and Thermometers Installed
on a Collector Array. . . . . . . . . . 35
Figure 2-29: Swing and Spring Check Valves . . . . . 35
Figure 2-30: Pressure Relief Valves . . . . . . . . 36
Figure 2-31: A Temperature and Pressure Relief Valve . . . 36
Figure 2-32: The Fill/Drain Assembly During System Filling . . . 37
Figure 2-33: Proper Expansion Tank Placement . . . . . 38
Figure 2-34:An Expansion Tank Without a Diaphragm as Fluid
Pressure Increases . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 2-35: An Expansion Tank With a Diaphragm as Fluid
Pressure Increases . . . . . . . . . .
39
Figure 2-36: Proper Backflow Preventer and Expansion Tank . .
Placement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure 2-37: Baseboard Tee with Coin Vent (top) and a Boiler . .
Drain (Bottom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
x
Figure 2-38: An Automatic Air Vent . . . . . . . . . 42
Figure 2-39: A Manual Air Vent . . . . . . . . . . 43
Figure 2-40: An Air Eliminator. . . . . . . . . . . 44
Figure 2-41: A Draindown System Using Three Solenoid Valves . 45
Figure 2-42: An Automatic Draindown Control Valve . . . . 45
Figure 2-43: A Vacuum Breaker . . . . . . . . . . 46
Figure 2-44: A Manual Three-Way Valve . . . . . . . 47
Figure 2-45: Closed Cell, Fiberglass and Elastomer Insulation . 49
Figure 2-46: Storage Tank Insulation. . . . . . . . . 50
Figure 2-47: Various Thermistor Sensors . . . . . . . 51
Figure 2-48: A Pool System Collector Sensor . . . . . . 52
Figure 2-49: A Typical Differential Thermostat Showing High Limit
Adjustment Dial (left) and Switch (right) . . . . 53
Figure 2-50: Freeze Snap Switch Sensor . . . . . . 54
Figure 2-51: Insertion Thermometers with PT Plugs . . . . 55
Figure 2-52: Thermometer with Instrument Well . . . . . 56
Figure 2-53: A Single Pressure Gauge for Measuring Pressure
on Either Side of a Pump . . . . . . . . 57
Figure 2-54: A BTU Meter System . . . . . . . . . 57
Figure 3-1 : Condensation on a Collector Glazing 63

Figure 3-2: Outgassed Material on a Collector Glazing . . . . 64
Figure 3-3: Collector Weep Hole Locations . . . . . . 65
Figure 3-4: A Properly Grounded Collector . . . . . . 67
Figure 3-5: An Automatic Air Vent . . . . . . . . 68
Figure 3-7: Poor Sensor Placement and Improper Insulation
Coverage. . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Figure 3-8: Shrunken Insulation Exposing Pipe . . . . . 72
Figure 3-9: Schrader Valve on a Diaphragm-Type
Expansion Tank 75
Figure 3-10: Pump With a Pressure Gauge on Each Side. . . 76
Figure 3-11: Calibrated Gauges With the Pump Off and On . . 77
Figure 3-12: Gauges Out of Calibration With the Pump Off and On 78
Figure 3-13: A Single Pressure Gauge Capable of Measuring Both
Pump Inlet and Outlet Pressure. . . . . . . 78
Figure 3-14: A Typical Pump Curve . . . . . . . . . 79
Figure 3-15: Dowfrost Test Kit . . . . . . . . . . 84
Figure 3-16: Optical Refractometer . . . . . . . . . 84
Figure 3-17: Checking On/Off Operation by the Jumper Method 85
Figure 3-18: High Limit Dial and Control Switch
on a Solar Control . . . . . . . . . . 86
Figure 3-19: Checking High Limit Function With a Single Resistor 87
Figure 3-20: Solar Control Tester. . . . . . . . . . 88
xi
Figure 4-1: Checking On/Off Operation by the Jumper Method 115
Figure 4-2: High Limit Dial and Control Switch
on a Solar Control . 116
Figure 4-3: Checking High Limit Function with a Single Resistor 116
Figure 4-4: Solar Control Tester. . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Figure 4-5: An Airbound Collector Loop . . . . . . . . . 120
Figure 4-6: Using an Ammeter on a Solar Pump . . . . . 123
Figure 4-7: A Dowfrost Test Kit and a Dow Optical
Refractometer . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Figure 4-8 Reverse Thermosiphoning in a
Closed Loop System. . . . . . 130
Figure 4-9: Correct Dip Tube Lengths in a "Four-Stud" Tank . 132
Figure 5-1: Carrying Glass Properly . . . . . . . . 142

Figure 5-2: Typical Glazing Assembly . . . . . . . 143
Figure 5-3: Weep Hole Locations . . . . . . . . . 145
Figure 5-4: Misaligned Collectors . . . . . . . . . 146
Figure 5-5: Cutting Out the Leaking Collector. . . . . . 148
Figure 5-6: Removing the Coupling Halves . . . . . . 148
Figure 5-7: Rebrazing a Header/Riser Joint . . . . . . 151
Figure 5-8: Repairing a Riser Leak. . . . . . . . . 151
Figure 5-10: Collector Sensor Installation . . . . . . . 153
Figure 5-11: Inadequate Pipe Insulation . . . . . . . 155
Figure 5-12: Valve Installation . . . . . . . . . . 157
Figure 5-13: A Recalibratable Pressure Gauge. . . . . . 159
Figure 5-14: An Automatic Air Vent . . . . . . . . . 161
Figure 5-16: Pump and Motor Mounts . . . . . . . . 163
Figure 5-17: Bearings Lubricated by Oil. . . . . . . . . 164
Figure 5-18: Bearings Lubricated by Grease . . . . . . 165
Figure 5-19: Packing-Type Seals. . . . . . . . . . 166
Figure 5-20: Mechanical Seals . . . . . . . . . . 167
Figure 5-21: Disassembling Pump Volute . . . . . . . 168
Figure 5-22: Grundfos Pump Shaft Plug. . . . . . . . 169
Figure 5-23: Disassembling Taco Pumps . . . . . . . 170
Figure 5-24: Descaling a Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . 172
Figure 5-25: Plugging Tubes to Repair a Heat Exchanger . . 174
Figure 5-26: Fill/Drain Assembly (using check valve) . . . 177
Figure 5-27: Fill/Drain Assembly with Charging
Pump and Filter. . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Figure 5-28: Typical Charging Pump. . . . . . . . . 181
xii
Figure 5-29: Special Fill/Drain Assembly Fittings . . . . . 182
Figure 5-30: Air Coming From the Drain Hose . . . . . 182
Figure 5-31: Correct and Incorrect Pouring from a 5 Gallon
Drum without a Spout . . . . . . . . . 183
Figure 5-32: Routing Sensor Wires . . . . . . . . . 188
Figure 5-33: Installing a Sensor on a Tank Wall Stud . . . 194
Figure 5-34: Clamping the High Limit Sensor to Tank Outlet . . . 194
Figure 6-1: Condensation and Outgassing . . . . . . 202

Figure 6-2: Resealing a Collector with Silicone Sealant . . . . . 204
Figure 6-3: Collector Weep Hole Locations . . . . . . 205
Figure 6-4: Misaligned Collectors . . . . . . . . . 206
Figure 6-6: Schrader Valve on a Diaphragm-type
Expansion Tank.. . . . . . . . . . . 211
Figure 6-7: Sleeve Bearings Lubricated by Oil (left) and Ball
Bearings Lubricated by Grease (right) . . . . 213
Figure 6-8: Checking On/Off Operation by the Jumper Method. 217
Figure 6-9: Checking High Limit Function with a Single Resistor 218
Figure 6-10: Solar Control Tester. . . . . . . . . . 219
Figure A-1 Closed-loop System . . . . . . . . . A-2

Figure A-2 Drainback System . . . . . . . . . . A-2
Figure A-3: Draindown System . . . . . . . . . A-3
Figure A-4: Direct Pool System . . . . . . . . . A-3
Figure A-5: Absorption Cooling System A-4
Figure B-1 : Collector Tilt Measured from the Horizontal
on Level and Tilted Surfaces . . . . . . . B-4
Figure B-2: lsogonic Map of the United States . . . . . B-5
Figure B-3: Magnetic Variation on a Compass . . . . . B-5
Figure B-4: Collector Orientation . . . . . . . . . B-6
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1: Pump Application Guide . . . . . . . . . 24

Table 2-2: Typical Solar Pipe Insulations . . . . . . . 48
Table 2-3: Control Features and System Types. . . . . . 54
Table 3-1: Current Readings and Pump Problems.. . . . . 80

Table 3-2: Characteristics of Available Controls . . . . . 87
Table 3-3: Temperature vs. Resistance in Ohms for 10K Sensors 91
Table 4-3: Resistance and Color Codes for Typical High Limit
Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Table 4-4: Characteristics of Currently Available Controls . . . 119
Table 4-5: Current Readings and Pump Problems . . . . 124
Table 4-6: Flow Estimates from Temperature Changes . . . 126
Table 5-1: Typical Repair/Replace Choices . . . . . . 138

Table 5-2: Repairability of Various Absorbers Manufactured
for Use by Others . . . . . . . . 149
Table 5-3: Repairability of Various Absorbers Manufactured
by Collector Manufacturers . . . . . 150
Table 5-4: Component Fluid Capacities . . . . . . . 185
Table 5-5: Fluid Pressure for Closed Loops . . . . . . 187
Table B-1: Suggested Flow Rates for Solar Applications . . . B-2

Table B-2: Flow Rates for Various Copper Tubing Sizes . . B-3
Table B-3: Solar Collector Tilt Angles . . . . . . . . B-4
Table C-1: Recommended Tool List . . . . . . C-2
Table C-2: Recommended Material List . . . . . . . . C-3
Table C-3: Recommended Spare Parts List. . . . . . . C-5
xiv
1.0
INTRODUCTION
What You Will Find in This Chapter
This chapter presents the purpose, scope and structure of the manual. Also,
recommended ways to use the manual are described.
Please read this chapter carefully; it will enable you to effectively use this manual in
solar heating system operation, inspection, troubleshooting, repair and maintenance
activities.
1.1 PURPOSE OF THIS MANUAL
This manual provides information on the operation, inspection, troubleshooting,

repair and maintenance of liquid solar heating systems. That is, solar heating or
cooling systems using liquid, rather than air, in the solar collectors to gather heat,
pumps to move it and tanks of water to store it. Solar electric (photovoltaic) systems
which generate electricity directly from solar energy are addressed in their own
manual.
We assume the reader is confronted with an existing system, and wants an answer
to one of the following questions:
o How does it work? (Operation)

o Is it working? (Inspection)
o What’s wrong with it? (Troubleshooting)
o How do I fix it? (Repair)
o How do I keep it working? (Maintenance)
NOTE
This manual is designed to be used in the field by staff

performing the actual inspection, maintenance or repair of
solar systems. Do not let it collect dust on a shelf!
INTRODUCTION
1 1.1 PURPOSE OF THIS MANUAL
The physical structure of the manual has been designed for easy copying. Many
pages are sample worksheets and forms that must be copied to be used with the
recommended procedures.
1.2 SCOPE OF THIS MANUAL
The manual covers service issues for systems using flat-plate, evacuated tube, or
unglazed (pool) solar collectors.
It examines four loads that can be met by solar heating. These are domestic and
process hot water, space heating, space cooling and swimming pool heating. These
four applications represent the vast majority of Navy solar systems. They also offer
the reader a fairly broad look at the types of interconnections between solar systems
and loads.
Chapters of this manual are:
Chapter 2 - Operation
Chapter 3 - Inspection
Chapter 4 - Troubleshooting
Chapter 5 - Repair
Chapter 6 - Preventative Maintenance
System design is not specifically addressed. However, it cannot be completely

ignored. If the system design is inadequate or incorrect, it will affect system
operation and maintenance.
For this reason, Appendices A and B include “generic” system designs and sizing
guidelines. These are based on ongoing efforts by military and civilian authorities to
standardize the layout and sizing of components in solar systems. Hopefully, this
will simplify the operation and maintenance of solar systems installed or
rehabilitated in the future.
The information in Appendices A and B assists the service staff to determine when
performance problems are actually caused by design errors. These Appendices
show correct system designs, but they are not meant to replace a design guide.
INTRODUCTlON
1.2 SCOPE OF THIS MANUAL 2
1.3 HOW TO USE THIS MANUAL
1.3.1 Review of Manual Structure, You will be asked to flip back and forth
through the manual to familiarize yourself with the location of the different sections.
Take time to actually look at the pages being described. A good understanding of
the structure of the manual will make it more useful to you.
1.3.2 Worksheets, Most chapters feature worksheets near their ends. They
are designed to be copied and used for the solar system being serviced.
The’ worksheets can be “customized” for your particular needs and preferences.
Where they are not appropriate for the specific system under service, modify the
worksheet to meet your needs.
It is recommended that the completed worksheets be three-hole punched and

inserted into a loose-leaf notebook. The notebook becomes a permanent service
history of the solar heating system.
1.3.3 Self-Study Questions, At the end of each chapter, questions for self-
study are printed. The answers to all the questions appear at the very end of the
manual in Appendix F.
The questions can be used to confirm your understanding of the material in the
chapter, or as part of a more formal training program.
1.3.4 Appendices. The manual contains six Appendices. Appendices A and

B present Generic System Designs and Design Guidelines respectively. Although
not a complete solar design manual, these Appendices can be used to determine
when system problems are actually caused by design errors.
Valuable information on tools, spare parts and parts suppliers is contained in

Appendices C and D. Appendix E is a chart detailing which materials and fluids are
compatible. Appendix F is the answers to all the self-study questions at the end of
the chapters. You should scan these Appendices to learn what types of information
they contain, and use them as a reference when needed.
1.3.5 Notes. Cautions and Warnings. Boxes containing notes, cautions

and warnings appear throughout the manual. Their purpose is to alert you to an
important aspect of the topic being discussed.
INTRODUCTION
3 1.3 HOW TO USE THIS MANUAL
NOTES provide helpful information that does not otherwise fit into the text.
CAUTIONS draw attention to the possibility of equipment damage if the instructions

are not followed.
WARNINGS draw attention to the possibility of personal injury if the instructions are
not followed.
1.3.6 Chapter and Page Format A three-point system is used on every page
to let you know where you are in the manual. First, a footer at the bottom “outside”
of every page shows the chapter title. On this page it is “INTRODUCTION.”
The second point is a footer below the chapter title with the section number and title.
For example, “1.3 HOW TO USE THIS MANUAL” on this page.
Finally, page numbers, continuous throughout the manual, are at the bottom center
of every page.
Smaller illustrations are placed on the same page as corresponding text. Full-page
illustrations are on the facing page, with captions centered below the illustration.
The same three-point orientation system is used on full-page illustrations.
Illustrations and tables are numbered consecutively through each chapter. A list of
figures and tables is presented just after the table of contents near the front of the
manual.
Each chapter begins with an introductory section. This describes the content of
each chapter. It may point out what is not in that chapter, and where to find it.
Many chapter introductions include information you may need to understand the rest
of the chapter. Therefore, we suggest you read the chapter introduction before
reading other parts of the chapter.
INTRODUCTION
1.3 HOW TO USE THIS MANUAL 4
2.0
0PERATlON
What You Will Find in This Chapter:
This chapter contains information on the configuration and operation of the most
common types of solar heating systems. The purpose and operation of individual
components is described.
In the rest of the manual, active solar heating systems are referred to as “solar
systems” for convenience.
2.1 BASIC SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
2.1.1 Definition of Loops. Frequent reference is made to different piping

“loops.” As an example, the collector loop is the piping system that connects single
or multiple solar collectors to the remainder of the solar heating system.
Generally a piping loop involves a flow of fluid caused by a pump or water pressure.
Most loops eventually bring the fluid back to its starting point, although some allow
fluid to enter and exit the loop at various points (Figure 2-l).
PIPING
FIGURE 2-l
A Piping Loop
CIRCULATING
PUMP
OPERATION
5 2.1 BASIC SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Non-solar loops you may be familiar with are hydronic heating baseboard loops.
This would be considered a closed loop. Except for small amounts of make-up
water, the fluid in the loop never changes, and is rarely exposed to air.
A recirculating DHW system is an example of an open loop. The water changes on

a regular basis, with fresh city water coming in whenever a fixture is opened. This
fresh water brings in fresh oxygen. At the same time, the exiting water is exposed
to air (Figure 2-2).
FIGURE 2-2
A Recirculating DHW
System
2.1.2 Common Components. Almost all active, liquid, solar heating systems
include certain components. These are:
o Solar collectors
o Circulation pumps and piping
o Storage
o Controls and sensors
o Some method of freeze protection
A simplified solar heating system is shown in Figure 2-3. Heat energy from the sun
enters, and is trapped by, the solar collectors. These are usually mounted on the
roof, or near the building.
OPERATION
2.1 BASIC SYSTEM CONFIGURATION 6
Inside the collector is an absorber to which are attached tubes filled with liquid. A
pump circulates this fluid through the absorber removing the trapped heat to a solar
storage tank.
Water is normally used for storage, because it can be used for many purposes and it
stores a large amount of heat in a fairly small volume.
FIGURE 2-3
A Simplified Solar
System
The collectors and exposed piping require protection against freezing in cold
climates. If water is used to remove the heat from the collectors, it must be drained
on cold nights or cold, cloudy days to prevent it from freezing. Two ways to do this
are called “drainback” and “draindown.” These are described in more detail in
Sections 2.3 and 2.4.
In other systems, a non-freezing fluid is used in the collector loop. In this case, a
heat exchanger must be used to transfer the heat from the collector fluid to the
water in storage. This type of system is called “closed-loop,” and is described in
Section 2.2.
All the different types of systems use the same type of control. The control uses two
sensors. One sensor is installed at the collectors, and the other is located at the
storage. The control continually compares the temperature of the two sensors.
OPERATION
Whenever the collectors are warmer than the storage, the control turns on the pump
to gather solar energy. If the collectors are cooler than storage, the pumps remain
off. Predetermined temperature differences, called differentials, are chosen by the
system designer.
All solar heating systems share other characteristics. For example, collector piping
should always deliver cool liquid to the bottom of the collectors. The heated fluid
should be removed from the top. This takes advantage of the natural inclination of
the warmed liquid to rise.
Most collector piping is designed to flow through multiple collectors in parallel, rather
than one after the other in series. Because solar collectors operate at relatively low
temperatures, this method allows them to operate as efficiently as possible.
Finally, piping delivers and picks up fluid from diagonally opposite corners of a group
of collectors, to be sure the liquid flows evenly through all the collectors (Figure 2-4).
FIGURE 2-4
A Properly Piped Flat-
Plate Collector Array.
Most collectors have

the four ports as
shown, to simplify
correct piping.
2.1.3 Common Load Connections, The most common uses (“loads”) for
the energy stored in the storage tank are for domestic hot water (DHW), process
water heating, space heating, space cooling and swimming pool heating.
Domestic Hot Water
In DHW applications, the storage tank is usually installed in the cold water supply.
The cold supply is "pre-heated” with solar energy before a standard, “back-up” or
“auxiliary,” water heating system receives it. If the solar system supplies adequate
heat, the auxiliary system remains off. If the solar system cannot supply the
OPERATION
required heated water, the auxiliary system boosts the water temperature the rest of
the way up to the desired temperature (Figure 2-5).
FIGURE 2-5
Solar Storage Tank in
Series With DHW
Auxiliary Heater
In either case, no other controls or valves are needed. The solar DHW preheating
system in series with an auxiliary heater is the most common solar heating
application. The cold water supply is almost always lower in temperature than the
solar storage tank, so solar energy can almost always be utilized.
Process Water Heating
Process water heating with solar systems is almost identical to domestic water
heating. One difference is the larger size of the system. If the process requires high
temperature water, evacuated tube collectors, which operate more efficiently at high
temperatures, may be used.
Some systems use no storage, but add the solar heat to the water as it is brought in.
This approach is most common when the solar system is fairly small compared to
the size of the load.
OPERATION
Space Heating
The two basic types of “traditional” space heating systems are:
o Air
o Water (hydronic).
In forced air heating systems, the air entering the heating system (the return air) is
at room temperature. When the solar heated water is warmer than this return air,
solar heat is introduced. A duct coil is used to transfer the solar heat into the return
air before it enters the heating system.
If solar energy alone is sufficient to maintain the room at the thermostat setpoint, the
auxiliary system remains off. If the room temperature continues to drop, the
auxiliary system boosts the air up to a higher temperature. The auxiliary system can
be a gas or oil burner, or electric coils.
Even when the auxiliary system is on, the solar coil can still preheat the return air,
as long as the water temperature is higher than the return air temperature.
A two-stage thermostat usually controls the two heat sources. Stage one (the pump
delivering solar-heated water) is usually allowed to stay on when stage two (the
back-up heater) comes on (Figure 2-6).
FIGURE 2-6
A Forced Air Heating
System
OPERATION
When a typical boiler is running in hydronic systems, the water returning from space
heaters (AHU, unit heaters, baseboard elements, radiators or others) may be
warmer than the water in the solar storage tank. For this reason, the solar tank and
the auxiliary boiler are installed in parallel.
The solar tank is given the first chance to meet the heating load. If it cannot
maintain the desired temperature, the water flow is diverted through the auxiliary
boiler. Solar energy is not used for preheating, and the two systems perform
independently (Figure 2-7).
Again, a two stage thermostat is used, but stage one is cut off whenever stage two
comes on (Figure 2-7).
FIGURE 2-7
A Hydronic Heating
System
Space Cooling
Solar heat is used for space cooling with, absorption chillers. These chillers use
heat energy to drive the refrigeration cycle, rather than electrical or mechanical
energy. These systems require fairly high temperatures (160°F-200°F), so they use
either very efficient flat-plate or evacuated tube collectors.
In a solar cooling system, the solar tank and the auxiliary boiler are installed in
parallel. This is because when the auxiliary boiler is operating, the water returning
from the generator is almost always warmer than the water in the solar storage tank.
OPERATION
The solar tank is given the first chance to meet the cooling load. If it is not at a high
enough temperature, the water returning from the generator is diverted through the
auxiliary boiler instead. Solar energy is not used for preheating, and the two
systems are completely independent.
Another way to provide back-up is to install a mechanical or electrical chiller, in

parallel with the solar absorption chilling unit. In this case, an auxiliary boiler is not
used in the loop with the absorption chiller (Figure 2-8).
FIGURE 2-8
An Absorption
Cooling System
Notice that both types

of back-up are
pictured, but only one
is normally used.
Swimming Pool Heating
In pool heating, the pool itself functions as the storage medium (Figure 2-9). If the
pool is outside, it is normally not used during the winter. During the summer months
there is a relatively small temperature difference between the pool and the air
around it.
OPERATION
This allows the solar collectors to be very simple. Plastic, rubber or metal absorbers
are secured to a roof or rack. No insulation, frame or glazing is necessary.
Pool water flows either directly through the collectors or through a heat exchanger in
the solar loop. After solar heat is added, an auxiliary heater may be used to further
boost the water temperature.
The pool filter pump is normally set to run during the daylight hours. When the solar
control decides the collectors are warmer than the pool water, a valve system
diverts pool water through the collectors.
Indoor pools used throughout the entire year typically use an indirect system. The
collectors are standard glazed flat-plate units, and usually a non-freezing fluid is
used in the collector loop. A heat exchanger, with stainless steel or copper-nickel
passages for the pool water, transfers the solar heat into the pool.
FIGURE 2-9
A Pool Heating
System
OPERATION
2.2 BASIC CONFIGURATION OF CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEMS
Closed-loop systems use a relatively small pump to move a non-freezing fluid

between the solar collectors and a heat exchanger. The heat exchanger, installed in
a heated space, transfers the heat from the non-freezing fluid to water.
This water is circulated between the heat exchanger and the storage tank by
another relatively small pump. The heat exchanger, pumps and storage tank are all
normally installed in a heated space.
Pumps in a closed-loop system are relatively small because the piping loops they
serve are completely filled. Looking at the collector loop in Figure 2-10, you can see
that, like a siphon, the fluid falling down the return line will pull fluid up the feed line.
Put another way, the energy required to push fluid to the top of the collectors is
offset by gravity pulling it down the other side. The only energy the pump must
supply is that necessary to overcome the resistance due to the friction in the piping.
FIGURE 2-10
Fluid in a Loop.
The fluid falling down

the return line acts to
pull up the fluid in the
feed line. This works
as long as the loop is
completely filled.
CIRCULATING
PUMP
The pump moving the non-freezing solar fluid must be fitted with special seals and
gaskets compatible with the fluid being used. Heat exchanger gaskets and valve
seals must also be chosen carefully. Appendix E shows which materials are
appropriate for various fluids.
The pump circulating water must be of bronze or stainless steel construction, to

avoid corrosion and eventual leakage. The water tubes inside the heat exchanger
must also be made of materials appropriate for water, usually copper or brass.
OPERATION
2.2 CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS 14
Closed-loop systems require several special components. (Figure 2-11) One of
these is an expansion tank in the collector loop, to compensate for the expansion
and contraction of the solar fluid as it is heated and cooled.
Another special component is a check valve. When the fluid in the collectors is cold
(usually on winter nights), it becomes more dense and drops to the bottom of the
collector loop. Warmer solar fluid from inside the building rises to the top of the
collectors.
Eventually, all the solar fluid is slowly flowing in reverse through the system. This
chilling process can start another similar flow in the water loop between the heat
exchanger and the storage tank. The final result is that heat from the storage tank
escapes through the solar collectors to the outside. The check valve prevents this
“reverse thermosiphoning.”
FIGURE 2-11
A Closed-Loop Solar
Heating System
OPERATION
15 2.2 CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS
Finally, closed-loop systems require a fill/drain assembly to allow adding the solar
fluid while removing air. Normally, this assembly consists of two boiler drains (or
hose adapters with shutoff valves) on each side of a shutoff valve. In many cases,
the check valve is used between the fill/drain ports in place of a shutoff valve.
Because collectors in a closed-loop system do not need to drain themselves on a

regular basis, the location of the collectors relative to the rest of the system is not
critical. Compare this to other types of systems, where the location of the collector is
critical to proper system performance.
2.3 BASIC CONFIGURATION OF DRAINBACK SYSTEMS
Drainback systems use water as the collector fluid. The collectors and exposed
piping must be installed so proper draining is possible to avoid freezing.
Looking at Figure 2-12, you can see how the water from the collectors drains back
into a reservoir tank whenever the solar loop pump is turned off. The reservoir tank
is large enough to accept the volume of water held in the collectors and exposed
piping.
When solar energy is available for collection, the solar loop pump pushes water up
the system to the top of the collectors, where it drops back into the reservoir to be
pumped back up again.
FIGURE 2-12
A Drainback Solar
Heating System
OPERATION
2.3 DRAINBACK SYSTEMS 16
A heat exchanger either inside or outside of the reservoir tank transfers the heat
from the solar loop water and into storage water, that is pumped in and out of the
storage tank.
While this system appears to be similar to a closed-loop system, there are two
important differences. First, the solar loop fluid is water, and must be drained during
freezing conditions. This means the collectors and all exposed piping must be
above the drainback reservoir tank and pump. Also, the collectors and piping must
be sloped for drainage.
Second, the solar loop water is not under pressure. This means it does not require
a fill/drain assembly, expansion tank or check valve. However, because the loop is
not always completely filled, the pump must be large enough to overcome not only
friction, but gravity as well when filling the collectors.
2.4 BASIC CONFIGURATION OF DRAINDOWN SYSTEMS
A third method allows the storage water (under street pressure) to enter the solar
collectors and piping. When solar energy is available, a pump circulates the water
through the system to move heat into storage.
In a draindown solar system, the collector loop is filled by water pressure whenever
the pump needs to run. This means the pump is not working against gravity, and
can be relatively small. (Figure 2-13)
FIGURE 2-13
A Draindown Solar
Heating System
OPERATION
17 2.4 DRAINDOWN SYSTEMS
When freezing conditions are encountered, a control valve in the collector loop
shuts off the water pressure to the collectors and exposed piping. The valve allows
the water in the collectors to escape to a drain. In larger systems, three or more
solenoid valves replace the single control valve used for residential applications.
Currently available collector loop control valves are typically not reliable. If water is
left in the collectors during freezing conditions, they will probably be ruined. For this
reason, draindown systems are not known for their high reliability in climates with
frequent freezes.
2.5 BASIC CONFIGURATION OF THERMOSIPHON SYSTEMS
If solar collectors are filled with water and exposed to the sun, the water will heat up,
become less dense, and try to rise. If the outlet of the collectors goes up to a
storage tank, the heated water can flow up into the top of the tank.
If the cooler bottom of the tank is piped back to the inlet of the collectors, a flow of
water will start. This “thermal siphon” can move enough water through the
collectors to heat the contents of a properly sized storage tank. (Figure 2-14)
This system is called a "thermosiphon” system. The collectors, piping and tank are
all outside and filled with water. Heat losses can be significant, and the potential for
freezing exists. For this reason, this system is used only in areas which rarely have
FIGURE 2-14
A Thermosiphon
System
OPERATION
2.5 THERMOSIPHON SYSTEMS 18
freezing temperatures, or during the summer months. If used only in summer, the
system is drained in the fall.
The heated water is usually for domestic hot water as described in Section 2.1.3.
2.6 BASIC CONFIGURATION OF INTEGRATED COLLECTOR-STORAGE

SYSTEM
Another system appropriate only for areas or seasons without freezing temperatures
is the integrated collector-storage system. These are sometimes called “ICS”
systems or “breadbox” solar water heaters.
The collector and storage are all in one unit. Typically, an uninsulated storage tank
is enclosed in a well-insulated box with one glazed side. (Figure 2-15)
The sun strikes and warms the tank and water. The heated water is usually used to
preheat domestic hot water as described in Section 2.1.3.
FIGURE 2-15
An ICS System
OPERATION
19 2.6 ICS SYSTEMS
2.7 COMPONENT OPERATION
2.7.1 Solar Collectors. Because of the effects of the earth’s atmosphere,

three ways exist for solar energy to arrive at the solar collectors. The first way is
straight through the atmosphere. On the average, 27% of the amount that was
available above the atmosphere arrives by this method. Because it travels directly
to the surface, this energy is called “direct” or “beam” radiation. (Figure 2-16)
The second type of solar energy at the earth’s surface is called “diffuse” or
“scattered” radiation. This energy travels in a series of collisions with dust, water
vapor and other particles in the atmosphere before arriving at the surface. This
represents about 16% of the amount available above the atmosphere. Finally, solar
energy reflected from the surface of the earth is sometimes available, averaging 5%
of what was available. The rest is absorbed or “reflected” by the atmosphere, and is
unavailable for collection.
FIGURE 2-16
Direct, Diffuse and
Reflected Solar
Radiation
Flat-plate and evacuated tube solar collectors can collect all components of the
sun’s energy. Of the two, flat-plate types are the most-used type of collectors.
The typical “liquid-cooled” flat-plate collector consists of a black absorber plate with
tubes running through or attached to it to take the collected heat away. Above this
surface is a glazing, usually glass, to help trap the heat. A frame holds the entire
package together, and usually includes some provision for mounting. Insulation
surrounds the absorber to retard the loss of heat from the collector. (Figure 2-17)
OPERATION
2.7 COMPONENT OPERATION 20
Flat-plate and evacuated tube collectors operate by the “greenhouse effect.” As
seen in Figure 2-17, the heat energy from the sun is in short waves, which make
their way easily through the molecules of the glazing material. Once inside they
strike, and are absorbed by, the black absorber plate. Fluid flowing through the
absorber passageways carries the heat away.
Heat energy attempting to re-radiate from the absorber does so in much longer
waves than the original incoming energy, and does not move back out through the
glazing. In addition, most absorbers are coated with a “selective” surface which
absorbs large percentages of available heat, and re-radiates small amounts.
FRAME
FIGURE 2-17
A Typical Flat-plate
Solar Collector
Evacuated tube collectors further reduce heat loss by surrounding the hot absorber
with a vacuum. This eliminates heat loss by convection (heat movement involving
the warming and lifting of a gas or liquid). The vacuum serves as the insulation.
The glass tube functions as the frame and the glazing.
OPERATION
21 2.7 COMPONENT OPERATION
The vacuum tubes used are either single wall or double wall. Single wall tubes are
built with a small absorber plate in the vacuum. Double wall tubes are similar to
thermos bottles, with the vacuum between the two tube walls. The absorber inside
the inner tube is not in a vacuum. (Figure 2-18)
Most evacuated tube collectors are made up of several tubes spaced apart to
reduce the total collector cost. To catch solar energy which falls between the tubes,
polished metal reflectors are used to direct solar energy into the back sides of the
tubes.
FIGURE 2-18
Single and
Double Wall
Evacuated Tube
Collectors
SINGLE WALL DOUBLE WALL
Pool Collectors
Collectors used for heating swimming pool water operate at relatively low
temperatures during fairly warm times of the year. Consequently, the heat loss from
the collector will not be great under these conditions.
OPERATION
For this reason, they are nothing but a plastic or metal absorber plate. No frame,
insulation or glazing is used. (Figure 2-1 9)
Indoor pools used throughout the entire year typically use an indirect system. The
collectors are standard glazed flat-plate units with metal absorbers.
FIGURE 2-19
An Unglazed Pool
Heating Solar
Collector
2.7.2 Pumps. The wetted components of pumps used for moving water are
normally constructed from bronze or stainless steel. These materials do not
deteriorate in water, do not contaminate the water and are compatible with the other
piping system materials normally used. No special seals or gaskets are required.
Pump components in contact with non-freezing solar fluids are normally made of
cast iron or steel. Special gaskets and seals are always required. See Appendix E
for a listing of fluids and materials compatibility. (Table 2-1)
For applications requiring a small (1/35 to 1/2 hp) circulating pump, the typical unit
is a “wet rotor” type. (Figure 2-20) The moving part of the pump motor, the rotor, is
surrounded by water. During operation, part of the water being pumped acts as a
lubricant and coolant for the motor. Wet rotor pumps require no other lubrication or
maintenance, other than periodic inspection.
Larger systems may use a number of small wet rotor pumps ganged together, but
the usual choice is one large pump of traditional design. (Figure 2-21) Because the
motor and pump are physically separated, periodic lubrication is usually required,
and inspection procedures include checking for shaft alignment and bearing wear.
OPERATION
FIGURE 2-20
Wet Rotor Circulating
Pumps: Cartridge-
Type (left) and
Magnetic Drive-Type
(right).
TABLE 2-1: Pump Application Guide
Application Typical Choice
Potable water, under Bronze or stainless steel,

pressure can be wet or dry rotor,
usually high flow, low head
Water, no pressure Can be cast iron or steel,

i.e. drainback can be wet or dry rotor,
collector loop usually low flow, high head
Non freezing liquid, Usually cast iron, can be

under pressure, (i.e. wet or dry rotor, usually
closed-loop collector high flow, low head
loop
OPERATION
FIGURE 2-21
Dry Rotor Circulating
Pumps
2.7.3 Piping. Virtually all solar heating system piping is copper tubing.
Tubing type ( K, L or M) varies with applications and local code requirements, but
follows traditional application rules. Soft and hard copper are both used.
The use of 50/50 tin/lead solder has been banned by the Federal Safe Drinking
Water Act Amendments of 1986. It also melts at temperatures too low for solar
OPERATION
heating systems. 95/5 tin/antimony is normally used on most joints. 96/4 tin/silver
is recommended for joints involving bronze to avoid leaching the zinc from fittings.
In loops containing fresh water (e.g., potable water), copper, brass, bronze or
stainless steel are normally the only appropriate materials. If galvanized piping
already exists, it is necessary to use dielectric unions to isolate different metals.
In loops containing non-freezing solar fluids, or water which is never exposed to

oxygen (e.g., the collector loops or closed-loop and drainback systems), small
amounts of cast iron or steel can be part of a copper piping system. These are
normally the wetted components of pumps, expansion tanks, etc.
Aluminum should never be piped into a system with copper, but if it is, special steps
such as dielectrics and getter columns must be used.
2.7.4 Solar Fluids, The best fluid available for moving the heat from solar
collectors is water. Unfortunately, when water is exposed to freezing temperatures it
becomes solid and expands, two undesirable characteristics.
Special non-freezing fluids have been developed for solar applications. The three
types typically used are:
o Glycol/Water mixtures
o Synthetic oils
o Silicone oils
These materials have different characteristics, but they all have one thing in
common, their specific heats and thermal conductivities are lower than water. This
results in higher pump and heat exchanger requirements and costs.
CAUTION
Once a system has been filled with a particular type of solar fluid, it
should always be recharged with the same material.
Glycols
Glycols are either ethylene glycol or propylene glycol, usually in a 50/50 mixture with
distilled or demineralized water. Special inhibitors are added to help prevent the
fluid from becoming corrosive.
OPERATION
Propylene glycol is classified as non-toxic, while ethylene glycol is toxic. This
difference is critical to occupant safety. Generally, a toxic solar fluid should only be
used whenever the heat exchanger is of double wall construction. If a single wall
exchanger is used, a non-toxic fluid should be used. This is particularly important
when the storage fluid is potable water, as with a DHW system.
Toxic fluids should also be stored and handled carefully. Access by children and
pets should be avoided.
Because the glycols eventually break down chemically, annual testing is required.
Piping systems to be filled with glycol mixtures can be pressure tested and flushed
with water before the glycol/water mixture is put in the system.- It is important to
remove “hung-up” water during the filling process to avoid diluting the fluid.
Pump gaskets and seals, expansion tank diaphragms, valve seals and seats and
other elastomers and plastics must be compatible with glycols. Typical acceptable
materials are EPDM, Hydrin, Viton and Teflon. Thread sealants must be Teflon-
based. See Appendix E for a complete listing of fluids and materials compatibility.
Glycol/water mixtures have a lower surface tension than water. This results in a
“leakier” fluid, making tight joints more important than usual.
Synthetic Oils
The major advantage of synthetic oils is their almost unlimited lifetime.

Furthermore, unless the fluid leaks out of the piping system, virtually no
maintenance is required. Toxicity is low as well.
The specific heat and thermal conductivity of synthetic oils is considerably lower
than water. These factors increase pumping and heat exchanger requirements and
costs. Synthetic oils attack more materials than the glycols, and can damage
roofing materials if spilled. Materials resistant to degradation include Teflon, Viton
and Hydrin. Thread sealants must be Teflon-based. Appendix E contains a
complete compatibility listing.
The surface tension of synthetic oils is very low, resulting in a fluid which is even
more difficult to confine in piping.
Synthetic oils must never be mixed with water, and must be introduced into a
perfectly dry piping system. Water must never be used for pressure testing or
flushing.
OPERATION
Silicone Oils
Silicones have many of the characteristics of synthetic oils. Differences include an

even lower surface tension, so they are even harder to confine. Thread sealants
must be fluorosilicone-based, or joint failure is inevitable. Silicone oil is very
expensive, typically 3 to 10 times the cost of other fluids.
Silicone oils must never be mixed with water, and must always be introduced into
clean, dry piping systems. Water must never be used for pressure testing or
flushing.
2.7.5 Heat Exchangers, The purpose of a solar heat exchanger is to transfer

the collected solar heat from a non-freezing fluid into the water in the storage tank.
Heat exchangers used in solar heating systems are typically one of three types:
o Tube-in-tube
o Coil-in- tank
o Shell and tube
Tube-in-Tube
Tube-in-tube heat exchangers are typically used on smaller systems (20 sq. ft. to
600 sq. ft. of collector area). As their name implies, they consist of a tube within a
tube. One fluid moves through the innermost tube, and the other fluid moves in the
opposite direction through the space between the outer and inner tubes.
(Figure 2-22)
In many cases, two tube walls are between the fluids, affording double wall
protection to the water being heated. In most double wall exchangers of this type,
small passageways between the two walls provide leak detection and prevent any
possibility of contamination.
Some designers choose to have solar fluid in the innermost tube, and others prefer
to use it for water. Be sure you know which design is used for a particular system
before undertaking repairs.
Most manufacturers add small fins to the wetted surfaces of tube-in-tube heat
exchangers. This increases the surface area and keeps the fluid in turbulent flow,
resulting in improved heat transfer rates.
OPERATION
FIGURE 2-22
A Tube-in-Tube
Heat Exchanger
Coil-in-Tank
Another heat exchanger used for small systems is the coil-in-tank. (Figure 2-23) In
this type, a coil is immersed in the storage tank itself. Heated solar fluid is pumped
through the coil. The tank water surrounding the coil is continually heated and rises
by natural convection.
FIGURE 2-23
A Coil-in-Tank
Heat Exchanger
Tanks fitted with heat exchangers are made with both double and single wall
exchangers. Be sure to use a non-toxic solar fluid whenever the heat exchanger is
single wall.
Most coil-in-tank units feature a finned outer surface to improve heat transfer. In
many cases, the inside of the coil is textured to further improve performance.
OPERATION
Many drainback systems also use a coil-in-tank type of heat exchanger. The
collector water reservoir tank may have a small coil inside it which the storage water
is pumped through. In this case, the hotter fluid is outside the coil, and the cooler
water to be heated is inside the coil.
Shell and Tube
Shell and tube heat exchangers, used for a multitude of other heat transfer
applications, are also found in solar heating systems. The water to be heated
moves through the tubes, and the solar fluid providing the heat passes over the
tubes through the shell. (Figure 2-24)
Shell and tube heat exchangers are made with both double and single wall
construction. Be sure to use a non-toxic solar fluid whenever the heat exchanger is
single wall.
FIGURE 2-24
A Shell and Tube
Heat Exchanger
Courtesy of Young Radiator Company
2.7.6 Storage Tanks. Almost all storage tanks used for solar applications are
pressurized steel tanks. All pressure tanks must have ASME approval. A variety of
linings are used:
o Glass
o Stone
o Epoxy
o Phenolic resin
o Cement
o Galvanized
OPERATION
Glass Lined
The glass or porcelain lined tank is the most widely used. (Figure 2-25) It is
available in stock standard sizes from a few gallons to 120 gallons. Larger sizes, up
to thousands of gallons, can be constructed on a custom-made basis. In many
cases it is more cost-effective to use two or more “standard” tanks rather than one
large “custom” one. Many manufacturers offer tanks with internal coils.
A lining is necessary, because a large amount of oxygen is dissolved in the storage

water. In DHW systems, new water, with new supplies of dissolved oxygen, is
introduced every day. This dissolved oxygen makes the water corrosive to
untreated steel.
Other water conditions increase its corrosiveness. In some areas, the pH of the
water is low. This acidic condition accelerates corrosion. Sometimes the amount of
dissolved solids in the water is high, which also increases the problem.
If any gaps in the glass lining exist, the water will attack the bare steel. In a matter
of months, a leak will occur, even in areas with “good” water.
FIGURE 2-25
Glass Lined
Storage Tank
OPERATION
Anode rods are used to protect exposed tank metal from corrosion. If two different
metals are in contact with each other and water, the less “noble” of the two metals
will corrode first. Once the first metal is completely eaten away, the second metal
will begin to corrode.
The anode rod is sometimes called a “sacrificial anode,” because it is sacrificed to

protect the steel of the tank. If the anode is never allowed to completely dissolve, it
will continue to protect the tank. (Figure 2-25)
Stone Lined
Another approach to tank wall protection is to apply a thick lining of low sulfur
cement to the inside. After the tank is baked, a thick stone lining completely covers
the tank walls. This lining is very hard to break.
Normally, no anode rod is used on stone lined tanks. This eliminates one
maintenance step. However stone lined tanks weigh around 50% more than glass-
lined tanks. (Figure 2-26)
Stone lined tanks are readily available in standard sizes of 40 to 120 gallons. Most
manufacturers offer tanks with an internal heat exchanger coil.
STONE LINING
FIGURE 2-26
Stone Lined
STEEL TANK WALL
Storage Tank
INSULATION
PAINTED STEEL
OUTER SHELL
OPERATION
Epoxy and Phenolic Resin Lined
These linings are used primarily on large tanks. They can be applied by installation
personnel at the site, but are normally applied by the manufacturer.
Cement Lined
This type of lining is used primarily on large tanks. It is similar to the stone lining,
except that it is not baked on. This lining can be applied by installation personnel at
the site, but is normally applied by the manufacturer.
Galvanized
Galvanized tanks are made by dipping the steel tank into molten zinc. They are
rarely used now, due to corrosion problems between the zinc and copper piping
systems.
2.7.7 Valves and Other Components. A solar heating system contains

numerous other components which perform a variety of functions. These include
some or all of the following:
o Shutoff valves
o Balancing valves
o Check valves
o Pressure relief valves
o Pressure and temperature relief valves
o Fill/drain valves (for solar fluids)
o Expansion tanks
o Backflow preventers
o Drain valves (for solar fluids or water)
o Air vents
o Air eliminators
o Control valves (for draindown systems)
o Vacuum breakers
o Three way diverting valves
The body materials, construction, seals and gaskets of system components must be
appropriate for the solar fluid being used and the highest potential temperatures and
pressures for the system.
Shutoff Valves
Shutoff valves are used to isolate other system components to allow service without
requiring the complete draining of the system.
OPERATION
For shutoff purposes, gate valves or ball valves should be used. (figure 2-27) Globe
valves, because of their high resistance to flow, should never be used in any part of
the system.
Tanks, heat exchangers, the cold water supply, and banks of collectors are typical
candidates for shutoff valves. Pumps can be isolated as well, using either separate
valves or isolation flanges
Isolation valves should not be used on solar collector arrays unless a pressure relief
valve is in the piping between valves.
Balancing Valves
An ideal collector array is piped so that all the collectors receive an equal flow
automatically. However, sometimes it is necessary to install balancing valves in the
collector piping to accomplish this.
FIGURE 2-27
A Gate Valve (left)
and a Ball Valve
(right)
Balancing valves should be ball valves, and should be installed in the inlet line at the
top of a group of collectors. Every group of panels should also have a thermometer
or the equivalent installed in its outlet. (Figure 2-28) When all the outlet piping
temperatures are equal, the flows are properly balanced between collector groups.
Check Valves
Check valves allow fluid flow in only one direction. They are used in closed-loop
and draindown systems to prevent heat loss at night by reverse thermosiphoning.
OPERATION
FIGURE 2-28
Balancing Valves
and Thermometers
Installed On a
Collector Array
The best choice for this application is a spring-loaded check valve. Make sure the
seat and seals are appropriate for the fluid being used. (Figure 2-29)
It is also worth noting that tests of large numbers of check valves have found wide
variations in opening pressures and high overall failure rates. For this reason, it is
important to inspect check valves for proper operation at every system inspection,
as explained in the inspection chapter, Section 3.1.3.
Pressure Relief Valves
These valves (sometimes called PRV’s) are used only in the collector loop of
closed-loop systems. Since they only respond to pressure changes, they should not
be used on pressurized water (city water) lines or tanks. A strong internal spring
keeps the valve closed until the system pressure exceeds some preset limit.
(Figure 2-30)
FIGURE 2-29
Swing (left) and
Spring (right) Check
Valves
The outlet port of pressure relief valves is piped downward to within 10 in. of the
floor, to protect anyone who happens to be nearby, and to minimize damage to
electrical and other components, should the valve open.
OPERATION
Temperature and Pressure Relief Valve
Sometimes called “T and P’s,” these valves are similar to pressure relief valves.
However, a temperature and pressure relief valve includes a temperature sensitive
element at the valve inlet that extends a few inches into the hottest water at the top
of the storage tank or water heater. (Figure 2-31)
FIGURE 2-30
Pressure Relief
Valves
FIGURE 2-31
A Temperature and
Pressure Relief
Valve
OPERATION
These valves are normally set for 150 PSI and/or 210°F. If either condition is
exceeded, the valve will open and discharge water. Most codes require a “drop line”
from the outlet of the valve to a point within ten inches of the floor, to protect anyone
nearby, and to minimize damage to electrical and other components, if the valve
opens.
Pressure and temperature relief valves are not designed for use in solar collector
loops, as they open at temperatures well below typical operating conditions.
Fill/Drain Valves
These valves are used for introducing or removing non-freezing solar fluid from the
collector loop of closed-loop systems. (Figure 2-32) Simple boiler drains can be
used, if their seats and packings are compatible with the solar fluid. In other cases,
a shutoff valve and a hose adapter perform the same function without compatibility
problems. Finally, specialized poppet valves have been used by different
manufacturers for this purpose.
As discussed in Section 2.2, the fill/drain assembly includes the two valves on each
side of a shutoff valve or check valve. As solar fluid is pumped into the system, the
center valve forces the fluid to move up through the collectors, and back out the
other side of the assembly. Since the fluid goes back into the bucket it was
originally pulled from, it moves around and around the system, forcing out the air.
After charging, the fill/drain valves are closed. If children have access to the
system, caps are normally provided to reduce the chance of tampering.
This process ensures a completely filled system, but it does require an independent
pump for charging the system.
CHECK VALVE
FIGURE 2-32
The Fill/Drain
Assembly During
System Filling
OPERATION
Expansion Tanks
Expansion tanks are normally used in the collector loop of closed-loop systems.
Occasionally they are found in the cold water supply to storage tanks, but only if a
backflow preventer or check valve is also in that line.
CAUTION
Whenever an expansion tank is installed in a loop with

a pump, it must be on the suction side of the
pump. (Figure 2-33) Installation of an expansion tank
on the discharge side of the pump can result in pump
cavitation and damage.
Because fluids are not compressible, expansion tanks are needed to maintain a
fairly stable system pressure. Without one, a closed piping system undergoing
temperature changes would fluctuate from zero pounds to many hundreds of
pounds of pressure.
Expansion tanks for solar fluids are normally constructed of raw. or galvanized
steel. (Figure 2-34) Some have a flexible internal diaphragm maintaining a separate
air cushion. (Figure 2-35) Diaphragm-type tanks are preferred for solar applications.
The air side of the tank usually has a Schrader valve (similar to the ones used on
automobile tires) to allow checking and changing the air pressure. The air cushion
normally comes pre-charged from the factory at 12 PSI.
FIGURE 2-33
Proper Expansion
Tank Placement
OPERATION
The standard diaphragms used on expansion tanks for the traditional hydronic
applications are neoprene. These are quickly destroyed by all non-freezing solar
fluids currently in use. Glycols should use an EPDM or Hydrin diaphragm, and both
types of oils must use one made of Hydrin. Galvanized tanks should never be used
with glycols.
Expansion tank sizing, combined with calculations of the appropriate system fill
pressure, are very important with closed-loop systems. Undersized tanks or
incorrect fill pressures usually result in a loss of system fluid, followed by other
negative consequences.
FIGURE 2-34
An Expansion Tank
Without a Diaphragm
as Fluid Pressure
Increases
FIGURE 2-35
An Expansion Tank
With a Diaphragm
as Fluid Pressure
Increases
OPERATION
Expansion tanks used for potable water are similar to a diaphragm tank, but a
plastic liner on the liquid side keeps the water from contacting the steel wall of the
tank.
Again, an expansion tank is needed only if the cold water supply line to the storage
tank includes a backflow preventer or check valve. In this case, the expansion tank
acts to absorb the expansion of the storage water as it is heated. Without some
expansion capacity, the water pressure will slowly build up until the temperature and
pressure relief valve on the storage tank discharges.
Pressure Reducing Valves
Glycol-filled loops must never be equipped with automatic water make-up. If glycol
leaks out and is replaced by water, the system will not be protected against freezing
damage.
Oil-filled loops must never have water introduced to them.
Draindown systems do not normally require a pressure reducing valve, and it is

difficult to design an effective automatic water make-up system for drainback
systems. Therefore, automatic water make-up is rarely used on collector loops.
Backflow Preventers
In some areas, code officials may require an approved backflow preventer in the
cold water supply to the storage tank. A check valve is not an appropriate
substitute.
The discharge port of a backflow preventer must be piped downward to avoid

damaging electrical and other components, and to prevent injury to anyone in the
area during blowoff.
Whenever a backflow preventer (or a check valve, despite its unacceptability) is

installed, an expansion tank must be installed between the tank and the backflow
preventer. If the expansion of the storage water is not accepted somewhere, the
temperature and pressure relief valve on the tank will discharge heated water on an
almost daily basis. (Figure 2-36)
Drain Valves
Some provision for draining the liquids from all the system loops should be made.
In water loops, a simple boiler drain at all low points is used. The storage tanks,
particularly those in DHW systems, must be drainable for service and maintenance.
OPERATION
FIGURE 2-36
Proper Backflow
Preventer and
Expansion Tank
Placement
In loops filled with solar fluid, the fill/drain assembly may be all that is required for
complete system draining. If the piping must be routed in such a way that local low
points are created, each low point should be equipped with a drain.
Boiler drains may not be acceptable for this purpose, because their seats and
packings may not be compatible with the solar fluid. The simplest way to provide an
inexpensive drain is the use of an all-metal “coin vent.” These manual air vents
have no plastic or rubber seals and are relatively inexpensive. If the low spot is at
an elbow, a baseboard tee can be used instead of an elbow. These tees include an
1/8” female threaded port designed for the coin vents. (Figure 2-37)
Whenever a drain is being used, air must be introduced into the top of the loop to
speed up the draining process. The following section on air vents provides some
information on this.
Air Vents
Automatic (float type) air vents, as shown in Figure 2-38, are probably the most
incorrectly applied component in solar systems. Very few, if any automatic air vents
are capable of withstanding the pressures, temperatures, solar fluids and other
conditions they are exposed to in solar applications.
Automatic air vents can be used only in piping loops containing water. If used with
solar fluids, an automatic air vent would eventually vent enough fluid vapor or leak
enough to render the system inoperative. Automatic air vents shall not be installed
in piping loops containing solar fluid.
OPERATION
FIGURE 2-37
Baseboard Tee with Coin
Vent (top) and a Boiler
Drain (bottom)
The high points of closed-loop systems containing solar fluids must be vented, but
with manual (coin) vents. (Figure 2-39) The vent should be a simple needle valve,
with absolutely no plastic seals, seats, wafers, or other non-metal components.
During installation and maintenance procedures, service personnel can open the
valve to check for air or to let it out. Otherwise, the vent stays closed.
FIGURE 2-38
An Automatic Air Vent
OPERATION
The high points of draindown and drainback collector loops, and the high point of
storage water loops should use a high-pressure automatic air vent. The vent must
be rated for at least 125 PSI, although 150 PSI is better.
The cap on automatic air vents is used to prevent the entry of dust which would clog
the mechanism, so it is never fully tightened.
FIGURE 2-39
A Manual Air Vent
The air vent should be constructed of metal. Plastic air vents are not recommended
because catastrophic failure is common.
Air Eliminators
Air eliminators, also called air scoops, are normally used only on the collector loops
of large closed-loop systems. Their internal construction includes vanes to push
entrained air bubbles upward to a holding chamber. When enough bubbles have
been collected, an automatic air vent at the top of the unit vents the air.
(Figure 2-40)
The air vent should allow flow only during startup operations. They must be closed
during normal operation, after all the air has been removed from the system. Again,
be sure the vent is capable of withstanding the solar fluid itself, and the system
pressures.
Most air eliminators feature a threaded port on the bottom for the system expansion
tank. This is acceptable, but it means the eliminator/vent/expansion tank package
must be installed on the suction side of the solar pump.
OPERATION
FIGURE 2-40
An Air Eliminator
Collector Loop Control Valves for Draindown Systems
Draindown systems can be emptied and filled by a single control valve, or a group
of three individual solenoid valves. In either approach the system control operates
the valve package, draining the collectors and exposed piping during times of
freezing temperatures, and refilling it during warmer periods.
Larger systems use two normally closed solenoid valves and one normally open one
in the configuration shown in Figure 2-41. When outdoor temperatures are above
freezing the two normally closed valves are open, allowing water from the tank to fill
the collector loop. The normally open valve in the drain line is closed, keeping water
in the system.
To drain the collectors and exposed piping, the power to all three valves is turned
off. Normally closed valves keep water out of the collectors. The normally open
valve allows water to drain from the collectors. This water is not recovered, and is
piped to a drain. The system is considered “fail-safe,” because under normal failure
modes, such as a power failure, the system will drain, thus failing in a safe state.
Standard solenoid valves are typically used in this type of system. For adequate
flow, a minimum of 1/2 inch or 3/4 inch ports are required. The solenoids are
usually 120 volts, and wetted materials are normally brass or stainless steel.
OPERATION
FIGURE 2-41
A Draindown System
Using Three Solenoid
Valves
Special control valves are of a rotary or spool valve type. Both are typically used on
small systems only, due to their limited flow capacity. Their basic principle of
operation is identical to the three solenoid valve system. (Figure 2-42)
Draindown control valves usually include a check valve to prevent nighttime heat
loss by reverse thermosiphoning. This heat loss can occur on nights warm enough
for the collectors to be filled.
FIGURE 2-42
An Automatic
Draindown Control
Valve
OPERATION
Vacuum Breakers
A vacuum breaker remains closed only as long as the system it is piped into has
pressure. When the system pressure falls below atmospheric pressure, it opens.
Vacuum breakers are used at the top of draindown and drainback systems to allow
air to enter the loop to facilitate rapid drainage. They are sometimes installed above
the cold water inlet of storage tanks and water heaters to eliminate vacuum
conditions that could collapse the tanks. (Figure 2-43)
FIGURE 2-43
A Vacuum Breaker
As is the case with automatic air vents, no vacuum breaker manufacturer endorses
the use of their product outside.
Three-Way Diverting Valves
Some space heating applications, particularly those involving hydronic back-up, use
motorized three way valves for automatic control of the distribution of solar heat.
The valve must be rated for the water pressure and temperatures expected in the
system, but these are not normally a problem.
Manual three-way valves (Figure 2-44) are sometimes used to isolate or bypass the
storage or back-up heaters in DHW systems. Because slight amounts of leakage
are typical, they cannot be used as shutoff valves for service purposes. However,
as an isolation or bypass valve, they are more convenient than a pair of two-way
valves.
OPERATION
FIGURE 2-44
A Manual Three-Way
Valve
2.7.8 Pipe and Tank Insulation, The most efficient solar heating system
cannot deliver heat it has lost from piping and tanks. System insulation must be
thermally adequate, continuous and durable. Regular inspection and maintenance
is necessary to ensure the insulation and jacketing have not been damaged.
Pipe Insulation
At a minimum, all solar piping under 1 inch size (nominal) should be insulated to R-
4. All piping 1 inch or larger should be insulated to at least R-6. Exterior piping of
all sizes benefits from insulation to R-7. (Figure 2-45)
Protection from moisture and ultraviolet radiation is necessary for all exterior
insulation. (Table 2-2)
Polystyrene or polyethylene should never be used for solar applications. These

materials melt at a temperature of 165ºF, well below the expected temperature for
piping in most parts of all systems.
OPERATION
Good insulation practices require the following:
o All exterior joints must be sealed and protected, including

those between the insulation and collectors, and roof
penetrations.
o Pipes must be supported on the outside of the insulation,

using saddles to distribute the piping weight without
crushing the insulation.
o Pipe supports must allow piping and insulation to move

during periods of thermal expansion and contraction
without tearing the insulation.
TABLE 2-2: Typical Solar Pipe Insulations
Material R-value Trade Notes on use

(per in.) Name(s)
Fiber glass 4.0 CertainTeed Must be protected

from moisture,
joints are difficult
to fabricate,
Max. temp. is 300°F
Closed cell 3.5 Armaflex May require two

flexible Rubatex layers, does not need
elastomeric moisture protection,
foam must have UV pro-
tection, max. temp.
is 220°F
Closed cell 6.5 Solar-7 Must have UV and

rigid to lnsultek moisture protection,
urethane 7.0 lnsulsleeve max. temp. is 250°F
and poly-
isocyanurate
foams
OPERATION
FIGURE 2-45
Closed Cell (Top),
Fiber glass (Center),
and
Elastomer (Bottom)
Insulation
OPERATION
Tank Insulation
Like regular water heaters, most solar storage tanks of 120 gallon capacity or less
are insulated with fiberglass or urethane foam insulation between the tank wall and
outer jacket.
For interior use, the insulation on these smaller tanks should be at least R-12, with
R-20 a better choice.
In some cases additional insulation blankets are installed on the outside of the tank
jacket. If the blanket is maintained, and does not limit access to tank components,
this is acceptable. (Figure 2-46)
For larger tanks, above 120 gallons, even more insulation is appropriate. R-30 is
recommended for tanks whose temperatures are 140°F or lower the majority of
time. Tanks which routinely reach over 140°F are normally insulated to R-40.
“Blown-on” foam insulation is typically used.
FIGURE 2-46
Storage Tank
Insulation
2.7.9 Controls and Sensors, The collection system control operates by

comparing the temperatures of the collectors and storage. When the collectors are
warmer than the storage, collection pumps are turned on. If the collector
temperature falls below the storage temperature, the pumps turn off.
OPERATION
Because the control is concerned with temperature differences, rather than absolute
temperatures, it is called a differential thermostat.
Typically, the collectors must be 10°F to 20°F warmer than the storage water before
the system is turned on. As long as the collectors are at least 3ºF to 8°F warmer
than storage, the system pumps stay on. If the collector/storage differential is less,
the system is turned off. These two differential settings are referred to as the “delta-
T on” and “delta-T off.” Sometimes the two settings are shown together. For
example, a control with a 20°F on differential, and a 5°F off differential would be
described as a “20/5.”
The control determines system temperatures with electronic sensors. These are
usually resistors which change their electrical resistance with temperature. The
most accurate ones used in solar systems are called resistance temperature
detectors (RTD’s). These are more expensive and less common than the thermal
resistors called thermistors. (Figure 2-47)
FIGURE 2-47
Various
Thermistor
Sensors
The relationship in a thermistor between electrical resistance and temperature is

inverse. That is, when the sensor’s temperature goes down, its resistance goes up.
Temperature increases result in resistance decreases. Tables 3-3 and 3-4 in
Section 3.1.7 show the relationships between temperature and resistance for the
two most common types of sensors.
The construction of sensors depends on their application. Some have a mounting

tab with or without a hole for a fastener. Others resemble a threaded plug. They
can be very heavy or very small and light. Most are built to attach to the surface
that requires sensing.
OPERATION
One exception is the collector sensor on pool heating systems. It is not attached to
the collector. It is built and mounted on the roof or rack next to the collectors.
Because it has nearly the same thermal characteristics as the collectors, it
“impersonates” the collector temperature for the control to use. (Figure 2-48)
Controls and sensors are available in two types: 10K and 3K. These refer to the
resistance the temperatures have at “room” temperature (77°F). A 10K sensor has
10,000 ohms resistance at this temperature, a 3K has 3,000 ohms.
FIGURE 2-48
A Pool System
Collector Sensor
Normally, the sensors operate at only a few volts. This means sensor wiring is
considered Class 2, and thus does not require conduit or armor. However, this low
voltage wiring is susceptible to electrical “noise” from 120, 240 and higher voltage
wiring, electric motors, radio transmitters and other sources of RF (radio frequency)
noise.
The usual solution to this problem is to maintain adequate distance between the
controls, sensors and wiring, and the source of noise. If this is not possible,
shielded cable is used.
Most controls have a three-position switch with the functions marked “on,” “off,” and
“auto.” In the “on” position, the control ignores the sensor signals and operates the
pumps constantly. In the “off” position, the sensor signals are ignored, and the
pumps remain off. The “auto” position is used for normal, automatic operation.
(Figure 2-49)
OPERATION
Other controls may have a switch position marked “run” instead of “auto”. In non-
freezing climates, the control may turn on the collector loop pump to keep the water
in the collectors from freezing. The control may open the collector loop control valve
to drain the collectors. In either case, a light marked “freeze” or “FRZ” may be
supplied to let users know the collectors are being protected from freezing. (Figure
2-49)
Most differential thermostats include a storage temperature high limit function. When
the storage tank reaches a pre-set absolute temperature (typically 160°F-180°F),
the collection pumps are turned off. The control may have a sensor specifically for
this high limit function, or it may simply use the one also used for differential
measurement. See Table 2-3 for more information.
FIGURE 2-49
A Typical Differential
Thermostat Showing
High Limit Adjustment
Dial (left) and Switch
(right). Note Indicator
Lights Below Dial and
Switch
Another specialized function of differential thermostats is freeze detection. On

draindown systems, when the collector temperature begins to approach freezing,
the control valve is turned off, and the collectors and exposed piping are drained.
Freeze sensors are usually snap switches which are either completely closed or
completely open. (Figure 2-50)
In some systems, one or more freeze snap switches are installed in series or
parallel with the collector sensor. In others, they are part of a separate circuit.
OPERATION
Some controls feature a digital display showing all the sensor temperatures. In
many cases, these controls have added channels to allow monitoring of additional
system points.
FIGURE 2-50
Freeze Snap Switch
Sensor
TABLE 2-3: Control Features and System Types
Control Feature Closed-Loop Drainback Draindown
Differential
Temperature Always Always Always
Control
Drain on
Freeze Never Never Always
High Limit
on Storage Usually Usually Usually
Temperature
OPERATION
2.7.10 Gauges. Measurements of two properties are usually necessary;
temperature and pressure. Other things can be measured or monitored, but these
two are the most critical.
Temperature
Temperatures in solar systems are measured in one of three ways:
o Fixed thermometers
o PT plugs or thermometer wells (with movable thermometers)
o Electronic sensors (usually thermistors)
Price and accessibility are the usual criteria for deciding which approach to use at a
particular system point. All are sufficiently accurate for normal purposes.
Measuring collector feed and return line temperatures allows service personnel to
confirm solar loop flow, and to get a rough idea of system performance. More
information on this subject is found in Section 4.3.5 in the troubleshooting chapter.
Figures 2-51 and 2-52 are examples of two methods of measuring these
temperatures.
In systems with a pumped storage loop between a heat exchanger and the storage
tank, two more temperature measurement points may be appropriate. At a
minimum, the storage tank outlet should be equipped with a way to measure
temperature. This allows service personnel to confirm that energy has been
transferred into storage, and is being used.
FIGURE 2-51
Insertion
Thermometers with
PT Plugs
OPERATION
FIGURE 2-52
Thermometer with
Instrument Well
Other candidates for temperature measurement include the feed and return of the
auxiliary systems, the feed and return of space heating distribution loops, and the
points measured by differential thermostat sensors.
Pressure
Pressure measurement is necessary in the collector loop of closed-loop systems. It

is the only practical way to confirm that there is adequate solar fluid for proper
operation.
Measuring the pressure on each side of a pump makes it possible to determine the
flow rate through the pump. This process is explained in Section 3.1.4 in the
inspection, chapter.
Differential pressure measurements can also describe flow rates through heat
exchangers, collectors or other components, if the manufacturer can supply flow
rate vs. pressure drop information. (Figure 2-53)
Specialized flow setting devices use a restriction of known characteristics with

pressure measurement ports on each side. A differential pressure gauge is
normally used to determine and help set the flow rate.
Occasionally, a draindown system will have a pressure gauge in the drained portion
of the collector loop. On cold nights, one look at the gauge tells whether or not the
water has drained.
OPERATION
FIGURE 2-53
A Single
Pressure Gauge
for Measuring
Pressure on
Either Side of a
Pump
Other Devices
Elapsed time meters are sometimes used to help predict service intervals, and
confirm proper control operation.
BTU meters combine temperature differential and flow rate measurements to

calculate heat flow. These are generally used for monitoring purposes. (Figure 2-54)
Indicator lights are normally included on the differential thermostat to show the
availability of power and when power is being sent to the pumps. Sometimes,
remote lights and temperature displays are added to the control to make checking
on the system more convenient.
Pressure alarms have been used to alert service personnel to the need for service
in closed-loop systems. They are not currently in general use.
FIGURE 2-54
A BTU Meter System
OPERATION
2.8 Questions for self-study
Instructions: Choose the one answer you believe is correct. Answers to questions
are in Appendix F.
2-1 Which of these is a closed loop?
a) The water storage loop of a glycol-based solar system

b) A recirculating domestic hot water system
c) A draindown system’s collector loop
d) A collector loop filled with synthetic oil
2-2 Which of these is used to stop reverse thermosiphoning in the collector loop?
a) A pump
b) A backflow preventer
c) A check valve
d) An expansion tank
2-3 Which one of these systems uses an expansion tank in the collector loop?
a) A closed-loop system
b) A drainback system
c) A draindown system
d) A pool heating system
2-4 Which one of these systems uses a collector loop control valve in the collector
loop?
a) A closed-loop system
b) A drainback system
c) A draindown system
d) A pool heating system
2-5 The “greenhouse effect” describes which characteristic of glass?
a) It reflects most of the short and long wave radiation

b) It lets short wave radiation through better than long wave
c) It allows light through, but not heat
d) It only allows radiation good for plant growth through
OPERATION
58
2.8 QUESTIONS FOR SELF-STUDY
2-6 Which of these is a toxic solar collector fluid?
a) Distilled water
b) Ethylene glycol
c) Propylene glycol
d) Synthetic oil
2-7 Which one is required for a heat exchanger using a toxic fluid to heat domestic
hot water?
a) Single wall construction

b) Double wall construction
c) Sacrificial anode
d) Stainless steel bonnets
2-8 Which of these types of storage tanks will always require a sacrificial anode?
a) Cement lined
b) Phenolic resin lined
c) Glass lined
d) Stone lined
2-9 The high point of a glycol-filled collector loop must have which one of the
following?
a) An automatic air vent

b) A manual air vent
c) A vacuum breaker
d) An expansion tank
2-10 Where should an expansion tank be placed in a closed loop system?
a) On the inlet side of the heat exchanger

b) On the inlet side of the collectors
c) On the inlet side of the pump
d) It can be placed anywhere in the loop
OPERATION
59 2.8 QUESTIONS FOR SELF-STUDY
2-11 Which type of insulation can be used anywhere on a solar system and does not
require moisture protection?
a) Elastomeric
b) Fiber glass
c) Urethane foam
d) Polystyrene
2-12 When the temperature of a typical 10K thermistor goes up, what happens?
a) Its resistance increases

b) Its resistance decreases
c) Its voltage increases
d) Its voltage decreases
2-13 What is a device with two temperature sensors and a flow meter called?
a) A differential thermostat
b) An aquastat
c) A proportional control
d) A BTU meter
OPERATION
2.8 QUESTIONS FOR SELF-STUDY 60
3.0
INSPECTION
What You Will Find in This Chapter,
This chapter covers solar system inspection procedures and features a checklist for
inspectors. Repair and maintenance information is not in this chapter. These
subjects are covered in their own chapters, 5 and 6, respectively.
This chapter, by itself, should provide information required for an Annual Control
Inspection. This chapter together with Chapter 6, Preventative Maintenance,
provides information needed for a Preventative Maintenance Inspection. Two
checklists are included at the end of this chapter for use in the field.
The information in Appendices A, B and C will be helpful in performing the

operations described in this chapter. Appendix C describes the tools which may be
required. In addition, bring the maintenance and operation manual furnished with
the system, if it is available.
Introduction
Inspection is an important part of any solar service effort. A system inspection

should be made once a year. Ideally, it is done either in the spring or fall to spot
problems before the weather extremes of summer and winter arrive.
In some cases, inspections are done independently, to determine maintenance and

repair needs. In other cases, inspection and maintenance are performed
simultaneously. In general, they are done together if personnel qualified and
equipped to perform maintenance and simple repairs are performing the inspection.
Remember, information on repairing or maintaining these components is found in

Chapters 5 and 6.
INSPECTION
61 INTRODUCTION
3.1 INSPECTION PROCEDURES
The following sections are in the same order as the Inspection Checklist near the
end of this chapter. It is suggested you read through the procedures before using
the checklist. This will reduce confusion about what the checklist requires.
3.1.1 Solar Collectors,
Glazings
Collector glazings should be unbroken, clean and without internal condensation.
A broken glazing has a serious effect on collector performance, and should be

repaired immediately. The interior of the collector must be protected from the
weather.
WARNING!
Even without a glazing, the absorber plate can be hot enough to

cause serious burns.
CAUTION
If you cover the broken collector with plastic, be sure to

support it well enough to keep it from sagging and touching the
absorber plate. Even without a glazing, the plate can get hot
enough to melt the plastic onto the plate. Consider using an
opaque plastic such as black.
The system can remain operational, unless an object which broke the glazing also
hit the absorber plate hard enough to cause a leak.
Whenever a broken glazing is found, and no obvious cause exists, check the
collector frame dimensions carefully. An out-of-square or otherwise faulty collector
will repeatedly break glazings during hot weather.
INSPECTION
3.1 INSPECTION PROCEDURES 62
Normally, glazings are cleaned by periodic rain and snow. If precipitation is
infrequent, air quality is poor, or a building component (such as an exhaust fan or a
chimney) deposits materials on the glazing, a regular schedule of cleaning should
be established.
WARNING!
Never clean tempered glass glazings by hosing them off with

water, unless they are cool. The rapid cooling and thermal
contraction of the glass may cause them to shatter.
Some brands of evacuated tube collectors use polished metal reflectors under the
tubes. These should also be checked for dust, leaves and other materials.
The underside of glazings should also be checked for water condensation and
outgassing. Condensation is typically spread unevenly on the underside of the
glazing. (Figure 3-1) It usually indicates a leak in the glazing gasket system or the
collector frame. In some cases, an absorber plate leak may be the cause of the
problem. If this is suspected but not obvious, remove the glazing to check the
absorber plate.
FIGURE 3-1
Condensation on a
Collector Glazing
INSPECTION
63 3.1 INSPECTION PROCEDURES
Occasionally, sealants, gaskets or even subcomponent labels will outgas. This
process, akin to vaporization, results in gases inside the collector frame. They
condense on cold surfaces. Unfortunately, this includes the inside of the glazing.
Figure 3-2:
Outgassed Material
on a Collector
Glazing
Outgassed material usually forms a uniform cloud or haze on the inside of the
glazing. (Figure 3-2) When this is found, it is usually best to do nothing about the
problem for six months to be sure whatever material has outgassed is completely
gone. If the problem reoccurs, one collector should be dismantled to determine the
source of the outgassed material.
Frames
Frames should be physically sound, with no evidence of paint loss or other surface
damage. Make sure no galvanic corrosion is occurring between aluminum collector
frames and steel or galvanized steel mounting hardware.
As indicated above, condensation of water on glazings may indicate gaps in frame

joints. All collector joints should be tight, with sealant or gaskets in good condition.
Some collectors are made with weep holes to allow moisture and outgassed
materials to escape. If the collectors are so equipped, check that collector insulation
has not shifted to block the weep holes. Also make sure that weep holes are on the
bottom or back of the collector, so water cannot run into the frame. (Figure 3-3)
INSPECTION
FIGURE 3-3
Collector Weep Hole
Locations
Seals Grommets and Gaskets
Loose, degraded or broken collector seals reduce performance by letting cold

outside air move through the collector, or by admitting water which clouds the
glazing.
Check pipe grommets by looking through the glazing, not by removing pipe
insulation. A gray or brown haze in the corners of the glazing indicates an
outgassing grommet or frame comer seal. They may break down to the point they
can no longer seal properly.
Water droplets on the underside of the glazing in the corners is a sure sign that
either the grommet or the frame corner seal is breaking down.
The glazing gasket should still be compressed by the glazing cap strips. Some
collectors use a glazing gasket with a gap which can open up over time. A brown or
gray fog around the perimeter of the glazing indicates an outgassing glazing gasket.
INSPECTION
Interior Insulation
Make sure that interior insulation is not damaged by moisture, side wall insulation is
still in place and the insulation is not blocking any weep holes.
If significant amounts of moisture have entered the frame (enough to stain the
absorber plate), and fiber glass insulation is used in the collector, it is a good idea to
dismantle the collector. Check if the insulation has dropped and compressed behind
the absorber, leaving an uninsulated area.
An overall brown fog on the glazing may indicate outgassing from insulation
materials. Again, it is best to leave this unattended for six months before cleaning
the glazing. If the problem reoccurs, dismantle the collector and find the cause of
the problem.
Mounting Hardware
Check if all mounting hardware connections are tight. Confirm that the connection
to the building is still secure. Make sure no galvanic corrosion has occurred
between mounting hardware, collectors, building components, piping and pipe
hangers.
Lightning Protection
If lightning protection has been provided for the collector array, check that all
lightning rods are still in place and upright, wiring connections are secure and the
ground rod(s) are still secure and in good condition.
Make sure all collectors are under the “cone of protection” of the lightning rods, that
is, within the perimeter of installed lightning rods.
Frame Grounding
Make sure every collector with a sensor is adequately grounded. This is done using
a bare section of 12 or 14 gauge copper wire. One end is hose clamped to the
collector outlet piping. The other end is mechanically secured to the collector frame
using the mounting hardware. (Figure 3-4)
INSPECTION
FIGURE 3-4
A Property Grounded
Collector
Make sure galvanic corrosion has not degraded the connection at the frame end of
the wire. Although this corrosion is a liability, it is more than offset by the number of
controls saved by collector frame grounding.
Collector Flow Rates Balanced
Use existing thermometers, existing thermometer wells and a thermometer, or a

contact thermometer (contact pyrometer) to measure the outlet temperatures of
each collector group in the array.
These temperatures should all be within five degrees of each other. Higher
temperatures indicate flow rates lower than the rest of the array. Lower
temperatures indicate higher flow rates.
Be aware of changing solar conditions while testing large arrays. Many collectors
respond to changes in solar levels in less than one minute. It may be necessary to
check the outlet temperatures two or three times to be sure.
INSPECTION
WARNING!
Valves must never be installed in a way that could allow the

isolation of the solar collectors from pressure relief valves
and/or expansion tanks. Collectors have been completely
destroyed by bursting in this way.
Air Vents
Automatic air vents can be used only in piping loops containing water. When used
with solar fluids, an automatic air vent will eventually vent enough fluid vapor or leak
enough to render the system inoperative. (Figure 3-5)
FIGURE 3-5
An Automatic Air Vent
with manual (coin) vents (Figure 3-6). The vent should be a simple needle valve,
with absolutely no plastic seals, seats, wafers or other non-metal components.
storage water loops should use a high-pressure automatic air vent. Confirm that the
vent is capable of handling at least 125 PSI, although 150 PSI is better. Check the
pressure relief valve setting to ensure protection for the vent.
INSPECTION
FIGURE 3-6
A Manual Air Vent
The cap on automatic air vents must not be fully tightened. It is there only to
prevent the entry of dust which would clog the mechanism. The vent must be
installed vertically.
because catastrophic failure is common. If a plastic vent is found, make a note on
the inspection worksheet and schedule the vent for replacement.
Sensor Wires
Check sensor wires for ultraviolet (UV) degradation. They should be secure and
make a watertight connection where they pass through the roof. They should not be
near sharp edges, or line voltage wiring or loads. Avoid sharp bends.
Make sure the connection to the sensor is still electrically sound and the connectors
are watertight.
The sensor wires must not be in contact with collector loop piping. They may be
fastened to the outside of pipe insulation, and can be under the insulation jacket.
They must never be between the insulation and the piping, or damage will result.
Collector Sensor(s)
The thermistor sensor used for measuring the actual collector temperature by the
differential thermostat must be securely mounted to the absorber plate, or the
collector outlet piping. It must be in good thermal contact with the absorber or outlet
INSPECTION
piping, and within 1 inch of the collector housing. (Figure 3-7)
Snap switch sensors, used for signaling the approach of freezing temperatures in
draindown systems are usually installed in the lower, colder, sections of the
collectors. Some freeze sensors may be installed on exterior piping.
FIGURE 3-7
Poor Sensor
Placement and
Improper Insulation
Coverage
Finally, sensors must be covered thoroughly with insulation, so they sense the
absorber or pipe temperature, not the air temperature. Actual sensor testing is
covered in Section 3.1.7.
3.1.2 Exterior Piping.
Leakage
Joint leakage may not be immediately obvious in exterior piping. Leaking fluid may
be trapped or absorbed by the insulation. Incorrectly used automatic air vents may
have allowed vaporized solar fluid to escape slowly enough to leave no evidence of
a leak.
INSPECTION
CAUTION
Unless a component is specifically for use in solar heating

systems, confirm that body materials, construction, seals and
gaskets are appropriate for the solar fluid being used and the
highest potential temperatures and pressures for the system.
As an example, most of the standard gate valve packings are
quickly degraded by synthetic oils. The inevitable result is a
loss of fluid leading to more serious consequences.
If the collector fluid is water, it may leak slowly enough that it evaporates as fast as it
escapes. If the collectors in a drainback system are not filled at the time of
inspection, no leakage can be detected.
Therefore, look for evidence of leakage as well as actual leaks. Stained roofs,
insulation or collectors provide some clues. It may be necessary to remove
insulation (carefully by section) to determine the exact leak location. In some cases,
good collectors may seem to have an internal leak when an adjacent joint sprays
fluid past a grommet and into the frame.
CAUTION
The common practice of hydrostatic pressure testing is not

acceptable for systems filled with either synthetic or silicone
oils. Never put water into piping used for oils.
Insulation
Inspect all exterior insulation carefully. Missing insulation has a significant negative
effect on system performance. Every inch of piping, including capped-off collector
stubs and connections between collectors, must be insulated.
If the insulation is flexible elastomeric (e.g., Armaflex™ or Rubatex™), make sure it

is completely painted. Without a protective coating of paint, elastomers will degrade
within. months from the UV radiation of the sun. Waterproofing is not needed with
elastomeric insulations.
INSPECTION
Fiber glass and rigid foam insulations must be jacketed to protect against
penetration by snow and rain as well as UV radiation. Make sure the insulation
jacket is complete and in good condition. Insulation joints should still be watertight.
The ends of insulation should butt snugly against the collector frames and the joint
should be sealed with silicone sealant or the equivalent. (Figure 3-8)
FIGURE 3-8
Shrunken Insulation
Exposing Pipe
The appearance of pipe insulation is another important consideration. Nothing

detracts from an installation more than ragged, deteriorating pipe insulation. It is
also an indication that there has been, or will be, a problem.
Hangers
It is important to check for loose pipe hangers, since increased damage can happen
to loose piping. This is critical in exterior piping runs subject to any foot traffic, with
the greater chance of vandalism or casual contact. The greater the stress on the
piping, the greater the chance that leaks will develop.
3.1.3 Interior Piping.
Leaks, Insulation and Hangers
Inspect interior piping for loose or missing insulation and hangers and leakage.
Follow the information in the preceding section for insulation, hangers and leaks.
INSPECTION
Interior piping does not require protection against water and UV radiation damage.
However, some jacketing is usually applied to keep insulation in place, protect it
from physical damage and improve its appearance.
Bypass and Balancing Valves
The configuration of flow balancing and bypass valves should be compared against
the system’s operation and maintenance manual. Some systems have tags or
labels at each valve handle to indicate the appropriate position for various
situations.
If neither source of information exists, it will be necessary to trace the piping to

check valve positions. Use pumps and check valves for clues to flow directions.
Note missing tags on Inspection Worksheet.
Tempering Valves
Whenever possible, check for proper tempering valve operation. This can only be
done when the outlet temperature of the tank preceding the valve is hotter than the
valve setting.
To check, run hot water from a fixture until the temperature stabilizes and measure
the temperature. Tempering valves are normally used only on DHW systems, and
the water temperature at the fixture should be within five degrees of 120°F.
Pressure relief valves must be used on the collector loops of closed-loop solar
systems. Look for evidence of leakage or blowoff, and properly installed discharge
piping. Large systems may discharge into a bucket or drum, to save the solar fluid
after discharge.
WARNING!
A pressure-only relief valve must not be used on tanks or any

other pressurized city water piping. A combination temperature
and pressure relief valve must be used for these applications.
INSPECTION
Pressure and Temperature Relief Valves
Pressure and temperature relief valves must be used on pressurized storage tanks
and other city water lines of all systems. Look for evidence of leakage or blowoff,
and properly installed discharge piping. Local code may require piping of discharge
to drains or outside the building, and the system should be in compliance.
CAUTION
A temperature and pressure relief valve must not be used in the

collector loop of closed-loop systems. The valve will inevitably
open at some time, causing a loss of solar fluid.
Expansion Tanks
Check expansion tanks with diaphragms in closed-loops by very briefly depressing

the Schrader valve. If any fluid comes out, the diaphragm is leaking and the tank
must be replaced. (Figure 3-9)
NOTE
Repeated testing of diaphragm-type expansion tanks as

described above will eventually release enough air to interfere
with proper operation. Whenever the fluid is removed from the
loop, the air pressure of the tank should be measured and
necessary air pumped in.
CAUTION
Whenever an expansion tank is installed in a loop with a pump,

it must be on the suction side of the pump. Installation of an
expansion tank on the discharge side of the pump can result in
pump cavitation and damage.
INSPECTION
FIGURE 3-9
Schrader Valve on a
Diaphragm-Type
Expansion Tank
Tanks without diaphragms usually include a sight glass to determine the fluid level.
Depending on system pressure, about half the tank volume should be air.
Pressure Reducing Valves
Glycol-filled loops must not be equipped with automatic water make-up systems.
Over time, enough water can enter the loop as glycol leaks out for freezing damage
to occur to outside components.
3.1.4 Pumps,
Electrical Connections
Make sure all wiring, conduit and junction boxes are securely fastened. All wire
connectors and cover screws should be in place and tight. Turn shutoff switches or
breakers off and on to check them. Confirm that the pump motors are properly
grounded, either by visually checking, or by using an ohmmeter.
Piping Connections and Seals
Check all pump ports for sign of leakage or corrosion, both while the pump is
running and when it is off. Look for leakage at the body seal on wet rotor pumps
and the shaft seal of external motor pumps.
INSPECTION
If the pump has flanges, make sure the bolts are all in place and tight. If it has
isolation flanges, make sure the shutoff valves close easily and check them for
leakage.
Support
Make sure all pump supports are securely fastened to the building and the pump.
Check for corrosion as well.
Flow Rate
If a pump’s loop includes a direct-reading flow meter, use it to determine the loop
flow rate. Compare it to the flow rate called for in the system’s operation and
maintenance manual. If no manual exists, check the flow rate against those listed
in Appendix B.
If the loop includes a flow-setter with ports for measuring pressure, follow the
instructions and charts for that unit to determine flow rate. Compare this to the
system’s operation and maintenance manual’s listed rate, or check it against
Appendix B if no system manual exists. Inadequate flow rates must be corrected if
they are less than one-half of the design flow rate.
If the loop includes either a pressure gauge on each side of the pump (Figure 3-10),
or a single pressure gauge with small piping and valves (Figure 3-13), determine the
pressure change across the pump while it is running.
As shown in the example which follows, the pump manufacturer’s published pump
curve can be used to determine the flow rate. Compare this flow rate to the one
called for in the system’s operation and maintenance manual, or check it against
those called for in Appendix B.
FIGURE 3-10
Pump With a Pressure
Gauge on Each Side
PUMP
INSPECTION
If the two gauges read the same when the pump is off (Figure 3-11), the differential
pressure is simply the outlet pressure minus the inlet pressure. For example, if both
gauges read 30 PSI with the pump off, and when the pump is on the outlet gauge
reads 35 and the inlet gauge reads 25, the differential pressure is:
35 PSI - 25 PSI = 10 PSI
FIGURE 3-11
Calibrated Gauges
With the Pump Off
and On
However, if the gauges read differently when the system is off (Figure 3-12) and
cannot be adjusted to agree, you have to add up both pressure changes. For
example, at rest, the inlet gauge reads 28 and the outlet gauge reads 30. When the
pump is on, the inlet gauge goes to 23, and the outlet gauge goes to 35. The total
of the pressure changes is:
For the inlet gauge: 28 PSI - 23 PSI = 5 PSI
For the outlet gauge: 35 PSI - 30 PSI = 5 PSI
The total pressure change is: 5 PSI + 5 PSI = 10 PSI
INSPECTION
FIGURE 3-12
Gauges Out of
Calibration With the
Pump Off and On
If there is only one gauge, with piping and valves as shown in Figure 3-13, the
pressure change is the outlet pressure minus the inlet pressure. Both pressures are
measured while the pump is running.
PRESSURE
GAUGE
FIGURE 3-13
A Single Pressure
Gauge Capable of
Measuring Both Pump
Inlet and Outlet
Pressure
CIRCULATING
PUMP
INSPECTION
After determining the pressure change, convert it to feet of water, the usual pressure
unit used on pump curves. This is sometimes called feet of head. They are the
same. Multiply the PSI times 2.3 to convert to feet of water. For example, our
example pump had a pressure change of 10 PSI. This is:
10 PSI x 2.3 = 23 feet of water
The final step is to use the manufacturer’s pump curve to determine what flow rate
the pump will provide working at that pressure change. Using Figure 3-14 as an
example, the 23 feet of pressure change across the pump indicates a flow rate of
about 30 gallons per minute.
NOTE
While this method is reasonably accurate, it is not perfect. As

the pump impeller wears, flow rates will decline. If the pump
is moving glycols or oils, there may be a considerable deviation
from the published pump curve. If the flow rate is 50% higher
or lower than the design flow rate, consult the fluid manufacturer
for the correction factor.
FIGURE 3-14
A Typical Pump
Curve
The motors of wet rotor pumps never require lubrication. External motor pumps
should be checked at every inspection. If there is no way to determine lubricant
levels, a regular schedule for adding oil should be established, to avoid over-oiling
the motor.
INSPECTION
Shafts and Bearings
External motor pumps should be checked for shaft alignment and bearing wear. If
the shaft is out of alignment, bearings will wear quite rapidly. Listening to the pump
is one of the best ways to check these points.
Current Draw
Another excellent way to spot pump problems is by measuring the current draw of
the pump and comparing it to the manufacturer’s specifications.
The following table gives a general indication of other things to inspect based on
current readings. “High” and “low” refer to the pump manufacturer’s specifications.
TABLE 3-1 : Current Readings and Pump Problems
If Ammeter Reads: Inspect for:
Zero Power supply problem

Control problem
Relay or starter problem
Broken motor lead
Thermal overload tripped
Too low Motor problem

(1/4 to 1/2 times Broken or slipping shaft
specifications)
Correct amount Airbound loop
Closed valve, backwards check
valve
Broken or slipping shaft
Direction of motor rotation
Too high Misaligned shaft

(1 1/4 to Worn bearings
1 1/2 times Foreign matter in volute
specifications) Impeller against volute wall
Motor problem
Much too high Locked rotor problem

(2 or more times
specifications)
INSPECTION
If the ammeter reads zero, too high or much too high, also check relay contacts for
damage from excessive current draw.
3.1.5 Heat Exchangers.
WARNING!
Always confirm that a double wall heat exchanger is used

whenever a toxic solar fluid is used, particularly with DHW
systems. This can be determined from the nameplate.
Check all heat exchanger ports for signs of leakage or corrosion. Look for loose
bolts and leakage at the bonnets of shell and tube heat exchangers.
Supports
Make sure all heat exchanger supports are securely fastened to the building and the
heat exchanger. Check for corrosion as well.
Flow Rate
Methods of checking flow rates are described in the preceding section, 3.1.4.
Compare it to the specifications in the system’s operation and maintenance manual,
or check them against the rules of thumb in Appendix B.
If potable water flow rates are significantly lower than the system specifications,
scale may have built up on heat exchanger passages.
It may be worthwhile to have a water hardness test performed, if water quality is not
known. It may also be a good idea to visually inspect the water passages, if
possible.
Temperature Change
While the system is running, check the temperatures at the inlets and outlets of all
heat exchangers. Make sure the temperatures change in the appropriate directions.
INSPECTION
During operation on a sunny day, the solar fluid entering the heat exchanger from
the collectors should be higher in temperature than the fluid leaving the heat
exchanger going back to the collectors.
Under the same conditions, the water leaving the heat exchanger should be hotter
than the water entering from the tank.
Sacrificial Anodes
Many tube and shell heat exchangers have a sacrificial anode in the tube manifold.
Check the anode by unthreading it, if it is accessible from outside the heat
exchanger. If not, remove the bonnet to check it. Use teflon tape on the threads
when re-installing the anode. This will aid removal for future inspections. Also,
attach a note to the tank indicating the condition of the anode and the date it was
last replaced, if known.
Draindown Tank/Heat Exchanger
The collector fluid reservoir of a draindown system should be inspected for leakage,
corrosion and appropriate flow rates and temperature changes.
In addition, the water level in the reservoir should be checked. For most systems,
this is done while the solar loop pump is off. Check with a sight glass, a dip stick
(sometimes using a real stick!) or by simply filling the tank until it overflows when the
solar loop pump is off.
3.1.6 Solar Fluids. Solar loops will work only if they have adequate fluid in
them. Drainback reservoir tanks must be filled to the correct level. Closed-loop
systems must have adequate pressure.
Check for the recommended liquid level or pressure from the system’s operation
and maintenance manual. If no such manual exists, Section 5.2.6 in the Repair
chapter of this manual includes a chart of recommended glycol and oil fill pressures.
Water
Draindown systems use city or well water in the collector loop. If water quality is
poor, water treatment equipment may be used. The product water from the
treatment equipment should be checked.
INSPECTION
Usually, water is “softened” to remove scale-causing “hardness.” Typically, this is
done with ion-exchange softening equipment. Test for hardness with any standard
water hardness test equipment.
Sometimes iron creates problems by building up on the inside of piping systems and
reducing flow rates, and by giving the water a poor appearance and taste. Standard
ion-exchange softeners, specialized iron filters or chlorine-based treatments are
used to remove iron. These can all be easily checked with a test kit for total iron
(both ferrous and ferric iron).
Drainback systems normally use distilled or deionized water.
Glycols
Glycol-based fluids should be checked for glycol concentration and the condition of
the corrosion inhibitor. If these two cannot be checked, at least check the pH
(acidity/alkalinity) of the fluid.
To check glycol concentration, some manufacturers (including Dow Chemical

Company) furnish simple test kits with simple test strips and color charts
(Figure 3-1 5). Another method is an optical refractometer (Figure 3-1 6). Both these
methods require only a few drops of fluid and are quite simple.
To check the condition of the corrosion inhibitor, measure either the pH or the
reserve alkalinity of the fluid. Most glycol manufacturers recommend that the pH
should not drop below 6.0 and the reserve alkalinity should not drop below 8.0.
Should either condition be too low, the fluid must be replaced or reinhibited.
To check the pH, use pH paper or tape, or have a laboratory analyze the fluid. If
using pH tape, use fairly fresh tape with a pH range from 6.0 to 8.0. Water
treatment specialists or swimming pool chemical suppliers are good sources for pH
tape.
To check the reserve alkalinity, use a special test strip from the manufacturer, or
have a lab check it. Some glycol manufacturers offer free testing for systems using
large amounts of fluid (over 50 to 200 gallons).
The, color of most glycol-based solar fluids is not usually a good indicator of fluid
condition. However, if the fluid appears and smells “burnt,” or has visible sludge, it
should be replaced after the system is flushed out.
INSPECTION
FIGURE 3-15
Dowfrost Test Kit
FIGURE 3-16
Optical
Refractometer
INSPECTION
Synthetic and Silicone Oils
Oils do not require replacement or reinhibiting. However, the fluid pressure must be
adequate.
Check for the recommended pressure from section 5.2.6 of this manual.
3.1.7 Controls,
Check all conduit and wiring connections. Make sure the system is mechanically
grounded (to earth). Pay particular attention to the sensor wire connections. Make
sure no small strands of wire from adjacent terminals touch each other. Such
contact provides a direct short circuit which completely disrupts normal control
operation.
Mounting
Be sure the control and associated conduit is securely mounted.
Controls: Jumper Method
With all sensor wires disconnected and the control switch in the “automatic” position,
jumper the two terminals marked “Collector” (or “COLL,” etc.) (Figure 3-17a). The
solar loop pump (and water loop pump, if used) should come on.
FIGURE 3-17
Checking On/Off
Operation by the
Jumper Method
INSPECTION
With the collector sensor terminals shorted, jumper the storage sensor terminals
marked “Storage” (or “STOR,” etc.) (Figure 3-17b). The pump(s) should go off.
To test the high limit function, first determine the brand and type of differential
thermostat controlling the system. Most controls are 10K, that is their sensors have
10,000 ohms resistance at 77°F. If you have any doubt about this, refer to the
system’s operation and maintenance manual. If one does not exist, remove a
sensor, give it time to come to room temperature and measure its resistance with an
ohmmeter.
Controls manufactured by Controlex (Natural Power), Johnson Controls, Barber

Coleman, Honeywell, Robertshaw and others are not 10K differential thermostats.
These controls use RTD sensors instead of thermistors. Consult the manufacturer
for further information.
Heliotrope General controls may use 10K or 3K sensors. Table 3-2 contains
additional information on these controls.
Determine the high limit setting of the control from Table 3-2, the control labeling or
the setting of the control’s high limit adjustment dial. This dial is usually on a
potentiometer, sometimes called a “pot.” (Figure 3-18)
FIGURE 3-18
High Limit Dial (left) and
Control Switch (right) on a
Solar Control
INSPECTION
Jumper the collector sensor terminals on the control. Once the system is running,
hold the leads of an appropriate resistor against the storage sensor terminals
(Figure 3-19). The system should turn off, as the control is being told the storage
tank is above the high temperature.
FIGURE 3-19
Checking High Limit
Function With a Single
Resistor
TABLE 3-2: Characteristics of Available Controls (As of January, 1988)
Manufacturer: Model: Type: On/Off: (ºF) High Limit: (ºF)
Heliotrope TempTrak II Series 3K/10K Adj: 50-100 Adj: 80-215

General* DTT-64 Series 20/3 or 10/3 None, 160, or 180
DTT-84/94 Series 10K 18/5 or 9/4 160 or 180
DTT-64DD 10K 30/3 180
DTT-74 Series 10K 20/5 or 10/5 None, 160, or 180
Independent CM30/32 10K Adj: 8-24/4 Adj: 110-230

Energy CM-33 10K Adj: 8-24/4 Adj: 50-104
CM-50 10K Adj: 15/4 to Adj: 60-160
40/20
C-30 Series 10K 20/5 or 8/3 Adj: 105-212
C-35 Series 10K 4/1 or 8/3 Adj: 62-104
Pyramid All 10K 14/3 163

Controls
Rho Sigma RS504 Series 10K 20/3 or 12/3** 160

RS121 Series 10K 20/3 Adj: 120-220
RS360 Series 10K 20/3.5 Per specification
* Older Heliotrope General Controls are all 3K

** Proportional control: The pump motor is run at a speed proportional to the
differential. This type of control is rarely used.
INSPECTION
Use Table 3-3 or 3-4 to determine the right resistance to use to simulate a particular
temperature. An abbreviated version, with resistor color codes, is presented in
Table 4-3.
Controls.. Tester Method
A more accurate method of testing differential thermostats is with a special tester

designed for the purpose. Normally, these units have four leads or terminals.
These are connected to the collector and storage sensor terminals of the control.
The tester supplies a calibrated resistance to the two sensor inputs to simulate
changing sensor temperatures. (Figure 3-20)
Most of the available testers supply a fixed resistance to the storage terminals and
change the resistance supplied to the collector terminals. The numbers on the
tester dial usually refer to the temperature difference between the storage and
collector terminals.
As the tester dial is slowly turned to greater temperature differential settings, the
resistance supplied to the collector sensor terminals is lowered. At the “on”
differential, the control should turn on.
FIGURE 3-20
Solar Control
Tester
INSPECTION
Next, turn the dial slowly downward to lower temperature differential settings. This
increases the resistance shown to the collector sensor terminal, and at the “off”
differential, the control should shut off.
Many testers also include a high limit test function. Generally, the tester shorts out
the collector sensor’s terminals, to ensure the control is trying to run the system.
Then, the resistance supplied to the storage sensor terminals is reduced, simulating
a rising storage temperature. When the high limit is reached, the control should
shut off.
The dials on most testers are not very accurate. If the control has a digital display,
use that instead of the numbers on the tester dial. In descending order of accuracy,
the dials and readouts encountered during control and sensor testing are:
Most accurate: Control digital display

Digital ohmmeter
Analog ohmmeter
Resistor color code
Control tester dial
Least accurate: Control adjustment pot dials
Sensors: For Controls Without Digital Displays
To check suspicious sensors, disconnect the wires from their terminals at the
control. With all sensors removed, the control should be off when it is in the “auto”
position. Leave the connections intact at the sensor for the time being. Using an
ohmmeter and the appropriate temperature vs. resistance chart (Table 3-3 or 3-4),
determine if the resistance of the sensor is appropriate for the temperature it should
be measuring. If using an analog meter with several resistance scales, the 100 x R
scale is normally the most useful.
Confirm also that the sensor resistance changes as the sensor temperature
changes. This may require warming a cool sensor in your hand, or moving a sensor
off a warm collector or tank into the cooler air.
CAUTION
Do not immerse sensors in warm or cold water. Most sensors

are not waterproof and can be damaged with water. Resistance
readings of an immersed sensor will not be correct. If
temperature extremes are needed to check the sensor, wrap it
in a plastic bag before immersing it in water.
INSPECTION
Remember, most sensor’s resistance goes up as temperature goes down. A
temperature increase results in a resistance decrease. If the ohmmeter shows a
direct short (zero ohms), or an open circuit (infinite ohms), check the sensor wiring
as well as the sensor itself.
Check sensor wiring for staples shorting out the wires, loose or corroded
connections and outright breaks.
Make sure sensor wiring is located away from line voltage wiring and motors.
Maintain at least 1 foot from 120V wiring and at least 2 feet from 240V. It is very
easy for a small electrical current to be induced in the low voltage sensor wires.
This current will make normal control operation impossible.
Sensors: For Controls With Digital Displays
If the control has a digital display, leave the sensor wires connected and use the
control display to check the sensors. If the displayed temperatures do not appear
appropriate, disconnect the sensor wires from the control and use an ohmmeter to
check the sensor.
Many digital displays indicate short or open circuits by flashing the digits on display.
Again, an ohmmeter should be used on disconnected sensor wires.
NOTE
Whenever checking controls or sensors, also check to be sure the

collector with the sensor is properly grounded.
Freeze Snap Switches
Redundant sensors in different locations provide added protection against freezing.
Multiple freeze sensors are sometimes used in parallel or series to provide

redundant protection for collectors and exposed piping. Make sure they are in good
thermal contact with the piping or collector components, and that they are wired
correctly in series or parallel.
Be sure the freeze snap switches used with a control are made or recommended by
the control manufacturer. Some switches open on a temperature drop, and others
close on a temperature drop. The use of the wrong snap switch can destroy the
collectors by allowing them to freeze.
INSPECTION
TABLE 3-3: Temperature vs. Resistance in Ohms for 10K Sensors
ºF ºC Resistance ºF ºC Resistance ºF ºC Resistance

32 0.0 32,654 106 41.1 5,093 180 82.2 1,170
34 1.1 30,859 108 42.2 4,873 182 83.3 1,129
36 2.2 29,174 110 43.3 4,663 184 84.4 1,090
38 3.3 27,592 112 44.4 4,464 186 85.6 1,053
40 4.4 26,105 114 45.6 4,274 188 86.7 1,017
42 5.6 24,709 116 46.7 4,093 190 87.8 982
44 6.7 23,395 118 47.8 3,921 192 88.9 949
46 7.8 22,160 120 48.9 3,758 194 90.0 917
48 8.9 20,998 122 50.0 3,602 196 91.1 886
50 10.0 19,903 124 51.1 3,453 198 92.2 857
52 11.1 18,873 126 52.2 3,312 200 93.3 828
54 12.2 17,903 128 53.3 3,177 202 94.4 801
56 13.3 16,988 130 54.4 3,048 204 95.6 775
58 14.4 16,126 132 55.6 2,925 206 96.7 749
60 15.6 15,313 134 56.7 2,808 208 97.8 725
62 16.7 14,546 136 57.8 2,697 210 98.9 702
64 17.8 13,822 138 58.9 2,590 212 100.0 679
66 18.9 13,139 140 60.0 2,488 214 101.1 658
68 20.0 12,493 142 61.1 2,391 216 102.2 637
70 21.1 11,883 144 62.2 2,298 218 103.3 617
74 22.2 11,307 146 63.3 2,209 220 104.4 597
72 23.3 10,762 148 64.4 2,124 222 105.6 579
76 24.4 10,247 150 65.6 2,043 224 106.7 561
78 25.6 9,760 152 66.7 1,966 226 107.8 543
80 26.7 9,298 154 67.8 1,891 228 108.9 527
82 27.8 8,862 156 68.9 1,820 230 110.0 511
84 28.9 8,448 158 70.0 1,753 232 111.1 495
86 30.0 8.056 160 71.1 1,688 234 112.2 480
88 31.1 7,665 162 72.2 1,625 236 113.3 466
90 32.2 7,333 164 73.3 1,566 238 114.4 452
92 33.3 6,999 166 74.4 1,509 240 115.6 438
94 34.4 6,683 168 75.6 1,454 242 116.7 425
96 35.6 6,382 170 76.7 1,402 244 117.8 413
98 36.7 6,097 172 77.8 1,351 246 118.9 401
100 37.8 5,827 174 78.9 1,303 248 120.0 389
102 38.9 5,570 176 80.0 1,257 250 121.1 378
104 40.0 5,326 178 81.1 1,213
INSPECTION

32.0 0 9,810 105.8 41 1,540 179.6 82 354
33.8 1 9,300 107.8 42 1,480 181.4 83 342
35.6 2 8,850 109.4 43 1,420 183.2 84 333
37.4 3 8,430 111.2 44 1,360 185.0 85 321
39.2 4 8,010 113.0 45 1,310 186.8 86 312
41.0 5 7,620 114.8 46 1,260 188.6 87 303
42.8 6 7,260 116.6 47 1,210 190.4 88 293
44.6 7 6,900 118.4 48 1,170 192.2 89 284
46.4 8 6,570 120.2 49 1,120 194.0 90 275
48.2 9 6,270 122.0 50 1,080 195.8 91 267
50.0 10 5,970 123.8 51 1,040 197.6 93 259
51.8 11 5,700 125.6 52 1,002 199.4 92 251
53.6 12 5,430 127.4 53 966 201.2 94 243
55.4 13 5,190 129.2 54 930 203.0 95 236
57.2 14 4,950 131.0 55 879 204.8 96 229
59.0 15 4,710 132.8 56 864 206.6 97 223
60.8 16 4,500 134.6 57 831 208.4 98 215
62.6 17 4,290 136.4 58 774 212.0 99 210
64.4 18 4,110 138.2 59 801 210.2 100 204
66.2 19 3,930 140.0 60 747 213.8 101 198
68.0 20 3,750 141.8 61 720 215.6 102 192
69.8 21 3,570 143.6 62 696 217.4 103 187
71.6 22 3,420 145.4 63 672 219.2 104 182
73.4 23 3,270 147.2 64 648 221.0 105 176
75.2 24 3,150 149.0 65 624 222.8 106 171
77.0 25 3,000 150.8 66 603 224.6 107 167
78.8 26 2,870 152.6 67 582 226.4 108 162
80.6 27 2,750 154.4 68 564 228.2 109 158
82.4 28 2,630 156.2 69 543 230.0 110 153
84.2 29 2,520 158.0 70 525 231.8 111 149
86.0 .30 2,420 159.8 71 507 233.6 112 145
87.8 31 2,320 161.6 72 492 235.4 113 141
89.6 32 2,220 163.4 73 474 237.2 114 137
91.4 33 2,130 165.2 74 459 239.0 115 134
93.2 34 2,040 167.0 75 444 240.8 116 130
95.0 35 1,960 168.8 76 429 242.6 117 127
96.8 36 1,880 170.6 77 417 244.4 118 123
98.6 37 1,800 172.4 78 402 246.2 119 120
100.4 38 1,730 174.2 79 390 248.0 120 117
102.2 39 1,670 176.0 80 378 249.8 121 114
104.0 40 1,600 177.8 81 366
INSPECTION
3.1.8 Storage Tanks.
Drain Valves
Check that the drain valve on the storage tank opens and closes properly without
leaking. Look for leaks at the piping connection between the valve and the tank.
Insulation
Tank insulation must be complete, dry and properly jacketed. If foam insulation has
been applied to the exterior, make sure it is still in good condition.
If the tank is buried, take tank-top temperature readings one hour after the end of a
solar collection day and again the next morning. During that night, bypass the tank,
so any temperature loss is through the tank wall and insulation, not to a load. The
overnight loss of heat on a properly insulated tank will typically result in a
temperature loss of less than ten degrees Fahrenheit.
Sacrificial Anode
Unscrew and inspect the sacrificial anode in steel tanks with glass linings. The pipe
dope used by the manufacturer makes the rod difficult to remove the first time. After
inspection, clean this dope off the threads and use teflon tape. This will make
subsequent inspections easier. Attach a note to the tank indicating condition of the
anode and the date of the last replacement, if known.
Replacement of depleted anode rods is critical to the lifetime of a storage tank.

Fittings and Piping
Check all fittings for leaks and evidence of corrosion. Insulation on piping must be
complete. Insulation jacketing, if used, must be intact.
Sensor and Sensor Wiring
The previous section contains information on checking the sensor on the tank.
Make sure the sensor wiring is protected from physical damage and is kept at least
1 foot away from 120V wiring and at least 2 feet away from 240V wiring.
Heating Element
If the tank has a back-up electric element, be sure the sensor and back-up element
wiring are separated by at least one foot.
INSPECTlON
The element must be in the upper half of the solar tank. An auxiliary heat source in
the bottom of the tank would interfere with the system’s ability to store solar heat.
3.2 SAMPLE INSPECTION CHECKLIST
An inspection checklist is shown on the next four pages. It can be copied and used
directly, or it can be retyped with modifications for particular systems.
This version has two columns. If no repairs are required, place a check in the “OK”
column. If repairs are needed, check the “Repair” column. Use the “Recommended
Actions” section near the end for notes on necessary repairs.
After the checklist is filled out, use it to pinpoint necessary maintenance or repairs.
Then file it with all the other system inspection sheets, or with the operation and
maintenance manual for that system.
INSPECTION
3.2 SAMPLE INSPECTION CHECKLIST 94
Solar System Inspection Checklist
Site/Location: Date:
Collectors
OK Repair
Glazings unbroken, clean (Do not clean when hot!)

Frames tight, no evidence of corrosion, square
Seals and gaskets not deteriorating, complete
Interior insulation in place, dry, not deteriorating
Mounting hardware secure to collectors and roof, tight
Lightning protection, if used, is secure
Frame grounded to absorber piping
Flow rate balanced throughout array
Sensor wires secure
Sensor secure, in good contact with absorber plate
Collectors unshaded, no new growth of trees or bushes
Exterior Piping
OK Repair
Insulation complete, weatherproof, secure

Hangers supporting piping properly without stress
No evidence of leakage
INSPECTION
95 3.2 SAMPLE INSPECTION CHECKLIST
Interior Piping
OK Repair
Insulation complete, secure

Valves in correct positions*
Pumps
OK Repair
Electrical connections secure

Piping connections secure, no evidence of corrosion
Pump properly supported
Flow rate in appropriate range*
Adequate lubrication supplied (dry rotor pumps only)
Current draw is appropriate*
Heat Exchanger
OK Repair
No evidence of corrosion at fittings (check bonnet)

Piping connections secure
Anode in water manifold present
Temperature differences appropriate*
Water level in drainback tank, if used, correct*
* Check the system’s operation and maintenance manual, or this

manual’s appendices for more information.
INSPECTION
Closed-Loop Fluid, if used
OK Repair
Adequate pressure*
Glycol pH, alkalinity and concentration acceptable
Make-up water supply, if present, shut off and tagged
Control
OK Repair

Control securely mounted
On/off differentials correct*
Sensor wires secure, unbroken, not shorted
120/240 VAC wiring at least one foot from sensor wires
Sensor resistance appropriate*
Cable shield, if used, grounded to cabinet only
Storage Tanks
OK Repair
Drain valve opens and closes properly

Insulation complete, tight, dry
Dielectric fittings where needed, no corrosion
Sensor wires secure
Sensor secure, in good thermal contact with tank wall
Heating element wiring, if used, is secure
T & P not blowing off, load still using heat
*Check the system’s operation and maintenance manual, or this

manual’s appendices for more information.
INSPECTION
97 3.2 SAMPLE INSPECTION CHECKLIST
Paperwork
OK Repair
Operation and maintenance manual for system on site or available
Flow diagram and sequence of operation on site or available
Service record for system on site or available
Photographs taken and placed in service record
This inspection record filed in service record
Recommended Actions. if any;
Notes:
Inspected by:
Approved by:
INSPECTION
3.3 SIMPLIFIED INSPECTION PROCEDURES FOR SMALL SYSTEMS
When many small systems are to be inspected, such as domestic hot water systems
on military family housing units, a simpler inspection procedure can be used to
reduce the inspection time per system.
These inspection procedures are less detailed and cover fewer items, but are
adequate to turn up most service needs. It is important to complete all the
inspection tasks for all the systems, and to remain alert for defects which are not
specifically listed.
Notice that the last section of the checklist can be performed at another time, when
inspection personnel are on top of the building to inspect roofs.
INSPECTION
99 3.3 INSPECTION OF SMALL SYSTEMS
DHW System Inspection Checklist
Collectors (Inspect from the ground)
OK Repair
Glazings unbroken, without condensation or outgassing

Piping insulation complete, jacket in acceptable condition
No evidence of fluid leakage
Piping hanging or supported properly
Interior Piping
OK Repair
Piping insulation complete, jacket in acceptable condition
No evidence of fluid leakage
Piping hanging or supported properly
Valves all in correct positions*
When pump is running, pump sounds appropriate
No gurgling noises in piping, except for filling and
draining draindown and drainback collector loops
Pressure of closed loops appropriate*
Pressure relief valve on closed loop installed and discharge
properly piped
Glycol concentration, pH and alkalinity acceptable
* Check the system’s operation and maintenance manual, or this manual’s

appendices for more information.
INSPECTION
3.3 INSPECTION OF SMALL SYSTEMS 100
Control and Wiring
OK Repair
Sensor wiring secured

Line voltage electrical connections all secure
Control operates correctly when tested with jumpers or
control tester*
Pump turns on and off properly during control test
Sensor resistances appropriate*
Storage Tank
OK Repair

No evidence of leakage or corrosion
T & P valve installed and discharge properly piped
Collectors and Exterior Piping (to be done when climbing to roof for other purposes)
OK Repair

Frames tight, no evidence of corrosion, square
Mounting hardware secure to collectors and roof, tight
Sensor wires secure
Collectors unshaded, no new growth of trees or bushes
* Check the system’s operation and maintenance manual, or this manual’s

appendices for more information.
INSPECTION
101 3.3 INSPECTION OF SMALL SYSTEMS
3.4 Questions for Self-study
are in Appendix F.
3-1 What does “outgassing” in a solar collector look like?
a) Gummy deposits on the absorber plate

b) Uneven droplets on the glass
c) A uniform cloud or haze on the inside of the glass
d) A degraded absorber coating
3-2 What do weep holes do?
a) Let out excess fluid pressure from the collector loop

b) Keep the collector loop pressure high enough
c) Let moisture out of the collectors
d) Keep moisture from entering the collectors
3-3 What size wire should be used to ground the collector frames?
a) 10 AWG or larger
b) 12-14 AWG
c) 14-20 AWG
d) 20 AWG or smaller
3-4 Where should the thermistor sensor used on the collector be installed?
a) On the collector outlet piping

b) On the collector inlet piping
c) On the inlet piping
d) In the air, shaded by the collector
3-5 What must be done to elastomeric pipe insulation used outside?
a) Jacket it
b) Waterproof it
c) Paint it
d) Nothing
INSPECTION

3-6 Pressurized solar storage tanks must have which one of these?
a) Backflow preventer
b) Tempering valve
c) T&P
d) Vacuum breaker
3-7 What can happen if you install an expansion tank on the discharge side of a
pump in a closed loop?
a) Nothing
b) Pump cavitation
c) Excessive pressure on the suction side of the pump
d) Expansion tank damage
3-8 Turn to the “typical pump curve” diagram in Section 3.1.4. If the two gauges on
each side of the pump read 50 PSI at rest, and 40 PSI and 60 PSI when the
pump is running, what is the flow rate?
a) About 10 GPM
b) About 15 GPM
c) About 20 GPM
d) About 25 GPM
3-9 Which is the most reasonable set of temperatures for the inlets and outlets of a
heat exchanger of a closed-loop system during normal operation on a sunny
day? (All temperatures in degrees F.)
To collectors From collectors To storage From storage
a) 100 120 60 55
b) 120 100 60 60
c) 120 100 55 60
d) 100 100 60 55
INSPECTION
3-10 At a minimum, what should glycol-based solar fluids be checked for?
a) PH
b) Pressure
c) Dissolved copper
d) Dissolved oxygen
3-11 At a minimum, what should oil-based solar fluids be checked for?
a) PH
b) Pressure
c) Dissolved copper
d) Dissolved oxygen
3-12 With all sensor wires disconnected, the switch in the “auto” position, and a
jumper across the collector sensor terminals, what should a functional
differential thermostat do?
a) Stop running the pump

b) Run the pump for a few minutes, then stop
c) Run the pump
d) Nothing
3-13 A 10K thermistor sensor has a measured resistance of 5000 ohms. What is
the sensors approximate temperature in degrees F?
a) 57
b) 77
c) 107
d) 212
3-14 A 3K thermistor sensor has a measured resistance of 5000 ohms. What is the
sensor’s approximate temperature in degrees F?
a) 57
b) 77
c) 107
d) 212
3-15 The temperature of the solar fluid leaving the heat exchanger for the collector
should be:
a) Lower than temperature of the fluid entering

b) Equal to the temperature of the fluid entering
c) Higher than the temperature of the fluid entering
d) The same as the air temperature around the collector
INSPECTION
4.0
TROUBLESHOOTING
This chapter contains information on determining what is wrong with a solar system.
A troubleshooting chart is provided.
Information on how to repair the problems that troubleshooting turns up can be

found in Chapter 5, Repair. Preventive maintenance is covered in Chapter 6
The first section of this chapter describes troubleshooting techniques. Those

unfamiliar with troubleshooting should read this information carefully.

operations described in this chapter.
4.1 TROUBLESHOOTING TECHNIQUES
Troubleshooting an HVAC system should involve more than looking for an obvious
problem, or replacing components at random in an attempt to get the system
working again. This is particularly true of solar heating systems. What is required is
a systematic procedure that carefully “troubleshoots” the system until the problem is
located and repaired.
Cause or Symptom
What may appear to be the cause of a problem may actually be a symptom of

another problem. For example, if a sensor is secured to an ungrounded solar
collector, a discharge of static electricity may travel through the sensor wire and ruin
the control.
Replacing the control does not solve the problem that destroyed it. The new control
is still likely to be damaged, and the system will be inoperative again. If the collector
with the sensor is properly grounded, the actual problem has been solved. Now a
new control can be expected to remain functional.
TROUBLESHOOTING
105 4.1 TROUBLESHOOTING TECHNIQUES
"Low Impact" Troubleshooting
Another peculiarity of solar systems is the difficulty of performing some

troubleshooting procedures without making it a major undertaking.
As an example, it is difficult to examine the interior of the collector loop pump of a

closed-loop system. The process may require completely draining the solar fluid
into buckets or drums, disassembling and reassembling the pump and refilling the
system loop with fluid.
On the other hand, checking the electrical current draw of the pump can confirm or
deny that the pump rotor is locked. This can be done without ever opening up the
collector loop. This “low impact” troubleshooting usually saves time, material and
money.
Less Likely. But Easy
Most “low impact” troubleshooting is relatively quick and easy. For this reason, it
may make sense to do them, even if they relate to causes you believe are unlikely.
Occasionally, the cause of a problem is not one of the likely ones, and a few
minutes spent performing easy operations is well-rewarded. Also, following a
systematic troubleshooting procedure will uncover other problems that should be
repaired for long term performance and trouble free maintenance.
Multiple Problems
Never assume that a system is completely without faults after correcting a problem.
A few more minutes spent checking out the rest of the system may save a trip back
later to “rerepair” the system.
Five Steps of Good Troubleshooting
Good troubleshooters usually follow some variation of the following steps when
working:
o Planning
o Finding the cause
o Repairing
o Testing
o Keeping records
TROUBLESHOOTING
4.1 TROUBLESHOOTING TECHNIQUES 106
Planning begins with thinking about the poss ible causes of a problem before going
to the site. This includes the tools andmaterials necessary to determine what is
causing the problem, and estimating the time required to find and correct it. Friday
afternoon at 4:00 is a bad time to start tearing down a DHW system, particularly if
you may require parts which take 30 days to come in.
Finding the cause is the investigation phase. Start with low impact checks, proceed
in an organized and logical fashion, and attempt to isolate the results of testing to
the component being tested.
Sometimes the only way to determine if a component is working properly or not is to

replace it and see what happens. Remember that this may fix the symptom but it
can fail to turn up the real cause of a problem.
Repairs can be made on a “band-aid” basis, doing as little as possible to get the
system running again. Another approach is to replace major portions of the system
to be absolutely certain the problem is gone. The correct approach is to determine
what the real cause of a problem is, and make repairs that solve that problem so it
does not happen again.
Whether to repair or replace defective components depends on the cost and

availability of the component. Generally, the more expensive and difficult it is to
obtain something, the more appropriate the repair of the component. If the part is
cheap and readily available, it generally will be replaced. If repairs can be made to
the defective component, it can become the new replacement the next time this
same component fails in this or other systems.
After the cause of a problem has been identified and corrected, inspect and test the
entire system. This confirms that the new components are working, and that no
other problems exist.
The defective components should be tested as well. The best time is usually before
rebuilding. As an example, if a control works fine on a test bench, but not at all at
the site, a problem exists at the site that will not let the new control work there
either.
If the part is truly defective, look for the reason it failed. For example, did the control
get wet? Will the new control also get wet and fail?
The last part of troubleshooting is record-keeping. Maintenance and repair records

are kept to maintain a history of each system. Troubleshooting records should be
part of that written history. In addition, writing down the troubleshooting process
preserves that information for the person who found the problem.
TROUBLESHOOTING
107 4.1 TROUBLESHOOTING TECHNIQUES
The sample repairs worksheet at the end of Chanter 5, Repairs, includes a section
to describe what troubleshooting was done on a particular system. We suggest you
use it, or one like it.
4.2 TROUBLESHOOTING CHART
How to Use This Chart;
The troubleshooting chart is arranged in sections which correspond to typical

problems encountered with solar heating systems. Any of these problems may be
found through a scheduled inspection, or by the system users.
Each problem section includes symptoms, followed by possible causes for each
symptom. Causes are arranged with the most likely ones listed first.
Again, check the “low impact” source of a problem first, and remember more than
one problem source may exist to find and fix. Careful testing and inspecting may
avoid another trip back to “rerepair" the system.
The next section contains information on specific troubleshooting operations, and

tips on common causes.
Information on recommended repair actions can be found in Chapter 5 in the repair

and replacement section devoted to each component. (For example, sensor and
control repair and replacement procedures are in Section 5.1.7.)
PROBLEM SYMPTOM CAUSE ACTION
Tank temperature Collector loop shows Collector loop airbound Check for and repair leaks.
lower than normal loss of pressure Check pressure relief valve(s).
Check for proper use. location,
and operation of air vents.
Recharge system with solar flub.
Leak in absorber plate Repair or replace absorber.
Collector loop shows Collectors not receiving Check that collectors are:
no loss of pressure energy or system under- 1) facing true south
sized 2) tilted properly
3) unshaded
4) sized for bad, (see App. A+B)
5) free of dust, etc.
Collector loop airbound Check air vents for trapped air.

or leak in expansion tank Replace expansion tank
diaphragm Recharge system with solar fluid.
TROUBLESHOOTING
4.2 TROUBLESHOOTING CHART 108
(cont) (cont) (cont) (cont)
Tank temperature Collector loop shows Circulating pump not Repair or replace pump.
lower than normal no loss of pressure working properly (either
water or solar)
Valves or pump isolation Return to correct position.

flanges closed
Bent or crushed pipes Repair or replace piping.
Obstruction in collector In collector array, unequal outlet

loop piping or collector(s) temperature will show obstructed
collector(s). Check heat
exchanger also. Flush and
recharge system with solar fluid.
Storage (water) piping Check air vents in water lines

airbound for proper installation and
operation. Check for air in water
side of heat exchanger.
Heat exchanger, pumps or Check with system designer.

piping undersized
Faulty or incorrectly Check for proper flow direction.

installed check valve Check for blockage.
Tempering (mixing) valve Repair or replace tempering valve.

set too low or not Confirm proper valve placement.
operating properly Follow manufacturers recom-
mendations for placement.
Tank temperature Collector loop shows Air in collector loop Check for and repair leaks.
lower than normal wide fluctuations in Check pressure relief valve(s).
pressure Check for proper use and operation
of air vents. Recharge system with
solar fluid.
Tank losing heat, Tank poorly insulated Insulate to at least R10 if inside,
especially at night or insulation wet at least R20 if tank is outside.
Reverse thermosiphoning Inspect and repair check valve

in solar loop.
Piping losing heat Improper or insufficient Repair or replace insulation.

insulation
Small storage tank Insufficient storage of heat Replace with larger tank, or add
(See Appendix B) another one.
Solar tank warm, but Faulty back-up heater Repair or replace back-up heater.
back-up heater cool
System never operates Collector sensor or wires Repair or replace bad sensor or
open, storage sensor or wires.
wires shorted, sensor
loose
TROUBLESHOOTING
109 4.2 TROUBLESHOOTING CHART
Tank temperature System never operates Control power off, switch Return switch to correct position,
lower than normal set wrong, or control is confirm power supply, check
defective control and replace if defective.
System runs all the Collector sensor or wires Repair or replace bad sensor or
time shorted, storage sensor or wires. Tighten connections.
wires open, sensor loose
Control switch set wrong, Set control switch to correct

or control is defective position, replace control if
defective.
System runs at odd Sensor wires too close to Reroute wires, and/or use
times or relay 120V (or higher) lines or shielded cable. Connect shield
chatters other electrical “noise” to control case ground only.
Gradual performance Collectors shaded, or Clear obstruction or clean

decrease glazings dirty glazings when cool.
Condensation on inside of Check for weep holes, make sure

collector glazings they are open. If none exist,
drill three 3/16” holes in
bottom of affected collector.
Pipe insulation degraded Repair or replace pipe insulation.
Tempering valve defective Repair or replace tempering valve,

confirm proper valve placement.
Heat exchanger scaling up Descale heat exchanger

with hard water
Air in storage loop (water) Repair or replace air vents if faulty,

piping or tanks and/or reroute storage loop piping.
Drop in DHW pressure Drop in pressure of both Strainer, filter, valve or Clean or replace clogged unit.
delivered to load hot and cold fixtures conditioner clogged or Return valves to proper position.
closed in cold supply Check pressure reducing valve for
proper flow direction.
Drop in pressure of hot Valve closed in storage Return valves to proper position.
fixtures only tank feed or supply line
Air in storage tank, or Repair or replace air vents and/or

tank feed or supply line, reroute storage loop piping
or heat exchanger
System not running System never operates Refer to “System never operates” above
at appropriate
times System runs all the Refer to “System runs all the time” above
time
System runs at odd Refer to “System runs at odd times or relay chatters”
time or relay above
chatters
TROUBLESHOOTING
4.2 TROUBLESHOOTING CHART 110
Noises Gurgling in pipes Air in piping Check air vents in water lines for
proper installation and operation,
and/or reroute piping. Vent air
from collector loop piping, and/or
recharge with solar fluid.
Humming Pump vibration Isolate pumps and piping from

building structure. Inspect
shafts and bearings.
Squeaking Pipe expansion/contraction Isolate piping from building

structure. Use “slip” hangers.
Pump screeching Wet rotor pump not primed Repair or replace pump. Be sure
pump is filled before starting.
Bearings worn, or shaft Repair or replace worn bearings.

out of alignment Check shaft alignment.
4.3 SPECIFIC TROUBLESHOOTING OPERATIONS
4.3.1 Sensor and Sensor Wiring.
Controls Without Digital Displays
To check suspicious sensors, disconnect the wires from their terminal at the control.
Leave the connections intact at the sensor for the time being. Using an ohmmeter,
and the temperature vs. resistance charts in Tables 4-1 and 4-2, determine if the
resistance of the sensor is appropriate for the temperature it should be measuring.
(If using an analog meter with several resistance scales, the 100 x R scale is
normally the most useful.)
CAUTION
Do not immerse sensors in warm or cold water. Most sensors are

not waterproof, and can be damaged with water. Resistance
readings of an immersed sensor will not be correct. If temperature
extremes are needed to check the sensor, wrap it in a plastic bag
before immersing it in water.
TROUBLESHOOTING
111 4.3 TROUBLESHOOTING OPERATIONS
Remember, for most sensors, resistance goes up as temperature goes down. A
temperature increase results in a resistance decrease. If the ohmmeter shows a
direct short (zero ohms), or an open circuit (infinite ohms), check the sensor wiring
as well as the sensor itself.
If the sensor resistance goes up with temperature increases, it is not a “standard”

sensor. If all system sensors are the same type, are matched to the control, and the
sensors and control are operating properly, there is no need to replace them. If one
sensor or the control stops working properly, the entire control system should be
replaced, rather than mixing control and sensor types.
Check sensor wiring for staples shorting out the wires, loose or corroded
connections, and outright breaks. Ohmeter readings will indicate these conditions.
Make sure sensor wiring is more than one foot away from 120V line voltage wiring
and motors, and more than two feet from 240V wiring and motors. It is very easy for
a tiny electrical current to be induced in the low voltage sensor wires. This current
will make normal control operation impossible.
Controls With Digital Displays
If the control has a digital display, leave the sensor wires connected, and use the
appropriate, disconnect the sensor wires from the control and use an ohmmeter as
described above.
TROUBLESHOOTING
4.3 TROUBLESHOOTING OPERATIONS 112

32 0.0 32,654 106 41.1 5,093 180 82.2 1,170
34 1.1 30,859 108 42.2 4,873 182 83.3 1,129
36 2.2 29,174 110 43.3 4,663 184 84.4 1,090
38 3.3 27,592 112 44.4 4,464 186 85.6 1,053
40 4.4 26,105 114 45.6 4,274 188 86.7 1,017
42 5.6 24,709 116 46.7 4,093 190 87.8 982
44 6.7 23,395 118 47.8 3,921 192 88.9 949
46 7.8 22,160 120 48.9 3,758 194 90.0 917
48 8.9 20,998 122 50.0 3,602 196 91.1 886
50 10.0 19,903 124 51.1 3,453 198 92.2 857
52 11.1 18,873 126 52.2 3,312 200 93.3 828
54 12.2 17,903 128 53.3 3,177 202 94.4 801
56 13.3 16,988 130 54.4 3,048 204 95.6 775
58 14.4 16,126 132 55.6 2,925 206 96.7 749
60 15.6 15,313 134 56.7 2,808 208 97.8 725
62 16.7 14,546 136 57.8 2,697 210 98.9 702
64 17.8 13,822 138 58.9 2,590 212 100.0 679
66 18.9 13,139 140 60.0 2,488 214 101.1 658
68 20.0 12,493 142 61.1 2,391 216 102.2 637
70 21.1 11,883 144 62.2 2,298 218 103.3 617
72 22.2 11,307 146 63.3 2,209 220 104.4 597
74 23.3 10,762 148 64.4 2,124 222 105.6 579
76 24.4 10,247 150 65.6 2,043 224 106.7 561
78 25.6 9,760 152 66.7 1,966 226 107.8 543
80 26.7 9,298 154 67.8 1,891 228 108.9 527
82 27.8 8,862 156 68.9 1,820 230 110.0 511
84 28.9 8,448 158 70.0 1,753 232 111.1 495
86 30.0 8,056 160 71.1 1,688 234 112.2 480
88 31.1 7,685 162 72.2 1,625 236 113.3 466
90 32.2 7,333 164 73.3 1,566 238 114.4 452
92 33.3 6,999 166 74.4 1,509 240 115.6 438
94 34.4 6,683 168 75.6 1,454 242 116.7 425
96 35.6 6,382 170 76.7 1,402 244 117.8 413
98 36.7 6,097 172 77.8 1,351 246 118.9 401
100 37.8 5,827 174 78.9 1,303 248 120.0 389
102 38.9 5,570 176 80.0 1,257 250 121.1 378
104 40.0 5,326 178 81.1 1,213
TROUBLESHOOTING

32.0 0 9,810 105.8 41 1,540 179.6 82 354
33.8 1 9,300 107.8 42 1,460 181.4 83 342
35.6 2 8,850 109.4 43 1,420 183.2 84 333
37.4 3 8,430 111.2 44 1,360 185.0 85 321
39.2 4 8,010 113.0 45 1,310 186.8 86 312
41.0 5 7,620 114.8 46 1,260 188.6 87 303
42.8 6 7,260 116.6 47 1,210 190.4 88 293
44.6 7 6,900 118.4 48 1,170 192.2 89 284
46.4 8 6,570 120.2 49 1,120 194.0 90 275
48.2 9 6,270 122.0 50 1,080 195.8 91 267
50.0 10 5,970 123.8 51 1,040 197.6 92 259
51.8 11 5,700 125.6 52 1,002 199.4 93 251
53.6 12 5,430 127.4 53 966 201.2 94 243
55.4 13 5,190 129.2 54 930 203.0 95 236
57.2 14 4,950 131.0 55 879 204.8 96 229
59.0 15 4,710 132.8 56 864 206.6 97 223
60.8 16 4,500 134.6 57 831 208.4 98 215
62.6 17 4,290 136.4 58 801 210.2 99 210
64.4 18 4,110 138.2 59 774 212.0 100 204
66.2 19 3,930 140.0 60 747 213.8 101 198
68.0 20 3,750 141.8 61 720 215.6 102 192
69.8 21 3,570 143.6 62 696 217.4 103 187
71.6 22 3,420 145.4 63 672 219.2 104 182
73.4 23 3,270 147.2 64 648 221.0 105 176
75.2 24 3,150 149.0 65 624 222.8 106 171
77.0 25 3,000 150.8 66 603 224.6 107 167
78.8 26 2,870 152.6 67 582 226.4 108 162
80.6 27 2,750 154.4 68 564 228.2 109 158
82.4 28 2,630 156.2 69 543 230.0 110 153
84.2 29 2,520 158.0 70 525 231.8 111 149
86.0 30 2,420 159.8 71 507 233.6 112 145
87.8 31 2,320 161.6 72 492 235.4 113 141
89.6 32 2,220 163.4 73 474 237.2 114 137
91.4 33 2,130 165.2 74 459 239.0 115 134
93.2 34 2,040 167.0 75 444 240.8 116 130
95.0 35 1,960 168.8 76 429 242.6 117 127
96.8 36 1,880 170.6 77 417 244.4 118 123
98.6 37 1,800 172.4 78 402 246.2 119 120
100.4 38 1,730 174.2 79 390 248.0 120 117
102.2 39 1,670 176.0 80 378 249.8 121 114
104.0 40 1,600 177.8 81 366
TROUBLESHOOTING
4.3.2 Controls,
Jumper Method
jumper the two terminals marked “Collector” (or “COLL,” etc.) (Figure 4-1). The solar
loop pump (and water loop pump, if used) should come on.
FIGURE 4-1
Checking On/Off
Operation by the
Jumper Method
With the collector sensor terminals shorted, jumper the sensor terminals marked
“Storage” (or “STOR,” etc.). The pump(s) should go off.
To test the high limit function, first determine the brand and type of differential
thermostat controlling the system. Most controls are 10K, that is their sensors have
10,000 ohms resistance at 77°F. If you have any doubt about this, refer to the
system’s operation and maintenance manual. If one does not exist, remove a
sensor, give it time to come to room temperature, and measure its resistance with
an ohmmeter.
Controls manufactured by Heliotrope General and Johnson Controls are not likely to
be 10K. Table 4-4 contains information on currently available controls.
Determine the high limit setting of the control from Table 4-4, the control labeling, or
the setting of the control’s high limit adjustment dial. (-This dial is usually on a
potentiometer, sometimes called a “pot.“) (Figure 4-2)
TROUBLESHOOTING
FIGURE 4-2
High Limit Dial (left)
and Control Switch
(right) on a Solar
Control
Jumper the collector sensor terminals on the control. Once the system is running
hold the leads of an appropriate resistor against the storage sensor terminals. The
system should turn off, as the control is being told the storage tank is above the high
limit temperature.
FIGURE 4-3
Checking High Limit
Function with a Single
Resistor
TROUBLESHOOTING
Use Table 4-1 or 4-2 to determine the right resistance to use to impersonate a
particular temperature. An abbreviated version, with resistor color codes is
presented in Table 4-3.
TABLE 4-3: Resistance and Color Codes for Typical High Limit Situations
Temperature 3K Resistance 10K Resistance

(ºF) and Color Code and Color Code
160 500 Ohms 1700 Ohms

Green, Red Brown, Violet, Red
180 350 Ohms 1200 Ohms

Orange, Green, Black Brown, Red, Red
Control Tester Method

designed for the purpose (Figure 4-4). Normally, these units have four leads or
terminals. These are connected to the collector and storage sensor terminals of the
control. The tester supplies a calibrated resistance to the two sensor inputs.
Most of the available testers supply a fixed resistance to the storage terminals, and
change the resistance supplied to the collector terminals. The numbers on the
tester dial usually refer to the temperature difference between the storage and
collector terminals.
As the tester dial is slowly turned to greater differentials, the resistance supplied to
the collector sensor terminals is lowered. At the “on” differential, the control should
turn on.
TROUBLESHOOTING
FIGURE 4-4
Solar Control Tester
Next, the dial is turned slowly downward to lower differentials. This increases the
resistance shown to the collector sensor terminal. At the “off” differential, the control
should shut off.
Many testers also include a high limit test function. Generally, the tester shorts out
the collector sensor’s terminals, to ensure the control is trying to run the system.
Then, the resistance supplied to the storage sensor terminals is reduced,
impersonating a rising storage temperature. When the high limit is reached, the
control should shut off.
About Accuracy
use that instead of the numbers on the tester dial.
TROUBLESHOOTING
In descending order of accuracy, the dials and readouts seen during control and
sensor testing are:
Most accurate: Control digital display

Digital ohmmeter
Analog ohmmeter
Resistor color code
Control tester dial
Least accurate: Control adjustment pot dials
TABLE 4-4: Characteristics of Currently Available Controls (As of January, 1988)
Manufacturer: Model: Type: On/Off: (ºF) High Limit: (ºF)
Heliotrope TempTrak II Series 3K/10K Adj: 50-100 Adj: 80-215

General* DTT-64 Series 10K 20/3 or 10/3 None, 160, or 180
DTT-84/94 Series 10K 18/5 or 9/4 160 or 180
DTT-84DD 10K 30/3 180
DTT-74 Series 10K 20/5 or 10/5 None, 160, or 180
Independent CM-30/32 10K Adj: 8-24/4 Adj: 110-230
Energy CM-33 10K Adj: 8-24/4 Adj: 50-104
CM-50 10K Adj: 15/4 to Adj: 60-160
40/20
C-30 Series 10K 20/5 or 8/3 Adj: 105-212
C-35 Series 10K 4/1 or 8/3 Adj: 62-104
Pyramid All 10K 14/3 163
Controls
Rho Sigma RS504 Series 10K 20/3 or 12/3** 160
RS121 Series 10K 20/3 Adj: 120-220
RS360 Series 10K 20/3.5 Per specification
* Older Heliotrope General Controls are all 3K

** Proportional control: The pump motor is run at a speed proportional to the
differential. This type of control is rarely used.
I NOTE
Whenever checking controls or sensors, also check to be sure the

collector with the sensor is properly grounded.
TROUBLESHOOTING
4.3.3 Airbound Loops. If enough air bubbles gather at the high point of a piping
loop, a gap in the fluid may form.
Now that the piping loop is no longer completely filled, the circulating pump must
work against the effects of gravity. This usually means no flow occurs, since the
pump was not designed for this condition. (Figure 4-5)
FIGURE 4-5
An Airbound Collector
Loop
Piping with air in it is called “airbound.” Flow will be obstructed or stopped. This
occurs most often in collector loops, but is also possible in storage piping. Some
common causes are:
o incomplete filling of the solar loop in closed loop systems
o leaks admitting air into solar loops
o ruptured expansion tank diaphragms.
o dissolved air in potable water forming bubbles which are not vented
out of piping and tanks (usually aggravated by bad or missing air
vents).
TROUBLESHOOTING
Symptoms of an airbound collector loop in a Closed loop system include:
o Wide pressure fluctuations with temperature changes (in some cases

leading to pressure relief valve blowoff)
o No evidence of flow by a flow meter, although the pump is operating

normally otherwise
o A high difference in pressure on each side of the pump, although the

pump is operating normally otherwise
o Uneven collector temperatures, both from one collector to another,

and hot spots in individual units
o Higher than normal pump temperatures
o Collector feed and return lines are both about room temperature on a
sunny day; although the pump is operating normally otherwise (the
pump may be heating the feed line somewhat)
o Approximately equal temperatures on the inlet and outlet of both the

solar fluid and water sides of the heat exchanger
o Evidence of leakage at joints or components
o Fluid in the air chamber of diaphragm type expansion tanks (very

briefly depress schrader valve stem)
Symptoms of an airbound collector loop in a draindown system include:
o Wide pressure fluctuations with temperature changes (in some cases

leading to temperature and pressure relief valve blowoff)
o No evidence of flow by a flow meter, although the pump is operating

normally otherwise
o A high difference in pressure on each side of the pump, although the

pump is operating normally otherwise
o Higher than normal pump temperatures
TROUBLESHOOTING
o Collector feed and return lines are both about room temperature on a
sunny day, although the pump is operating normally otherwise (the
o Larger than normal amounts of air released at hot water fixtures

Evidence of leakage or scaling at collector air vents or vacuum
breakers
Symptoms of an airbound storage loop in closed loop and drainback systems are:
No evidence of flow in a flow meter, although the pump is operating

normally otherwise
Higher than normal pump temperatures
Collector feed and return lines are both at a high temperature on a

sunny day, but the two sides of the storage loop are both at about
room temperature (the storage pump may be heating the piping
somewhat)
High points in storage piping without functional air vents
Collector loops in drainback systems do not become airbound. However, if the

reservoir tank for the collector loop does not have enough water, the collector loop
pump cannot move water through the collectors. The symptoms are:
Low water level in a sight glass
No evidence of flow in a flow meter, although the pump is operating

normally otherwise
Higher than normal pump temperatures
Collector feed and return lines are both about room temperature on a
sunny day, although the pump in operating normally otherwise (the
No temperature difference between the two sides of the storage loop

(this may also indicate an airbound storage loop)
Pump damage, in extreme cases when no water is left in the loop
TROUBLESHOOTING
4.3.4 Pumps. Many “bad” pumps are actually not. Before draining fluid and tearing
down a pump, make sure the piping loop is free of air, no valves are closed, and
that the pump is getting electrical power.
Pump noise will indicate if the shaft is out of alignment, or the bearings are worn. If
the seals or gaskets are leaking, you can see the evidence. Check the service
record for the system: has the motor received necessary lubrication?
Check the system flow rate. This may be possible with a flow meter, a flow setter
with differential pressure gauge, or by comparing the pressure difference across the
pump with the manufacturer’s pump curve. (To covert PSI into feet of head, multiply
PSI by 2.3.)
The next step should be to use a snap-around ammeter to measure the pump
motor’s current draw during operation (Figure 4-6). If you know the correct
amperage draw for the pump, you can quickly identify a number of problems. In
some cases, it may be possible to avoid draining the system and tearing down the
pump.
FIGURE 4-6
Using an Ammeter
on a Solar Pump
TROUBLESHOOTING
Use the following table to troubleshoot pump conditions with an ammeter.
Remember to start with the highest scale and move downward until the amperage
reading is in the upper half of the scale.
TABLE 4-5: Current Readings and Pump Problems
If Ammeter Reads: Inspect for:
Zero Power supply problem

Control problem
Relay or starter problem
Broken motor lead
Thermal overload tripped
Too low Motor problem

(1/4 to 1/2 times Broken or slipping shaft
specifications)
Correct amount Airbound loop
Closed valve, backwards check
valve
Broken or slipping shaft
Direction of motor rotation
Too high Misaligned shaft

(1 1/4 to Worn bearings
1 1/2 times Foreign matter in volute
specifications) Impeller against volute wall
Motor problem
Much too high Locked rotor problem

(2 or more times
specifications)
If the ammeter reads zero, too high or much too high, also check relay contacts for
damage from excessive current draw.
TROUBLESHOOTING
4.3.5 Flow Rates. If a flow meter is in the loop, compare the loop’s flow rate with
the rate called for in the system’s operation and maintenance manual. If this
information is not available, use Appendix B as a guide to the proper flow rate.
If a flow setter, with ports for measuring differential pressure, is in the loop, follow
the instructions for that unit. Compare the reading to the system’s operation and
maintenance manual or Appendix B.
Some manufacturers supply pressure drop information for specific components,

such as collectors or heat exchangers. If pressure gauges or measurement ports
are available, this information can be used to determine flow rates.
The most common use of this technique involves reading the pressure on each side
of the pump when the pump is off, and again when it is operating.
After converting the pressure rise across the pump into feet of head, use the
manufacturer’s pump curve, and estimate the flow rates. This technique is
described in greater detail in Section 3.1.4.
An estimate of flow rates can be made from the temperature changes through the
system. Table 4-6 describes some typical design conditions. It assumes a
reasonably sunny day, with storage temperatures of 120°F. Collector loop
temperatures are measured at the collector feed and return lines. Storage loop
temperatures are measured at the storage water inlet and outlet at the heat
exchanger.
Remember that the temperatures are affected not only by flow rates, but by the
amount of solar energy striking the collectors as well. Therefore, use these as
rough guidelines only!
In general, the lower the collector loop temperature, the better. At first glance this
may not make sense. However, remember that if heat is being efficiently removed
from the collectors, their temperature will be lower. High outlet temperatures from
the collectors are an indication that too much heat is being left in them or that
collectors are inefficient.
TROUBLESHOOTING
TABLE 4-6: Flow Estimates from Temperature Changes
Collector Loop
If the temperature change is: The flow rate probably is:
Zero Zero
Less than 5°F Too high
Between 5°F and 25°F In the correct
range
More than 25ºF Too low
Storage Loop (on Drainback or Closed-Loop Systems)
If the temperature change is: The flow rate probably is:
Zero Zero
Less than 2°F Too high
Between 2ºF and 10°F In the correct
range
More than 10°F Too low
4.3.6 Fluids.
Water Corrosiveness
Water can be corrosive for a number of reasons. The three most common causes
are:
o low pH (acid water)

o high dissolved oxygen content
o high dissolved solids content
Cutting a small section of piping from an easily drained, easily repaired section of
piping is sometimes the best way to determine if the water is corrosive. Knowledge
of local conditions is a traditional way to know that aggressive water is causing a
problem. Laboratory analysis is another choice, especially when it is difficult to
determine what is causing the water to be corrosive.
TROUBLESHOOTING
Water Hardness - Scaling
Water with a high percentage of calcium and magnesium compounds is usually

described as “hard.” These minerals will deposit on piping system surfaces,
particularly heated ones. The reduction in piping diameter will cause flow rates and
heat transfer to drop.
If the system flow rates at the time of installation are known, a gradual reduction
usually indicates this scaling is occurring. It may be possible to visually inspect heat
exchanger passages. In extreme cases valves will not seat properly, and pumps
may be damaged by the build-up.
Water With Iron or Manganese
Iron and manganese usually do not greatly affect solar systems, except for their
contribution to the water’s corrosivity. In extreme cases, ferric iron build-up in piping
systems may cause problems similar to hardness.
Water With Microbial Contamination
The most common group of microorganisms which cause problems with solar
systems are the iron bacteria. Although they are rare, their colonies can block flow
or interfere with component operation.
More important, any microbial contamination poses hazards to the users of the
system. Disinfection equipment must be installed as soon as possible.
Water treatment professionals are equipped to test for and treat all of these
problems. In severe cases, bringing in a specialist should be considered.
Glycols
Any glycol left in a working system for over three years or in an inoperative one for
over three months may need replacement. Leaks resulting from acidic glycol are
usually spread fairly uniformly throughout the system.
Burst piping from inadequate concentrations of glycol will be most common in the
absorber plates, as these reach the lowest temperature in the system on cold, clear
nights.
Concentration and inhibitor condition should be checked. Concentration can be

determined with an optical refractometer or a manufacturer’s test kit. (Figure 4-7)
Some laboratories are equipped to determine this.
TROUBLESHOOTING
The condition of the inhibitor can be checked by a manufacturer’s test kit or a
laboratory. Another good method is to use pH tape or paper. If the pH is below 6,
the fluid must be reinhibited or replaced. See section 3.1.6 for additional information.
FIGURE 4-7
A Dowfrost Test Kit
and a Dow Optical
Refractometer
TROUBLESHOOTING
Make-Up Water Systems
If glycol-filled loops are equipped with automatic water make-up, glycol can leak out
and be replaced by water. Eventually, the collector loop can freeze, causing severe
damage. If the make-up water system has a gate valve, it should be closed and
tagged so it will remain closed.
Fluid/Material Compatibility
Leaks at gaskets, seals, valve stems, hoses, etc. may be occurring because the
rubbers and plastics are being attacked by the fluid. This is most common with
synthetic and silicone oils, but it also happens with glycols.
Use the table in Appendix E to determine if the fluid and materials are compatible.
This chart assumes the system is mostly copper tubing, and that relatively small
amounts of the other metals are used.
4.3.7 Piping Joints, Leaks in piping joints are not always obvious, since
they may be covered with insulation. The insulation may also “channel” fluid far
away from the actual leak.
A “phantom leak” may occur if an automatic air vent is used with glycols or oils. As
the fluid heats up, some of it vaporizes and leaves the system through the air vent.
These vents, if installed, should be replaced with manual vents. At the very least,
automatic vents should be tightly capped off during system operation, and then
replaced the next time the system is drained.
It has been found that improperly soldered joints can hold pressure in glycol loops
for months or even years after the installation. Eventually, the soldering flux which
plugged the holes in the joint finally melts out, and a leak results.
Improper types of thread sealants may hold pressure for a few months before
leaking. Additional information on the use of thread sealants is provided in section
5.2.2 and Appendix E.
The use of 95/5 tin/antimony solder on bronze or brass fittings may cause the zinc
to leach out of the fitting, causing porosity leaks. 96/4 silver solder should be used
instead.
If a large number of joints are leaking in the collector loop, find out if 50/50 solder
was used. This solder’s melting point of 370°F is too low for the collector loop.
Some plumbing inspectors have solder testers, and may be willing to test a sample
for you.
TROUBLESHOOTING
Dissimilar metals in contact may create galvanic corrosion at the site of contact, or
in soldered joints throughout the system. The most common example of this is
when galvanized pipe hangers or perforated strap directly contact copper tubing.
The resultant galvanic action corrodes the solder out of the joints.
4.3.8 Valves, Improperly positioned or configured valves can result in the

system being unable to collect or deliver heat. If the storage tank is warm, the
problem is in the delivery components. If the tank is cold, the collection components
are at fault.
Most tempering valves fail in such a way that all they deliver is cold water. Since
most are improperly installed (directly above the tank), they eventually fail. -Check
also for correct setting.
Solar loop check valve failure is a common problem. On a cold night after a warm
day, the feed and return temperatures should be equal. If there is a temperature
difference of more than 5ºF, the check valve is not stopping the loss of heat by
forward or reverse thermosiphoning. (Figure 4-8)
On pool heating systems, the diverting valve may be “pilot operated.” The actual
opening and closing of the valve is done by suction or pressure supplied by the pool
pump. Suction is supplied by tubing connected to the inlet piping of the pump.
Pressure is supplied by a tube from the pump’s discharge side.
FIGURE 4-8
Reverse
Thermosiphoning in a
Closed-Loop System
TROUBLESHOOTING
The pressure and/or suction may be operated directly by the system control. In
other cases, the opening and closing may be triggered by an electrical signal from
the control. This is usually low voltage: 12 or 24 volts. Check both the tubing and
any wiring when troubleshooting pool heating systems control valves.
4.3.9 Heat Exchangers, A reduction in heat exchanger performance may be

caused by scale from hard water, glycol sludge or reduced flow due to an airbound
loop, improperly positioned valve or defective pump. Any of these will cause an
overall rise in collector loop temperatures.
Leaks may be caused by improper installation techniques or materials, physical

stresses, corrosive fluid or incompatible seals materials.
Another common cause of leaks is freezing. If the solar fluid is circulating below
32ºF, it can easily freeze the water in the heat exchanger. This circulation may be
from reverse thermosiphoning or a defective control or sensor running the system at
night.
If city water pressure is entering the solar loop in closed loop or draindown systems,
the loop pressure may be much higher or lower than normal.
4.3.10 Insulation, Inadequate, damaged or missing piping insulation will

reduce system performance considerably. However, before deciding pipe insulation
is the problem, make sure:
o flow rates are proper and balanced

o collectors are clean and unshaded
o controls and sensors are operating properly
o tank and heat exchanger piping is correct
o valves are properly positioned
Tanks losing heat overnight may have inadequate insulation, but also check for:
o reverse thermosiphoning
o “invisible loads” (such as a dripping hot water faucet)
o inaccurate or poorly placed tank thermometer
o defective control or sensor running the system at night
Wet insulation offers very little resistance to heat flow, but may appear intact. If a
leak occurs in a system, check all the pipe insulation to be sure it is dry.
TROUBLESHOOTING
4.3.11 Gauges. Gauges may be checked in two ways. The first is to bring
the gauge to a standard condition. For pressure gauges, remove them from the
system. They should read zero. For thermometers, take them out and put. them in
ice water or boiling water, depending on their temperature range.
The second method is comparison. Replace the suspect gauge with one you know
to be accurate. This is more practical with thermometers than with pressure
gauges.
A typical problem with thermometers is their location. For example, the

thermometer on a storage tank of 120 gallon capacity or less is usually installed in
the outlet piping of the tank. If it is more than a few inches from the tank, the only
time it will accurately report tank temperature is when water from the tank runs by it.
4.3.12 Storage Tanks, Problems with storage tanks may actually be caused
by piping errors. One of the most common is mixing up inlets and outlets. Another
problem is the length of dip tubes. If they are too short or too long, the tank may not
be able to store or deliver its full heat capacity. (Figure 4-9)
FIGURE 4-9
Correct Dip Tube
Lengths in a “Four-Stub
Tank
If the dip tubes are plugged with scale, or collapsed from heat, the system will not
store heat properly. Higher collector loop temperatures is one symptom of this.
Another problem may be an incorrectly positioned auxiliary heating element. For

the system to operate properly, auxiliary elements must be in the upper half of the
tank.
Finally, frequent replacement of anode rods indicates highly corrosive water or an

exposed metal surface.
TROUBLESHOOTING
are in Appendix F.
4-1 What is the best way to warm up a thermistor sensor to test it?
a) Use the flame of a soldering torch

b) Warm it in your hand
c) Drop it into hot water
d) Bake it in an oven
4-2 A thermistor sensor is removed from a hot collector and left in the shade behind
the collector; What should happen to its resistance?
a) Go to zero
b) Go down
c) Go up
d) Nothing
4-3 With all sensors disconnected from a functional differential thermostat, a jumper
wire is placed across the collector sensor terminals. What should happen?
a) The pump should stop running

b) The pump should run for a few minutes, then stop
c) The pumps should start running
c) Nothing
4-4 The wiring to a collector sensor is shorted out. What will happen?
a) The pump will run all the time

b) The pump will run only at night
c) The pump will never run
d) The pump will run normally
TROUBLESHOOTING
4-5 The wiring to a storage sensor is shorted out. What will happen?
a) The pump will run all the time

b) The pump will run only at night
c) The pump will never run
d) The pump will run normally
4-6 A storage high limit of 160 degrees is desired for a 10K control. What
resistance should be used to “impersonate” this temperature?
a) 13,500 ohms
b) 10,000 ohms
c) 1,700 ohms
d) 1,170 ohms
4-7 Which is the most accurate and useful dial or readout when testing controls
and sensors?
a) Resistor color code

b) Analog ohmmeter
c) Control tester dial
d) Control digital readout
4-8 Which of these is a symptom of an airbound collector loop in a closed-loop

system?
a) The collector feed temperature is greater than the return temperature

b) The collector feed and return temperatures are the same
c) Erratic control operation
d) The pump’s current draw is much too low
4-9 A piping loop has no apparent flow, but the pump’s current draw is correct.
What is the most likely problem?
a) Tripped circuit breaker

b) Worn pump bearings
c) Closed valve in loop
d) Locked pump rotor
TROUBLESHOOTING
4-10 If the flow rate of the storage loop of a drainback system is in the correct range,
what should the temperature change in that loop be in degrees F?
a) 1
b) 5
c) 25
d 50
4-11 What is water with a high percentage of magnesium or calcium compounds

called?
a) Hard
b) Corrosive
c) Aggressive
d) Acidic
4-12 What should be done to a pressure reducing valve on a makeupwater system

feeding a glycol loop?
a) Set it for 5 PSI

b) Set it for 35 PSI
c) Open it all the way up
d) Close it off and tag it
4-13 Which of these is compatible with synthetic oils?
a) Hydrin
b) EPDM
c) Standard pipe dope
d) Butyl rubber
4-14 What causes phantom leaks in glycol loops?
a) Pressure relief valves

b) Temperature and pressure relief valves
c) Automatic air vents
d) Brass fittings on copper tubing
TROUBLESHOOTING
4-15 What can cause galvanic corrosion in a copper piping loop?
a) Small amounts of cast iron

b) Galvanized pipe hangers
c) Stainless steel pipe hangers
d) Teflon-based thread sealants
4-16 At night the collector return line is cooler than the feed line. What is the most
likely problem?
a) Reverse thermosiphoning
b) Airbound loop
c) Short in collector sensor wiring
d) Short in storage sensor wiring
TROUBLESHOOTING
5.0
REPAIR
This chapter includes information on the repair or replacement of solar system

components. The first section lists common components and whether to repair or
replace them. Then, specific procedures for particular components are described.
The chapter ends with a sample repair record sheet.
System inspection and troubleshooting are not covered. This chapter assumes the
reader has already determined what the problem is, and needs information on how
to fix it.

operations described in this chapter. A worksheet is provided at the end of this
chapter.
5.1 REPAIR OR REPLACE?
Some components, such as collector glazings, can never be repaired, and must be
replaced. Others, such as mounting racks, are usually repaired rather than
replaced.
However, most components can be repaired or replaced. In general, the decision to

repair or replace is based on:
o availability of replacement parts

o lead time for replacement parts
o cost of replacement parts
o difficulty of repair
REPAIR
137 5.1 REPAIR OR REPLACE
Table 5-1 lists system components and describes the usual choice of repair or
replacement.
TABLE 5-1: Typical Repair/Replace Choices
COMPONENT REPAIR REPLACE
Collectors
Glazings Never Always

Frames Rarely Usually
Glazing Seals Sometimes Sometimes

Header Gaskets Sometimes Sometimes
Interior Insulation Never Always

Mounting Hardware Sometimes Sometimes
Frame Grounding Usually Rarely

Sensor Never Always
Absorber Plate (Leaking) Sometimes Usually

Absorber Plate (Coating damage) Rarely Usually
Exterior Piping
Insulation Usually Rarely

Hangers Sometimes Sometimes
Leaks Usually Rarely

Valves Rarely Usually
Interior Piping

Hangers Sometimes Sometimes
REPAIR
5.1 REPAIR OR REPLACE 138
TABLE 5-1 (Continued)
Interior Piping (cont)
Leaks Usually Rarely
Valves Rarely Usually
Pressure Gauges Rarely Usually

Thermometers Never Always
PT Plugs Never Always

Expansion Tanks Rarely Usually
Pumps. Wet Rotor
Impellers (usually part of cartridge) Never Always

Rotors (usually part of cartridge) Never Always
Stators (“Cans”) Never Always

Volutes Rarely Usually
Capacitors Never Always

Flanges Rarely Usually
Flange Gaskets Never Always

Body Seals Never Always
Pumps. Separate Motor
Motors Never Always

Volutes Rarely Usually
Impellers Rarely Usually

Bearings Never Always
Capacitors Never Always

Flanges Rarely Usually
REPAIR
139 5.1 REPAIR OR REPLACE
Pumps, Separate Motor (cont)
Flange Gaskets Never Always

Shaft Seals Never Always
Heat Exchangers
Tubes (Scaled) Always Never

Tubes (Leaking) Usually Sometimes
Shells Sometimes Sometimes

Bonnets Sometimes Sometimes
Bonnet Gaskets Never Always

Anode Never Always

Hangers Usually Rarely
Closed Loop Fluids
Glycol (Low pH) Rarely Usually

Glycol (Poor inhibitor condition) Rarely Usually
Glycol (Low concentration) Sometimes Usually

Glycol (Contaminated) Never Always
Synthetic Oils (Contaminated) Never Always

Silicone Oils (Contaminated) Never Always
Controls. Sensors and Sensor Wiring
Control (Entire unit) Rarely Usually

Control (Circuit card only) Never Always
Sensors (All types) Never Always

Sensor Wiring Usually Sometimes
REPAIR
5.1 REPAIR OR REPLACE 140
Storage Tanks
Tank (Leaking through wall) Rarely Usually

Drain Valve Never Always

Anode Never Always
Dip Tubes Sometimes Sometimes

T & P Relief Valve Never Always
Dielectric Fittings Never Always

Sensor Wires (Under jacket) Rarely Usually
Sensors (All types) Never Always

Back-up Heating Element Never Always
Back-up Heating Thermostat Never Always

Back-up Heating Element Wiring Rarely Usually
Manway Gasket Never Always

Legs, Cradle, Etc. Sometimes Sometimes
5.2 REPAIR AND REPLACEMENT PROCEDURES
5.2.1 Solar Collectors.
Glazings
Most collector glazings are textured, tempered, low iron glass. Whenever possible,
replace broken lites with the same type and brand. (A lite is one sheet of glass.)
WARNING!
Always use tempered glass! Standard glass will fail rapidly, and
may cause personal injury or death if large pieces fall off the roof.
REPAIR
141 5.2 REPAIR PROCEDURES
Tempered glass is cut to size before tempering. Any attempt to cut tempered glass
will break it.
Handling and Moving Glass Glazings

Leave replacement glazings packed as they were shipped until you are at the job
site. Repack unused replacements before transporting them back to storage.
Always carry glass vertically (upright) (Figure 5-1). Be very careful not to scratch the
glass. A deep scratch will cause the glass to shatter the first time it gets hot. If
possible, use suction cups with handles designed specifically for moving glass.
FIGURE 5-l
Carrying Glass
Properly
Remove the small pieces of broken glazing with a shop vacuum. Avoid rubbing off
the black absorber surface with the hose or the glass “crumbs.” Remove the cap
strips holding down the glazing, and remove any pieces of glass and old sealant.
REPAIR
5.2 REPAIR PROCEDURES 142
WARNING!
Small splinters and sharp edges are mixed in with the safer
“crumbs” of broken tempered glass. Always use gloves and eye
protection when removing broken glazing and installing new glazing.
Be careful not to come in direct contact with hot system components.
If the textured, rougher side of the new glazing is dirty, clean it. Any window
cleaning product can be used, but a vinegar/water solution works just as well (10%
vinegar, 90% water.) Dry carefully and avoid streaking.
If a gasket was used, remove it from the collector. Notice which way the gasket was
installed on the collector.
bottom of the gasket, mark the side which faced the outside.
If a new gasket is available, discard the old one. If the old one is to be reused,
remove any glass still in the gasket. Check the gasket for UV radiation damage and
other defects.
If there is no “right-side up,” put the older-looking side on the textured, inner side of
the glass. If there is a “right-side up,” put that side on the smooth outer side of the
glass. (Figure 5-2)
FIGURE 5-2
Typical Glazing
Assembly
(Loosened for
Clarity)
REPAIR
Install the new glazing in the collector with the smooth side facing outward. Make
sure the gasket is on evenly and completely. Move the glazing to center it in the
collector frame. Make sure it fits without binding.
If silicone or other sealant was originally used to seal the collector, apply it. Install
the glazing cap strips. Tighten them down enough to slightly compress the gasket,
but not tight enough to distort the strips or pinch the glazing.
Frames
If the connections between frame components are sound, use silicone sealant to
weatherproof them. If joints are loose and can be tightened, apply silicone to the
surfaces before tightening the collector up.
If necessary, use angle braces and self-tapping screws to hold corners together.
Although this is not a very attractive method, it is effective. Cover the screw heads
and the brace/collector junction with silicone sealant.
Use stainless steel, cadmium-plated or aluminum hardware for repairing aluminum

frames. Do not use galvanized hardware. Contact with zinc will corrode aluminum
within one year.
Seals and Gaskets
If the glazing gasket is leaking, but the glazing is not broken, apply silicone sealant
to suspicious spots. Make sure the collector surfaces are clean and dry.
Leaks around the absorber headers can be repaired the same way. Make sure the
headers are not too warm: the silicone tube will list the highest application
temperature. Use materials compatible with 400°F temperatures. Replace the
piping insulation.
Interior Insulation
Insulation inside the collector is usually replaced because it is wet. If the amount of
moisture is not too great, so the insulation is not soaking wet, the simplest thing to
do is to drill three or four 3/16” weep holes in the bottom edge of the collector
between the glazing and the absorber. (Figure 5-3)
REPAIR
FIGURE 5-3
Weep Hole
Locations
Insulation with more moisture requires opening up the collector and wiping off the
inside of the glazing. If dry weather is anticipated, leave off the glazing for a week
and let the collector dry itself out.
If rain or snow is possible, or if the insulation is completely soaked, remove it and

replace it.
Sometimes, wet fiber glass insulation can be removed from behind the absorber
plate by tearing it off like a paper towel being torn off the roll. Make sure the
replacement insulation completely fills the void.
Foam insulation can be replaced with sheets of foil-faced, fiber glass-reinforced

polyisocyanurate foam. Use no other foam material! Be sure the replacement
insulator is the same thickness as the original insulation. There are many brands of
this type of material.
Fiber glass insulation must be replaced with an unfaced low-binder batt designed for
solar use. Regular unfaced fiber glass will outgas the excess binder. This will fog
the glazing in a matter of a few weeks.
REPAIR
CAUTION
Do not, under any circumstances, use kraft paper-faced insulation of

any kind in solar collectors. There is a very real possibility of the
paper catching fire.
Mounting Hardware
Tighten all loose hardware, and replace any missing parts. Look across collector
arrays to find and correct misaligned collectors. This is one or more collectors
facing in a slightly different direction. It has been compared to the appearance of
butterfly wings. (Figure 5-4)
FIGURE 5-4
Misaligned
Collectors
If any of the connections between the mounting hardware and the building are loose
or missing, repair them. Examine the other mounting points to determine how to do
this. Remember, the biggest load on these points is upward, as the wind tries to lift
the collectors.
REPAIR
Use silicone seal, plastic roofing cement, or pitch to reseal roof leaks. Your choice
will depend on the type of roofing material and the roof/hardware connection.
Roofing cement is available in tubes for use in caulking guns.
Absorber Plates
There are three ways to fix a leaking absorber plate. They are:
o replace the entire collector

o replace the absorber plate only
o repair the absorber
WARNING!
Glycols and oils wilt burn when exposed to soldering torch flames.
Always drain the collectors before unsoldering joints! Before
heating the joints, remove the air vent to allow fluidvapors to escape.
As the joint comes apart, be prepared for a brief flare. Keep a fire
extinguisher with you- not down in the truck!
Replacing the collector is the easiest, but least likely method for repairing an
absorber plate. If the collectors are connected with unions, drain the collector loop
and remove the leaking collector. Dispose of used solar fluids in accordance with
local requirements.
If the collectors are soldered together, do not saw the inlet and outlet headers apart
without making sure you are not destroying the headers of adjacent collectors.
Also, the leaking absorber may be repaired and used as a spare, unless it has been
made useless by cutting off its headers.
If a coupling with a stop was used to connect the collectors, use a tubing cutter to
cut the coupling right at the stop. Remove the leaking collector. Heat and remove
the half-couplings left on the headers of the adjacent collectors. Use a heat shield
to protect header grommets. A swing-open escutcheon plate can be used as a
shield.
REPAIR
FIGURE 5-5
Cutting Out the
Leaking Collector
FIGURE 5-6
Removing the
Coupling Halves
If slip (repair) couplings without stops were used, cut through them with a tubing
cutter (Figure 5-5). Make the cut 1/4” from the coupling center, in the direction of the
leaking collector. This gives you a better chance to avoid shortening the headers of
the good collectors. You will very likely have to cut through both the coupling and
the leaking collector’s header.
Heat and remove the half-couplings on adjacent collectors (Figure 5-6). Use a heat
shield to protect header grommets. A swing-open escutcheon plate can be used as
a shield.
REPAIR
If hoses or special collector connectors were used, disconnect and save them.
Unless you are absolutely sure new hose or connectors are available that are
compatible with the solar temperatures and fluid, it is better to reuse the old ones.
To replace or repair the absorber plate, it is easiest to remove the entire collector.
Disassemble the collector until the absorber can be removed. Store the empty
collector in a dry, safe location until the repair is completed.
Before installing a new absorber into the collector, it may be worthwhile to pressure
test it. Use compressed air, and keep the absorber out of the sun. One hour is an
adequate time period. The test pressure should be approximately the same as that
of the collector loop pressure relief valve setting.
If you know the brand of absorber or collector, Tables 5-2 and 5-3 will be of help. If
you do not know, move ahead to the general repair information which follows the
tables.
TABLE 5-2: Repairability of Various Absorbers Manufactured for Use by Others
TYPE OR BRAND REPAIRABLE? NOTES
Phelps Dodge Yes Very thin fin
Rollbond Rarely Requires braze

on flat patch
Sunstrip Sometimes Only at riser to

header joints
Terralite Yes Very thin fin
Thermafin Sometimes Only at riser to

header joints
Western Solar Yes Fairly thin fin

Development
REPAIR
TABLE 5-3: Repairability of Various Absorbers
Manufactured by Collector Manufacturers
TYPE OR BRAND REPAIRABLE? NOTES
American Solar Rarely Rollbond plate

King SG-15
Colt C-141 Yes Fairly thin fin
Daystar 1400, Yes Fairly thick fin

1600, 1600 TLS
Gulf Thermal Yes Fin wrapped

around tube
Grumman Sunstream Yes May be hard to

121, 232, 221, remove fin
232, 321A, 332A
Morning Star Yes Fairly thin fin
Revere Sometimes Only at riser to

header joints
Sunworks Yes Fairly thin fin
U.S. Solar Yes May be hard to

remove fin
Western Solar Sometimes Some models use

Development “D” shaped tube
If the leak is at the joint between the header and a riser, it must be rebrazed.
Carefully remove any absorber fin which covers the leaking joint. On some
absorbers it is possible to use the “feather of a torch on the back side to melt solder
holding the fin on the tubes, then bend the fin back. On other absorbers, careful
work with tin snips will expose the joint.
The joint must be thoroughly cleaned and rebrazed (Figure 5-7). Use phoscopper or
silver bearing brazing alloy. Do not use solder! Even silver solder will not hold up to
the combination of temperature and mechanical stress this joint undergoes.
REPAIR
FIGURE 5-7
Rebrazing a
Header/Riser Joint
If possible, replace the fin. Do not bother to completely reattach it to the tubes. It is
not normally possible to restore the thermal connection after removing the fin.
If the leak is in the riser tube, and the fin can be removed from the tube, it can be
repaired. The best approach is to cut out the fin and the damaged portion of the
tube. Braze (not solder!) a section of new tubing into place with two couplings
(Figure 5-8).
FIGURE 5-8
Repairing a Riser
Leak
REPAIR
Before replacing the absorber in the collector, spray black high-temperature
(barbecue or stove) paint on the insulation where the hole in the fin will be. Use the
same paint on the repaired section of the tube.
Before installing a repaired absorber into the collector, it may be worthwhile to

pressure test it. Use compressed air, and keep the absorber out of the sun. One
hour is an adequate time period. The test pressure should be at approximately the
same pressure as the collector loop pressure relief valve release pressure.
Frame Ground
Every collector with a sensor must have its frame grounded. This ground helps
prevent damage to the system control.
The typical grounding method is simple. A short piece of 12 or 14 gauge copper

wire is stripped at each end about two inches. One end is hose clamped to an
absorber plate header. The other end is connected to the collector frame. The
frame connection usually involves the collector mounting hardware (Figure 5-9).
FIGURE 5-9
A Properly Grounded
Collector
After installing or reconnecting this ground, use an ohmmeter to make sure there is
a solid electrical connection between the absorber piping and the frame. Cover the
junction between the aluminum frame and the copper wire with silicone sealant to
reduce galvanic corrosion.
REPAIR
At the mechanical room, use the ohmmeter to confirm that the collector loop piping
is connected to ground. If it is not, hose clamp another section of copper wire to the
collector return line. Run this over to a mechanical ground, usually the same one
used for the building electrical system.
Remember that the surface of anodized or painted aluminum does not conduct
electricity. Anodized aluminum may not appear to have any coating.
Collector Sensor
Three important things to remember about replacing the collector sensor are:
o Keep the sensor close to the absorber for more accuracy

o Insulate the sensor for more accuracy
o Protect the sensor from weather and mechanical stress
Install the differential thermostat’s “collector” sensor at the collector outlet header.
One acceptable method is to push the “tongue” of the sensor under the grommet of
the outlet pipe. Use a stainless steel hose clamp to secure the sensor
(Figure 5-1 0). Do not overtighten the clamp!
FIGURE 5-10
Collector Sensor
Installation
REPAIR
Heat-conductive compound can be placed on the header and sensor before
placement. Two such compounds are General Electric lnsulgrease™ or Honeywell
heat-conductive compound (Part #107408).
Make sensor connections by twisting the wires together, then twisting on small wire
nuts. After installing the wire nuts, fill them with silicone sealant. Tie a knot in the
wires for strain relief.
Be sure to insulate the sensor completely, to isolate it from the cold outside air.
Push the insulation up against the wall of the collector. Seal the joint between the
collector and the insulation with silicone sealant.
The wires running from the sensor should be protected from sunlight and high
temperatures. They must not be strapped directly to bare copper tubing. Secure
them to the outside of the pipe insulation, inside the insulation jacket.
To “tie” up the wires, use cable ties rather than tape. Do not use uninsulated
staples, as it is very easy to short circuit the sensor lines with regular staples.
The type of sensor wire which should be used is 18 to 22 gauge (minimum) multi-
strand twisted pair. The multi-strand will bend and flex without breaking. Twisted
pair wire is less affected by stray electrical noise. Cable exposed to sunlight or high
temperatures should have an appropriate jacket. Teflon is one good choice.
5.2.2 Interior and Exterior Piping.
Insulation
All exterior pipe insulation ‘must be covered with adequate insulation and a
weatherproof jacket. This includes the short pipes between collector headers, and
the unused (and capped) headers (Figure 5-1 1).
Elastomeric insulations, such as Armaflex™ or Rubatex™, do not require jackets,

but must be thoroughly painted or covered to protect them from UV radiation
(Sunlight).
REPAIR
FIGURE 5-11
Inadequate Pipe
Insulation
Fiber glass and rigid foams must be jacketed. Section 2.5.8 has more information
on pipe insulation and jacketing materials.
Interior piping must also be insulated, but jacketing or painting is only required for
appearance, color coding, or protection from people.
Adequate insulation means at least R-4, but it is desirable to have R-7 or more.
Use materials and techniques similar to those used originally to repair piping
insulation. Do not use duct or electrical tape to hold the insulation together. This
method will fail in a few months, making the system look and perform worse than
ever.
Replace missing hangers, and tighten loose ones. Be sure galvanized hangers are
not in direct contact with copper tubing.
The galvanic corrosion resulting from direct contact will “eat” the solder out of the
joints. Provide adequate cradles for the pipe insulation to keep it from being
crushed.
REPAIR
Leaks
Leaking soldered joints must be repaired with a high-temperature solder, not 50/50
(Tin/Lead)! 95/5 (Tin/Antimony) can be used on all copper to copper joints. Joints
involving bronze should be repaired with 96/4 (Tin/Silver) solder. The use of 50/50
will result in joint failure within a few months, and may violate plumbing code.
WARNING!
Glycols and oils will burn when exposed to soldering torch

flames. Always drain the collectors before un-soldering joints!
Before heating the joints, remove the air vent, to allow fluid vapors to
escape. As the joint comes apart, be prepared for a brief flare. Keep
a fire extinguisher with you- not down in the truck!
Threaded joints in piping filled with glycols or synthetic oils must use teflon-based
thread sealants. Teflon tape, or Rectorseal #100 are two good choices. The only
appropriate sealant for threads exposed to silicone oils is fluorosilicone.
Brazed joints, and flared or compression fittings are all acceptable, but are rarely
used because they are less convenient than soldered or threaded joints.
Be sure to completely reinsulate the repaired piping.
Valves
Normally, valves with leaking stem seals can be repaired by tightening the packing
nut. If the leak is caused by an incompatible solar fluid, the valve should be
replaced with one with more compatible materials.
Leaks at valve inlets or outlets should be repaired the same way other leaks are.
Be careful to drain the solar fluid before applying a torch flame. Do not overheat the
valve and warp the seat or damage the internal seals.
Follow the recommendations for thread sealants and solder types in the preceding
section. If one valve or piping component in a loop is leaking, it may be worthwhile
to replace all similar units in that loop while the fluid is drained.
REPAIR
Whenever replacing a valve in a horizontal line, drop the valve handle 15º from
horizontal as shown in Figure 5-12. This allows any leakage to drip off the handle
and be seen, rather than soaking into the insulation undetected. Globe valves must
not be used!
FIGURE 5-12
Valve Installation
CAUTION
Unless a component is specifically for use in solar heating

systems, confirm that body materials, construction, seals and gaskets
are appropriate for the solar fluid being used and the highest potential
temperatures and pressures for the system. As an example, most of
the standard gate valve packings are quickly degraded by synthetic
oils. The inevitable result is a loss of fluid, leading to more serious
consequences.
Collector Loop Flow Balancing
Ball valves are usually installed in the inlets of collector arrays for balancing flow
rates. Every separate array of collectors should have a thermometer or the
equivalent in its outlet. When all the outlet temperatures are identical, the flow rates
are balanced. This works even when the arrays have different numbers of
collectors.
REPAIR
Balancing must be done on a sunny day when the system is operating. Reduce the
flow slightly through the array with the lowest outlet temperature. Wait three or four
minutes, and recheck all the array outlet temperatures. Continue balancing and
waiting until all the temperatures are within five degrees of each other.
NOTE
Close the balancing valves as little as possible. Reducing the flow

rate through the collectors reduces their efficiency.
WARNING!
Never install valves in a way that could allow the isolation of the solar
collectors from pressure relief valves and/or expansion tanks.
Collectors have been completely destroyed by bursting in this way.
Pressure Gauges and Thermometers
Broken, leaking or inaccurate pressure gauges and thermometers are almost

always replaced. The only practical exception to this is the occasional pressure
gauge which can be recalibrated.
A recalibratable pressure gauge has a removable glass lens and ring (to hold the
glass on). It also has a screwdriver slot in the center of the gauge needle or
elsewhere on the face (Figure 5-13).
REPAIR
FIGURE 5-13
A Recalibratable
Pressure Gauge
Courtesy of Marsh Instrument Co.
To make an adjustment, let all the system pressure out, and turn the calibration
screw until the needle indicates zero.

When replacing pressure relief valves, be sure the release pressure of the
replacement is the same as the system designer specified. Repipe discharge piping
following local code requirements.
CAUTION
Never use a temperature and pressure relief valve in the

collector loop of closed loop systems. The valve will open at some
time, due to normal temperatures, causing a loss of solar fluid.
REPAIR
Expansion Tanks
Leaks at expansion tank inlet fittings are repaired the same way as other threaded
fittings. Generally, a crack in the tank wall at the inlet fitting indicates a need to
replace the entire tank.
Sometimes they can be welded, but it is rarely worth the effort and cost. Whenever
a tank without a diaphragm must be replaced, use one with a diaphragm.
Tank wall leaks are usually cause for tank replacement. If the wall appears
corroded, check the condition of the fluid which caused it.
If the tank holds water, appropriate water conditioning may be needed. If the fluid is
a glycol, it may be acidic. In this case, the loop should be flushed and refilled with a
fresh glycol/water mixture. Dispose of used solar fluids in accordance with local
requirements.
If a diaphragm-type expansion tank has any fluid in the air compartment, it must be
replaced. This is usually found by momentarily depressing the stem of the schrader
valve. Any fluid discharged from the air compartment means the diaphragm has
broken, or is disconnected from the tank wall.
Be aware that sometimes fluid leaking from a loose connection at the top of the tank
will “sneak” down the back side of the tank. The dripping fluid at the bottom
schrader valve fitting may not really be coming out of the bottom of the tank.
Occasionally, a schrader valve will loosen up, releasing all the pressure from the air
compartment. Use an automotive valve stem tool to tighten up the schrader valve,
and repressurize the air side of the tank to the correct pressure listed in Table 5-5.
NOTE
Refilling the air side to the appropriate pressure must be done when
there is no fluid pressure on the other side of the diaphragm. See
Table 5-5 for further information on system charging pressures.
REPAIR
CAUTION
Whenever an expansion tank is installed in a loop with a pump, it must

be on the suction side of the pump. Installation of an expansion tank
on the discharge side of the pump can result in pump cavitation and
damage.
Air Vents
Automatic (float type) air vents are probably the most incorrectly applied component
in solar systems. (Figure 5-14) One difficulty is that no American manufacturer of
automatic air vents will advocate their use outside. Another problem is
incompatibility with solar fluids. Finally, very few automatic air vents are capable of
withstanding the pressures they are exposed to in solar applications.
FIGURE 5-14
An Automatic Air
Vent
Automatic air vents can be used only in piping loops containing water. When used
with solar fluids, an automatic air vent will eventually vent enough fluid vapor or leak
enough to render the system inoperative. In many cases, the vent seals are not
compatible with the fluid or the pressure. The end result is a stained roof and an
inoperative, sometimes damaged, solar system.
REPAIR
with manual (coin) vents. (Figure 5-15) The vent should be a simple needle valve,
with absolutely no plastic seals, seats, wafers, or other non-metal components.
FIGURE 5-15
A Manual Air Vent
storage water loops should use a high-pressure automatic air vent. Confirm that the
vent is capable of handling at least 125 PSI, although 150 PSI is better. Check the
pressure relief valve setting to ensure protection for the vent.
The cap on automatic air vents must not be fully tightened. It is there only to
prevent the entry of dust which would clog the mechanism. The vent must be
installed vertically.
because catastrophic failure is common.
5.2.3 Dry Rotor Pumps (Lubricated by Oil or Grease).
General
Before making any repairs on these pumps, follow the procedures in Section 4.3.4
to use an ammeter to determine the most likely problem.
REPAIR
Most repairs begin by removing the pump motor from the pump itself. There are
minor variations, but to do this:
o turn off power supply, and disconnect wiring from pump

o close isolation valves or flanges (or drain the loop)
o loosen the shaft coupling set screws
o unbolt the motor from the pump assembly
In all pump repairs, information provided by the pump manufacturer will offer
considerable help with tricks and shortcuts. Be sure new gasket and seal materials
are compatible with the fluid being pumped.
Motors and Motor Mounts
Field personnel rarely make internal motor repairs. Most major pump manufacturers
operate or recommend authorized motor repair stations.
One component which may be replaced in the field are motor mounts. If over-oiling
has occurred, the rubber mount rings may degrade and require replacement. This
is a fairly common cause of shaft misalignment. Also check for degraded rubber
mounting feet at the base of the motor.
FIGURE 5-16
Pump and Motor
Mounts
REPAIR
To replace the mounts, remove the motor from the pump shaft coupling. Check
both front and rear motor mounts. Inspect the coupling, seals and bearings for
signs of wear or leakage while the motor is off the pump. Remove or disassemble
the motor mount brackets, remove and replace the old rubber rings, and reassemble
the unit (Figure 5-16).
Couplings
If the coupling is broken, completely replace it. Do not attempt to repair or only
partially replace broken couplings. Try to determine why the coupling broke. Pump
misalignment is a frequent cause.
Bearings
To reach either sleeve or ball bearings, loosen the coupling and remove the motor.
Depending on the pump, it may be necessary to remove a complete assembly
containing the bearings from the pump volute or motor.
Many bearing assemblies or cartridges can be completely replaced. This is

generally the best method. Consult the manufacturer’s service information for
complete instructions, since special tools or materials may be required.
When repairing sleeve bearings with oil wicks, replace the wicking, rather than
reuse the old ones.
FIGURE 5-17
Bearings
Lubricated by Oil
REPAIR
After replacing or repairing bearings, be sure to replace the lubricating oil or grease.
Use exactly the same material the manufacturer recommends.
Add oil to sleeve bearings very slowly. When you see it coming from the overflow
hole, or the indicator cup is full, enough has been added (Figure 5-17).
Ball bearings are greased, rather than oiled. The entire assembly of those that are
permanently lubricated must be replaced when worn out.
FIGURE 5-18
Bearing Lubricated
by Grease
If grease can be added, remove the relief or drain plug, and add grease with a
grease gun on the fill (“zerk”) fitting (Figure 5-18). Keep filling until all the old, dirty
grease has been pushed out of the plug. The motor can be run during filling to
make it easier, as long as the pump is not assembled and being run without liquid.
CAUTION
Do not attempt to add grease without removing the relief plug.

Leaving the plug in will cause the beatings to be packed solidly. This
may cause overheating and bearing failure.
REPAIR
Seals
Be sure the new seal material is compatible with the fluid being pumped.
Packing-type seals are normally replaced when their leakage becomes excessive.
(More than two or three drops per day.) Place a sheet of clean paper under the seal
to check this.
Remove the packing gland from the shaft. After pulling off the packing rings, inspect
and clean the shaft. Follow the manufacturer’s procedures to install the new rings
(Figure 5-1 9).
CAUTION
Pumps with packing-type seals should not be used with solar fluids.
FIGURE 5-19
Packing-Type Seals
When the pump is first started, fluid should run freely from the packing. Tighten the
packing gland bolts one-half turn at a time so the tightening is uniform. Tighten until
the leakage is close to the manufacturer’s recommendation.
When replacing mechanical seals, remove the impeller from the shaft. After pulling
off the old seal, inspect and clean the shaft. Follow the manufacturer’s procedures
for installing the new seal and facing surfaces, if used. Be sure to compress the
spring adequately when replacing the impeller (Figure 5-20).
REPAIR
FIGURE 5-20
Mechanical Seals
lmpellers
Impellers are always replaced, rather than repaired. The only exception to this is
when impeller vanes are being “shaved” to reduce pump performance. After
shaving, the impeller must be rebalanced, to avoid pump damage.
Volutes (Pump Bodies)
Cracks in the volute normally result in replacement. It may be possible to braze or

weld these, but it is rarely worth the effort.
Whenever the volute is pulled apart for any pump repair, the gasket between the
volute halves, or the volute and the bearing assembly, should be replaced. If old
components are simply being reassembled, the old gasket can be used. However,
it is better to scrape out all the old material, and use a new gasket.
REPAIR
FIGURE 5-21
Disassembling Pump
Volute
Reassemble the pump by fitting the impeller into the volute. Line up mounting
holes, making sure the motor and bearing assembly are right side up.
If you have trouble seating the assemblies, a little wiggling around will correctly
position the impeller. Replace and tighten bolts evenly, moving from bolt to bolt
while tightening. This is similar to the way lug nuts on a car are tightened.
After repairing a pump, follow the procedures in Section 3.3.4 to confirm that the
pump is operating properly. Many manufacturers offer spray paint for touch-up of
exterior pump surfaces.
5-2.4 Wet Rotor Pumps (Lubricated by System Fluid).

General
Before making any repairs on these pumps, follow the procedures in Section 4.3.4
to use an ammeter to determine the most likely problem.
Leaks in volutes or body seals are repaired the same way they are for dry rotor
pumps. Bad bearings are replaced by replacement of the assembly which includes
the impeller, shaft and rotor. There are no shaft seals.
REPAIR
The ceramic shaft used on many of these pumps can break. Sometimes the break
cannot be seen, even after tearing down the pump. Sometimes the connection to
the impeller is loose. If the impeller can be turned while the rotor is held still, the
assembly must be replaced.
Bell and Gossett and Grundfos Pumps
Bell and Gossett series SLC and most Grundfos series U pumps have a removable
plug at the rear of the motor. With the power off, unscrew the plug, and use a
screwdriver to manually turn and free the motor shaft.
FIGURE 5-22
Grundfos Pump Shaft
Plug
Courtesy of Grundfos Pumps Corp.
Once the impeller is freed, it will usually stay unstuck if the pump is run occasionally.
REPAIR
Taco
If the pump has not run for a long period of time, the impeller may be stuck. The
ammeter will indicate about twice the normal amperage. Try rapping the pump body
(gently!) with a hammer handle or a screwdriver handle while the power is on.
Taco 006 to 0010 series pumps feature a removable cartridge. This cartridge
contains the rotor, the shaft and the impeller in a waterproof cartridge. If any of
these parts are defective, the entire cartridge is replaced.
FIGURE 5-23
Disassembling Taco
Pumps
Close the isolation valves or flanges. If the pump has none, drain the system.
Remove the four bolts holding the volute onto the “can” (the motor housing). Some
fluid will be in the cartridge. Disassemble the pump.
Before replacing the cartridge, hold the “can” upright and drop the old cartridge back
in. Reapply power to the pump. (Watch out for flying fluid!) If the cartridge spins
freely, inspect the inside of the volute for foreign matter or an improper casting
which impeded normal impeller movement.
After repairing a pump, follow the procedures in Section 3.1.4 to confirm that the
pump is operating properly.
REPAIR
5.2.5 Heat Exchangers,
WARNING!
Always confirm that a double wall heat exchanger is used whenever a

toxic solar fluid is used, particularly with DHW systems. This
information should be available from the nameplate. If a single wall
heat exchanger is present, replace the toxic fluid with a non-toxic
variety.
Descaling
Water with a high dissolved mineral content, “hard” water, will deposit scale on
heated surfaces. This usually occurs in loops filled with “city” or well water, such as
DHW systems. The water passageways of heat exchangers can be descaled to
remove this material.
Some heat exchangerscan be mechanically descaled with brushes. This process

requires draining and opening the heat exchanger and running the brush through
each tube several times. After brushing, flush the heat exchanger with plenty of
water to avoid allowing small pieces of scale to get stuck in system components.
In many cases, the scale cannot be removed mechanically. The heat exchanger
may not be built for it, or the scale deposits may be too hard or thick. In these
cases, chemical descaling, using various types of acid is necessary.
WARNING!
If the water being heated is potable (used for drinking, cooking or

bathing), the descaling solution should not be toxic! If this is not
possible, be sure to completely flush the heat exchanger with fresh
water after descaling.
One acceptable descaling solution is phosphoric acid, sold by Stewart Hall as

“Scalestrip™.” Another choice is lntech 52™, which is shipped as a dry powder,
and is mixed with water just before use.
REPAIR
Isolate and drain the water side of the heat exchanger. Turn off the solar control, to
prevent the circulation of hot solar fluid.
Connect two hoses to the water inlet and outlet of the heat exchanger. Connect one
hose to the outlet of a small acid pump. (Little Giant Model 2E-NVDR is
appropriate.) Connect a third hose to the inlet of the acid pump.
As you might expect, even dilute solutions of descaling acid can injure
eyes and skin. Follow reasonable safety practices, including eye
protection and rubber gloves. Keep pure and diluted mixtures out of
the reach of children and animals. Be sure to flush descaled piping
and heat exchangers with plenty of fresh water before returning them
to service.
Follow the manufacturer’s instructions to mix the descaling acid with water.
Generally, solutions should be a maximum of 7% by volume. Make enough to fill
the water passageways and still have at least two inches left in the bottom of a
bucket.
FIGURE 5-24
Descaling a Heat
Exchanger
REPAIR
Drop the two unused hose ends below the surface of the acid. Turn on the pump,
and allow the dilute acid to circulate through the heat exchanger for 15 to 30
minutes. The time interval depends on the severity of scaling.
Turn off the pump, and allow the acid to drain out of the heat exchanger as much as
possible. Hold up the acid pump to allow it and the hoses to drain. Disconnect the
pump from the hose leading into the heat exchanger.
Dispose of the used acid properly. If it is phosphoric acid, such as Scalestrip, it is

biodegradable and can be flushed down a toilet. Reflush the toilet several times to
clear the acid from traps. If the acid is not biodegradable, dispose of it in
accordance with local requirements.
Connect the heat exchanger inlet hose to the fresh water supply. Flush the heat
exchanger for at least five minutes. Once every trace of acid has been purged out,
disconnect the hoses. Repipe the heat exchanger, and purge the air from it.
Rinse out both the acid bucket and hoses. Pump fresh water though the acid pump
briefly and drain it before returning it to storage. Dispose of the used acid-water
mixture in accordance with local requirements.
Bonnets
Most solar heat exchanger bonnets are bronze or cast iron. Cracks in the metal can
sometimes be repaired by brazing or welding. Leaks in the gasket usually require
replacing the gasket. Since the fluid against the gasket is water, no special
materials are required.
Corrosion or cracks at the inlet or outlet ports of the bonnet usually indicate the
need for a replacement bonnet.
The bonnet and associated piping should be adequately and completely insulated
after repairs are made.
Tubes and Bundles
Broken, corroded or burst tubes in coil-in-tank or tube-in-tube heat exchangers

cannot be repaired. Tube-in-tube heat exchangers must be replaced. Most coil-in-
tank heat exchangers are not removable, so the entire tank must be replaced.
Brass or copper tubes in shell and tube heat exchangers can be repaired by
plugging leaking tubes. Determine the internal diameter of the tubes. Have one
inch long plugs machined from brass or bronze 0.004” smaller than the tubes’ i.d.. A
five degree taper over one-half inch of the plug aids insertion.
REPAIR
FIGURE 5-25
Plugging Tubes to
Repair a Heat
Exchanger
Remove both bonnets and dry out the insides of the leaking tubes. A hair dryer or
heat gun works well. Use a small fitting brush to clean out the inside of each end of
the tube. Flux the insides of the tubes and the plugs. Use 96/4 (Tin/Silver) solder to
seal the plugs into each end.
Note that this method only seals off the broken tubes to keep heat transfer fluid out
of the other tubes. If more than 10% of the tubes are leaking, it is best to replace
the entire tube bundle. Sometimes it is easier to replace the entire heat exchanger.
This depends on cost and lead time for tube bundles.
Shells
Most solar heat exchanger shells are steel. Cracks in the metal can sometimes be
repaired by brazing or welding.
Corrosion or cracks at the inlet or outlet ports of the shell usually indicate the need
for a replacement shell. Sometimes it is easier to replace the entire heat exchanger.
This depends on cost and lead time for a replacement shell.
The heat exchanger and associated piping should be adequately and completely
insulated after repairs are made.
REPAIR
Anodes
Any heat exchanger with steel components exposed to fresh water must have a
sacrificial anode. If the anode is gone, or nearly gone, a replacement should be
obtained and installed.
If an exact replacement cannot be obtained, it may be possible to saw off a one or

two inch chunk of water heater anode and place it inside the shell. Use a standard
threaded plug to close up the port in the heat exchanger.
The heat exchanger and associated piping should be adequately and completely
insulated after repairs are made.
Drainback Tanks
Leaks at seams in steel or stainless steel drainback tank shells can usually be
welded. Cracks at fittings or leaks in heat exchanger coils normally require
replacement.
A common problem with drainback tanks is a low solar loop water level. With the
system off, add distilled or deionized water until the tank overflows. Tap water can
be used, but this should not be the usual practice.
5.2.6 Solar Fluids,
General Information About Draining and Flushing
It is not always necessary to drain the fluid from the system to “repair” it.
Sometimes, glycols can be restored to good conditions by adding corrosion
inhibitors. This “reinhibiting” can usually be done without completely draining the
system.
If water is used to flush out debris or corroded particles from a loop which contains
glycol-based fluids, follow the instructions carefully about discarding the “hung-up”
water in the loop when it is refilled. Always dispose of used solar fluids properly, in
accordance with local requirements.
Oils contaminated with water or foreign matter can sometimes be cleaned up by

filtration, without draining the fluid.
REPAIR
CAUTION
Oil-filled loops must never be flushed with water. Water is a

contaminant that can never be completely removed.
Reinhibiting Glycols
Reinhibiting glycol-based fluid is usually only practical when the system has over
250 gallons of fluid in the collector loop. Reinhibiting requires professional analysis
of the current condition of the fluid, and careful determination of the amount of
inhibitor to add to the fluid.
Depending on the inhibitor being used, it may be possible to add inhibitor directly
into the system with a charging pump. In other cases, it may be necessary to drain
out five or ten gallons of fluid from the system, mix this with inhibitor, and return the
fluid to the loop. In either case, it will be necessary to recharge the system,
following the instructions near the end of this subsection.
Some inhibitors, such as dipotassium phosphate, do not dissolve in glycol. They

must be mixed with pure water, then introduced into the system, or into the rest of
the fluid.
CAUTION
Glyco/water mixtures must include inhibitors to retard

corrosion. Without proper inhibitors, these fluids rapidly become
corrosive and damage the piping systems.
Draining and Flushing Glycol and Drainback System Collector Loops
Ideally, a drain port is in place at the lowest point of the system. Open and drain the
used glycol or water.
Small amounts of glycol trapped in low points of the loop that are in the flow can be
left undrained. However, fluid in “dead legs,” such as expansion tanks, must be
drained out. This may require cutting into the piping or unthreading joints, but it
must be done to avoid contaminating the new fluid.
REPAIR
Install drain plugs as you repair the piping. Use teflon-based thread sealants.
Dispose of used glycol properly, according to local requirements. Consider reusing

non-toxic glycol (propylene glycol) for less critical applications, such as freeze
protection for drain traps.
If a fill/drain assembly similar to the one in Figure 5-26 is not part of the system,
install one. It can be placed in any part of the loop which contains the flow of all the
fluid, but an ideal spot is between the system low point and the return line coming
from the collectors.
FIGURE 5-26
Fill/Drain Assembly
(using check valve)
Normally a check valve is used, as shown. A gate or ball valve can be used
instead, but only if a working check valve is somewhere else in the loop. Having
two check valves in the loop is acceptable, since one can back up the other.
Make sure the seals and seat of the valves used are compatible with the glycol.
Use a teflon-based thread sealant.
Hook up a hose to a cold water line, and connect this to the “fill” fitting downstream
of the check valve. The arrow on the check valve will point to this fitting. Connect
another hose to the “drain” fitting, and run it over to a suitable drain. Use approved
methods to collect and dispose of used glycol solution.
REPAIR
Normally city pressure has adequate flow and pressure to flush out the system.
Occasionally, a booster pump is needed in the “fill” line, to push the water to the top
of the system. If possible, flush the loop on a cloudy day to avoid thermal shock of
the collectors.
Flush the system with city water until the fluid coming from the “drain” fitting is dear.
Make sure the water is moving through all parts of the loop. On a sunny day, all the
collectors should be at the same (fairly cool) temperature.
Turn off the water, disconnect the fill hose, and allow the system to drain. Drain out
any dead legs. Small amounts of “hung-up” water in the loop can be flushed out
during recharging. Dispose of used glycol properly, according to local regulations.
Automatic Water Make-Up
If glycol-filled loops are equipped with automatic water make-up, dose gate valves,
if possible, and tag them so they will remain closed.
Draining and Flushing Oil Loops
In many cases, foreign matter and small amounts of water can be filtered out of the
oil without draining it all out. Use a hydraulic fluid filter on a charging system as
shown in Figure 5-27.
If it is necessary to drain the system, a drain port should be in place at the lowest
point of the system. Open and drain the used oil.
Small amounts of oil hung up in parts of the loop that are in the flow can be left
undrained. However, fluid in “dead legs,” such as expansion tanks, must be drained
out. This may require cutting into the piping or unthreading joints, but it must be
done to avoid contaminating the new fluid.
WARNING!
Oils will burn when exposed to soldering torch flames. Always drain
the system before unsoldering joints! Before heating the joints,
mechanically open the loop, to allow fluid vapors to escape. As the
joint comes apart, be prepared for a brief flare. Keep a fire
extinguisher with you- not out in the truck!
REPAIR
Install drain plugs as you repair the piping. Use an appropriate thread sealant for
the fluid being used (see Appendix E).
Dispose of the used oil properly, according to local requirements.
If a fill/drain assembly similar to the one in Figure 5-26 is not part of the system,
install one. It can be placed in any part of the loop which contains the flow of all the
fluid, but an ideal spot is between the system low point and the return line coming
from the collectors.
CHECK VALVE
FIGURE 5-27
Fill/Drain Assembly
with Charging Pump
and Filter
Normally a check valve is used, as shown. A gate or ball valve can be used
instead, but only if a working check valve is somewhere else in the loop. Having
two check valves in the loop is acceptable, since one can back up the other.
Make sure the seals and seat of the valves used are compatible with the solar fluid.
Use an appropriate thread sealant.
Flush the system with a cleaning solution recommended by the oil manufacturer, or
with new oil. This process is identical to charging a system, described below,
except that the cleaning solution is drained afterward. Always handle and dispose of
the cleaning solution property, in accordance with local regulation.
REPAIR
CAUTION
Oil-filled loops must never be flushed with water. Water is a

contaminant that can never be completely removed.
Flush the system until the fluid coming from the “drain” fitting is clean. Make sure
the fluid is moving through all parts of the loop. On a sunny day, all the collectors
should be at the same temperature. Their temperature will rise slightly throughout
the process.
Refilling (Recharging) Glycol or Oil Loops
Before recharging the system, make sure the expansion tank capacity is adequate
for the system and fluid. This is especially important if the system has a history of
relief valve blow-off. Information on expansion tank sizing can be found in Diamond
reference 1, in the bibliography.
It may be necessary to adjust the air pressure of diaphragm-type expansion tanks

before filling the system. The correct air pressure is listed in Table 5-4.
Before introducing a new fluid, pressure test the piping system with compressed air.
Use air rather than water to prevent damage to pipe insulation or building
components if leaks appear. Also, water must never be introduced into an oil loop.
Test at 75 PSI for a period of two to three hours. If pressure relief valves or other
components cannot withstand this pressure, isolate them or remove them from the
system. A lower test pressure can be used for a longer period of time, but it is not
as good a test.
During the test, the pressure will fluctuate slightly (5 to 10 PSI) as the system heats
up and cools down. Leaks can be found by spraying or brushing a liquid soap and
water solution on joints and looking for bubbles. Commercial leak detection fluids
can be used instead.
If there is any doubt about the system leaking, continue the test overnight.
After the test is complete, let the air out of the system.
REPAIR
WARNING!
If traces of oil or glycol are in the system, and the collectors are hot, a
thick fog of vaporized fluid may come out with the air. It is preferable
to open a vent or valve located outdoors to release the air pressure.
To charge the system, connect up a charging system as shown in Figure 5-27. The
charging pump should be a shallow well jet pump, or a jet pump with a shallow well
adapter capable of developing at least 50 PSI in a deadhead (no flow) situation.
(Figure 5-28) A filter or strainer should be between the bucket and the charging
pump inlet. Change the filter after every five systems.
Following Figure 5-27, one hose will run from the bucket or drum to the inlet of the
charging pump, going through a filter or strainer somewhere along the way. Another
runs from the outlet of the charging pump to the fill port of the fill/drain assembly.
This is the downstream port that the check valve arrow points to. The final hose is
connected to the drain port, and leads back to the bucket.
FIGURE 5-28
Typical Charging
Pump
For some systems, especially prepackaged DHW systems, special fittings will be
required for fill/drain assembly connections. (Figure 5-29) For many others, the
fittings end in standard hose threads. Washing machine hoses are useful for
draining and filling.
REPAIR
FIGURE 5-29
Special Fill/Drain
Assembly Fittings
The fluid in the bucket is pulled through the charging pump and into the system.
The check valve forces the fluid to move up the feed line to the collectors, up
through the collectors, back down the return line and back into the bucket (The
same way boiler/baseboard loops are initially filled).
If a gate ball valve is used instead of a check valve, it must be closed during the
charging process.
The drain port hose is submerged in the fluid to make it easy to see any air bubbles
coming out of the system. This is similar to the process of bleeding automobile
brakes.
Pour enough fluid into the bucket to fill it to within about two inches from the top of
the bucket. Make sure all vents are closed, and turn on the charging pump. Very
quickly, air will come out the drain hose (Figure 5-30).
FIGURE 5-30
Air Coming From the
Drain Hose
REPAIR
If the air is coming out too violently and fluid is being blown out of the bucket hold
the hose above the fluid until liquid starts to come out of it.
WARNING!
The fluid coming out the discharge hose can be extremely hot! Use
insulated gloves to hold the hose or clamp it securely to the side of
the bucket. Use eye protection.
If water was used to flush the system, the first fluid to come out of the system is
mostly water. Discard this “hung up” water in a separate bucket, then move the
discharge hose back to the “good” fluid bucket.
As the pump pulls fluid out of the bucket, keep pouring more in (Figure 5-31). Keep
the bucket at least half full at all times.
FIGURE 5-31
Correct and
Incorrect Pouring from
a 5 Gallon Drum
Without a Spout
REPAIR
If the fluid level never drops, the charging pump needs priming, or is faulty. If the
fluid level drops for a while, then stops, and no fluid is coming out of the discharge
hose, the pump is not strong enough to push fluid to the top of the collectors.
It is a good idea to turn the solar control to the “On” position while charging, to help
the process and purge air from the pump.
CAUTION
Make sure any other pump that will also be turned on is either
disconnected or filled with fluid, so it is not running while dry.
After the system has been completely filled, and all the air has been purged, no
additional bubbles will be seen. Run the charging system for at least another ten
minutes. The fluid should be completely free of surface bubbles, and have no sign
of milkiness. A few extra minutes spent can save a return trip to recharge the
system again.
Close the drain fitting, and allow the charging pump to build the pressure up about
five pounds higher than the level indicated in Table 5-5.
Once the pressure is reached, close off the fill valve, and turn off the charging
pump. Leave the pump and hoses connected.
Turn off the system control if it was turned on. Open the gate or ball valve, if one
was used in the fill/drain assembly.
After filling a glycol loop, test a small sample of the fluid. Note the pH, glycol
percentage and reserve alkalinity in the operation and maintenance record for that
system. Information on testing is in Section 3.1.6 in the inspection chapter.
After the system has been off for about ten minutes, briefly open the air vent on
each array of collectors. A small amount of air may be present. If more than a brief
hiss of air comes out, charge the system for at least ten minutes more and check
the vents again.
If the charging process seems to be going well, but air still shows up in the system,
check the suction hose and fittings on the charging pump for leaks. A jet pump
can suck in air and still pump fluid.
REPAIR
Drain enough fluid to drop the system pressure down to the recommended pressure
from Table 5-4. Be sure to add one-half PSI for every 1000 feet of altitude above
sea level.
It may be desirable to use the charging pump to return fluid from the bucket into the
original container. Disconnect and drain the hoses.
Determining the Final Fill Pressure
To use the fill pressure chart, determine the following:
o the total fluid volume of the system

o the number and size of the expansion tanks
o the temperature of the system fluid, during the charging process
o the system’s elevation above sea level, to the nearest thousand feet
TABLE 5-4: Component Fluid Capacities
Component Fluid Capacity
Typical 3’ by 8’ collector 1.00 gallon

Typical 4’ by 8’ collector 1.25 gallons
Typical 4’ by 10’ collector 1.50 gallons
1/2” copper tubing (per foot) 0.012 gallons

3/4” copper tubing (per foot) 0.025 gallons
1” copper tubing (per foot) 0.042 gallons
1 1/4” copper tubing (per foot) 0.065 gallons
1 1/2” copper tubing (per foot) 0.093 gallons
2" copper tubing (per foot) 0.161 gallons
15’ coil-in-tank heat exchanger 0.18 gallons

20’ coil-in-tank heat exchanger 0.24 gallons
Typical shell and tube heat multiply shell diameter in

exchanger inches times shell length in
inches times 0.02 gallons
Typical tube-in-tube heat multiply heat exchanger length

exchanger in feet times 0.03 gallons
REPAIR
Determine the Total Fluid Volume
If original capacity is not known, use Table 5-4 and add up the fluid capacity of all
the system components and piping. If the collectors’ or heat exchanger labels
indicate fluid capacity, use that number. If not, use the number in the chart. Ignore
the fluid capacity of the expansion tank or tanks, pumps, valves and other
components not listed above.
Determine the Number and Size of Expansion Tank
The fill pressure table (Table 5-5) is based on expansion tanks manufactured by
Amtrol, Inc. If Amtrol tanks are not used on the solar system, ask the design
authority for assistance in determining the “Amtrol equivalent” of the existing
expansion tank or tanks.
In Table 5-5, 1 x15 refers to a single #15 Extrol™ tank, 1x30 refers to a single #30
tank, 15+30 means a #15 and a #30, and 2x15 means two #15 tanks. Other listings
follow the same pattern.
Determine the System Fluid Temperature During Filling
Use a thermometer in the charging bucket to measure the temperature of the fluid
while you are charging the system. The fill pressure chart adjusts the final fill
pressure based on the fluid temperature.
Determine the System's Elevation Above Sea Level
It is necessary to make an adjustment to both the expansion tank air pressure and
the recommended system fluid pressure for the site’s elevation above sea level.
REPAIR
TABLE 5-5: Fluid Pressure for Closed Loops
Extrol Max. Fluid Pressure, PSI at Fluid Temperatures of:

Tank(s) System
Model # Volume 40°F 60°F 80°F 100°F 120°F 140°F 160°F
(Gal.)
1x15 4.7 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
2x15 9.4 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
1 x30 12.5 33 34 35 35 37 39 40
15+30 17.2 33 34 35 36 37 38 40
2x30 25.0 33 34 35 36 37 39 40
1 x90 44.5 33 34 36 37 38 40 42
30+90 56.0 33 34 35 37 38 39 41
2x90 88.0 33 34 36 37 38 40 41
3x90 132.0 33 34 36 37 38 40 41
Note: This chart is based upon sea level pressure. Add one-half pound to
the fill pressure and expansion tank air pressure for every 1000 feet the site
is above sea level.
In all cases, the expansion tank air pressure, measured with no fluid pressure, is 30
PSI at sea level. Add one-half PSI to the listed air pressure and system fill pressure
for every 1000 feet the system is above sea level.
5.2.7 Solar Controls,
Sensor Wires
Damaged or incorrectly routed sensor wires should be replaced with multi-strand,

twisted pair wire of 18 to 22 gauge. Aluminum wire can be used for runs of up to
500 feet. Above that distance, copper should be used.
Although the twisted pair design will reduce interference from electrical “noise” from
other circuits, it must still be at least two feet from other conductors, controls and
loads such as motors. Where it is necessary to cross other wires, do so at a right
angle to minimize induced current (Figure 5-32).
REPAIR
FIGURE 5-32
Routing Sensor
Wires
If this is not possible, or the RF noise in a particular area is too high, use shielded
cable. Ground the shield to the control cabinet only!
See below for information on sensor wiring connections.
Sensors
CAUTION
Never mix 3K and 10K controls and sensors. System operation and
performance will be seriously affected. See Sections 4.3.1 and 4.3.2
for more information.
Before replacing an apparently defective sensor, try to determine why it failed. For
example, if the sensor location is wet, the new sensor will also fail rapidly.
REPAIR
Make sure the new sensor is in good thermal contact, and well insulated from the
air. This is critical with sensors on either collectors or outside piping, but it is also
important with sensors inside the building.
Connections on sensor wiring should be made with either the proper size wire nut,
or a crimp-type solderless connector.
If wire nuts are used, screw the connector on the stripped wires, then fill the nuts
with silicone sealant. Finally, tie a knot in the wires for strain relief.
If crimp-type connectors are preferred, either use one filled with silicone (such as
the UI™ connector by 3M), or cover the joint between the wire and the connector
after crimping it. Soldering sensor wire connections is not necessary and is not
recommended. Use enough cable ties or insulated staples to support and protect
the wiring. Do not use regular staples, particularly from a stapling gun. These will
short out the wiring.
Check the operation of all sensors before leaving the site. Information in Section
4.3.1 describes this procedure.
CAUTION
Be sure the freeze snap switches used with a control are made or
recommended by the control manufacturer. Some switches open on a
temperature drop, and others close on a temperature drop. The use of
the wrong snap switch can allow the collectors to freeze.
Controls
Remember, many control problems are caused by defective or poorly installed

sensors or sensor wiring. Make sure the control is really defective before replacing
it.
REPAIR
WARNING!
Before working on a solar control’s 120 volt wiring, disconnect the

control’s power supply. Do not rely on the function switch- in most
controls it does not disconnect the power supply.
Some currently available controls are built with a removable printed circuit card
which can be replaced more easily than the entire control. If the manufacturer and
supplier agree to this procedure, it can be done.
Make sure no strands of sensor wiring are touching adjacent wires or terminals.
Follow the manufacturer’s installation instructions carefully. Many controls require

the use or removal of jumper strips for proper operation. When replacing one model
or brand of control with another, be sure the sensors and control are compatible.
CAUTION
Never mix 3K and 10K controls and sensors. System operation and
performance will be seriously affected. See Sections 4.3.1 and 4.3.2
for more information.
Check the control operation, as described in Section 4.3.2 before leaving the site.
5.2.8 Storage Tanks,
Entire Tank
If a pressurized tank with a stone or glass lining leaks, it should be replaced. It may
be possible to repair tanks with cement, resin or epoxy linings, but only if
replacement lining is available, and the leak is small enough to be repaired.
If it is necessary to open the manway on a large tank to make repairs, make sure
the tank is purged of all vapors, that it is adequately ventilated and that the nuts or
bolts for the manway hatch go into the tank with the worker.
REPAIR
WARNING!
Welding or repairing epoxy or resin linings will rapidly

contaminate the air inside a tank to potentially deadly levels. These
operations should only be done by experts, both to ensure the lining
will not leak and for safety reasons.
Drain Valves
Many small tanks, of 120 gallon capacity or smaller, were originally manufactured
with plastic drain valves. If one of these leaks, replace it with a brass tank drain
valve.
If this is not available, use a boiler drain. It may be necessary to solder together a
male adapter, a two inch section of tubing and a female adapter to make an
“extension” for the boiler drain.
Leaking valves on larger tanks can be replaced with identical components. Make
sure you can reach the new valve conveniently, and insulate it.
Anodes
The thread sealant used by the manufacturer on storage tanks may make anode
removal difficult, but the anode is made to be removed. Use teflon tape on the
replacement, to make future inspections and replacements easier.
In some areas, a chemical reaction takes place between contaminants in the water
and the anode rod to produce a “rotten egg” smell. Traditionally, the solution is to
remove the anode from the tank.
This will result in a much shorter tank life. Install an anode made of a different
material, usually aluminum. Sometimes, this will solve the problem without
shortening tank life.
If the distance between the tank top and the ceiling prohibits installing a straight
anode rod, use a sectioned rod. This looks like links of sausage, and eliminates
having to disconnect the tank.
REPAIR
Dip Tubes
If the dip tubes on a tank need replacement, use a material identical to the original
one. Do not use PVC.
Remember, the purpose of dip tubes is to pick up from and deliver water to different
parts of the tank. If the dip tubes are all the same length, it defeats this purpose.
Section 4.3.12 contains information on correct dip tube lengths and placement.
Temperature and Pressure Relief Valves
Leaking or inoperative temperature and pressure (T & P) relief valves must be

replaced immediately. The usual standard valve for tanks connected to city water
pressure is 210°F/125 PSI.
WARNING!
Never use a pressure relief valve on storage tanks or other

pressurized water lines. A combination temperature and pressure
relief valve must be used for these applications. The only exceptions
are high-temperature systems. In this case, consult the system
designer.
After replacing the valve, comply with local plumbing requirements concerning
discharge lines. Usually, a drop line ending within 12 inches of the floor is required.
However, some areas have more stringent requirements.
Be sure that any water discharged by the T & P relief valve can flow to an
appropriate drain.
Insulation
Missing or inadequate tank insulation must be repaired. Another layer of tank

insulation or a new jacket may be the best way to achieve this.
If the insulation is wet, it may be allowed to dry out. However, if the mechanical
room floor is wet on a regular basis, the tank should be elevated to protect the
insulation, as well as the tank.
REPAIR
If the water is coming from a known source (such as a relief valve), repair or replace
the valve. Route the discharge piping to a drain or sump to keep the floor dry.
Fittings
Leaking tank fittings must be replaced to protect the tank, insulation and other
mechanical room components.
Dielectric fittings (with plastic linings) must be replaced with identical units. A less-
desirable alternative is to replace them with galvanized steel nipples and dielectric
unions.
Replace all piping insulation right up to the tank jacket after repairing fittings.
Sensor Wires
Sensor wires are sometimes run between the tank wall and the insulation, where the
temperatures occasionally rise high enough to damage the wire insulation. Replace
these with new wiring run between the insulation and the outer jacket, or neatly
routed outside the jacket.
Some tanks use an electric element in the top of the tank as a back-up heat source.
If the sensor wiring is near the 240V electrical supply, the element or the thermostat,
move it to at least 2 feet away from the 240V equipment.
Sensor
All storage tanks have one sensor near the bottom, used by the system control for
normal on-off operation. Another sensor may be installed near the top or outlet for
high limit control.
If threaded studs or clips are on the tank, use them to secure the sensor to the tank
(Figure 5-33).
If there is no stud or clip, the high limit sensor may be clamped to the outlet pipe.
This is the pipe leading to the load or back-up system. Use a stainless steel hose
clamp, and tighten it enough to hold the sensor in good thermal contact, but not
crush it (Figure 5-34).
The lower sensor, used for sensing tank temperature for differential operation must
not be clamped to an outlet pipe if dip tubes are used. In this case, remove a
section of tank insulation near the bottom of the tank.
REPAIR
Use a wire brush to clean off any loose paint or corrosion. Use thermal epoxy to
secure the sensor to the tank.
FIGURE 5-33 Installing

a Sensor on a Tank
Wall Stud
FIGURE 5-34
Clamping the High
Limit Sensor to Tank
Outlet
Back-Up Heating Element
Turn off all electrical power to the tank element(s). Drain the tank, unbolt the
element flange and remove the old element. If the new element includes a new
gasket, scrape the old one off the tank and discard it.
If no new flange is available, remove the old element flange carefully. Install the
new element, using the new gasket, or gasket repair compound on an old one.
REPAIR
Rewire the element, fill the tank, then reapply power. Check the current draw of the
new element to confirm it is working.
Back-Up Heating Thermostat
Turn off all electrical power to the back-up heating system, drain the tank, unbolt the
old thermostat and remove it.
Bolt on the new element, rewire it, and fill the tank. Reapply power. Check the
current draw of the back-up element(s) while turning the thermostat up and down to
confirm it is working. Set the thermostat for the appropriate temperature.
5.3 SAMPLE REPAIR RECORD SHEET
A repair record sheet is shown on the next page. It can be copied and used directly,
or it can be retyped with modifications for particular systems.
This version has a space to describe troubleshooting activities, as well as for repair
activities. If a problem reoccurs, or a new one emerges, knowing what was
suspicious or repaired in the past can be very helpful.
After the sheet has been filled out, file it with all the other system sheets or
checklists, or with the operation and maintenance manual for that system.
REPAIR
SYSTEM REPAIR WORKSHEET
Site: Date:
Performed by:
Original symptom or complaint:
Items inspected or troubleshot, and findings:
Items repaired or replaced:
System performance after repair/replacement:
Notes:
REPAIR
5.3 SAMPLE REPAIR RECORD SHEET 196
are in Appendix F.
5-1 What activity is possible with tempered glass?
a) Carry it horizontally
b) Carry it vertically
c) Cut it to size at the job site
d) Spray cold water on it at noon
5-2 What is the best way to weatherproof leaking collector frames?
a) Soldering
b) Welding
c) Silicone sealant
d) Riveting on sheet metal patches
5-3 Which of these types of hardware will quickly corrode aluminum collector
frames?
a) Galvanized steel
b) Stainless steel
c) Cadmium-plated steel
d) Aluminum
5-4 How large should weep holes be?
a) 1/16”
b) 1/8”
c) 3/16”
d) 1/4”
5-5 Which of these is an acceptable replacement insulation to use inside a

collector?
a) Polystyrene
b) Polyethylene
c) Elastomeric foam
d) Polyisocyanurate foam
REPAIR
197 5.3 SAMPLE REPAIR RECORD SHEET
5-6 What absolutely has to be done before unsoldering collectors filled with oils or
glycols?
a) Drain them
b) Shade them
c) Heat them up
d) Turn off the collector loop pump
5-7 Which of these is the best material to repair an absorber plate leak?
a) Silver solder
b) Silver-bearing brazing alloy
c) 95/5 tin/antimony solder
d) 50/50 tin/lead solder
5-8 What does grounding the collector frame to the absorber do?
a) Prevents galvanic corrosion

b) Protects differential thermostat
c) Protects collector sensor
d) Protects collectors against lightning
5-9 Why is multi-strand sensor wire used?
a) Resists stretching
b) Easier to run through the roof
c) Better electrical conductor
d) Resists RF interference
5-10 What is the minimum amount of insulation for exterior solar piping?
a) R2
b) R4
c) R6
d) R8
5-11 One bank of collectors in an array has an outlet temperature much higher than
all the others. What should be done?
a) Nothing
b) Reduce flow rate through that bank
c) Increase flow rate through that bank
d) Increase flow rate through the entire array
REPAIR
5-12 What should be done when adding grease to a pump’s ball bearing assembly?
a) Confirm the relief plug is closed and pack the bearings tightly
b) Remove the relief plug and add grease until it just starts to come out of the
plug
c) Remove the relief plug and add grease until it pushes out all the old grease
d) Add grease, then “top off” with oil
5-13 How can a stuck Taco 006 pump be started?
a) Remove shaft plug and turn with a screwdriver

b) Turn the power on and off rapidly
c) Momentarily apply 240 volts to the motor
d) Tap the body with a hammer handle
5-14 Which of these is a good non-toxic descaling material?
a) Phosphoric acid
b) Muriatic acid
c) Sulfuric acid
d) Soda ash
5-15 What is the maximum percentage of heat exchanger tubes that can be repaired
by plugging without significantly affecting the heat exchanger’s performance?
a) 5%
b) 10%
c) 15%
d) 20%
5-16 Which of these fluid’s loops can be flushed with tap water?
a) Propylene glycol
b) Synthetic oil
c) Silicone oil
d) Brayco 888
5-17 What should be the air pressure on a diaphragm-type expansion tank at sea
level ?
a) 20 PSI
b) 30 PSI
c) 40 PSI
d) 50 PSI
REPAIR
5-18 What is the minimum time you should continue charging a closed-loop system
after fluid first comes out of the drain hose?
a) 60 minutes
b) 30 minutes
c) 20 minutes
d) 10 minutes
5-19 What is the fluid capacity of a system with 100 feet of 1” copper tubing, 10
typical 3’ by 8’ solar collectors and a 6” by 50” shell and tube heat exchanger?
a) 5.5 gallons
b) 10.4 gallons
c) 15.3 gallons
d) 20.2 gallons
5-20 What should the charging pressure of the system in 5-19 be at sea level, if it
has 2 #30 expansion tanks when the fluid temperature is 100 ºF?
a) 30 PSI
b) 36 PSI
c) 42 PSI
d) 48 PSI
5-21 What if the same system is at 4000 feet above sea level?
a) 28 PSI
b) 32 PSI
c) 34 PSI
d) 38 PSI
5-22 Which of these is an acceptable technique when replacing sensor wires?
a) Staple them at four foot intervals to the pipe insulation

b) Run them through existing electrical conduit
c) Run them under the pipe insulation
d) Cable tie them to the outside of the pipe insulation
REPAIR
6.0
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
This chapter contains information on standard preventive maintenance procedures.

Some information on minor repairs is given; however, if major repairs are
necessary, use Chapter 5, Repair. If a system has not been maintained, or has not
been operational for some time, we suggest you perform a system inspection, using
Chapter 3, and make necessary repairs, using Chapter 5, before starting a regular
schedule of maintenance.
We assume you are familiar with the basic components and operation of solar
systems. If not, reading Chapter 2, Operation, will make this chapter more useful.

operations described in this chapter.
6.1 Maintenance Procedures
6.1.1 Solar Collectors.
Cleaning Glazings
If rain or snow do not keep the glazings clean, regular maintenance should include
cleaning.
Any window cleaning product can be used, but a vinegar/water solution works just
as well (10% vinegar, 90% water). Dry carefully and avoid streaking.
WARNING!
Never clean tempered glass glazings by hosing them off with water
unless they are cool. The rapid cooling and thermal contraction of the
glass may cause it to shatter.
MAINTENANCE
201 6.1 MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES
Some brands of evacuated tube collectors use polished metal reflectors under the
tubes. Clean these out, but be careful not to scratch the aluminum reflectors.
After cleaning, the glazing may still appear cloudy. This can be either condensation
or outgassing. Condensation is typically spread unevenly on the underside of the
glazing. It usually indicates a leak in the glazing gasket system or the collector
frame (Figure 6-l).
FIGURE 6-l
Condensation (top)
and Outgassing
(bottom)
MAINTENANCE
6.1 MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES 202
Outgassed material usually forms a uniform cloud or haze on the inside of the
glazing (Figure 6-1). Information on identifying these problems is in Section 3.1.1.
Methods of resolving them is in Section 5.2.1. In either case, the collector may have
to be dismantled, or weep holes will have to be drilled.
Broken Glazings
A broken glazing must be repaired immediately. The interior of the collector,

particularly the absorber and insulation, must be protected from the weather.
WARNING!
Even without a glazing, the absorber plate can be hot enough to

cause serious burns.
CAUTION
If you cover the broken collector with plastic, be sure to support it well
enough to keep it from sagging and touching the absorber plate.
The system can remain operational, unless the absorber plate is leaking. Detailed
information on glazing replacement is in Section 5.2.1.
If there is no obvious cause for a broken glazing, check the collector frame
dimensions. The frame may be out of square, and will continue to break glazings.
WARNING!
Small splinters and sharp edges are mixed in with the safer “crumbs”
of broken tempered glass.
MAINTENANCE
Tightening and Sealing Frames
If the connections between frame components are sound, use silicone sealant to
weatherproof them. If joints are loose and can be tightened, apply silicone to the
surfaces before tightening the collector frame.
Use stainless steel, cadmium-plated or aluminum hardware for repairing aluminum

frames. Do not use galvanized hardware. Contact with zinc will corrode aluminum
within one year.
Painting Frames
The frames of some older styles of collectors are made of mild steel. If these are
rusting, remove the corroded material with a wire brush and repaint the frame.
Seals and Gaskets
If the glazing gasket is leaking, but the glazing is not broken, apply silicone sealant
to suspicious spots (Figure 6-2). Make sure the collector surfaces are clean and
dry.
FIGURE 6-2
Resealing a Collector
with Silicone Sealant
Leaks around the absorber headers can be repaired the same way. Make sure the
headers are not too warm. The silicone tube will list the highest application
temperature. Replace the piping insulation.
MAINTENANCE
Weep Holes
If the collectors have weep holes to allow moisture to escape, make sure the
collector insulation does not block them. The weep holes must be on the bottom or
back of the collector, so water cannot get inside (Figure 6-3).
FIGURE 6-3
Collector Weep Hole
Locations
Mounting Hardware
Tighten all loose hardware, and replace any missing parts. Look across collector
arrays to find and correct misaligned collectors (Figure 6-4). This is one or more
collectors facing in a slightly different direction. It has been compared to the
appearance of butterfly wings.
MAINTENANCE
FIGURE 6-4
Misaligned Collectors
If any of the connections between the mounting hardware and the building are loose
or missing, repair them. Examine the other mounting points to determine how to do
this. Remember, the biggest load on these points is upward, as the wind tries to
pick up the collectors.
If there is any corrosion, wire brush it off and repaint. If the corrosion is a result of
two different metals being in contact (galvanic corrosion), isolate the two metals
before repainting. Do this with gasket material or neoprene washers.
Use silicone seal, plastic roofing cement or pitch to reseal roof leaks. Your choice
will depend on the type of roofing material and the roof/hardware connection.
(Roofing cement is available in tubes for use in caulking guns.)
Lightning Protection
If lightning protection has been provided for the collector array, tighten any loose
connections, and repair or replace missing, loose or fallen lightning rods.
Tighten connections at the ground rod(s), and make sure they are still secure and in
good condition.
Make sure all collectors are under the “cone of protection” of the lightning rods,
That is, within the perimeter of installed lightning rods.
MAINTENANCE
Frame Ground
Every collector with a sensor must have its frame grounded. This ground helps
prevent damage to the system control.
The typical grounding method is simple (Figure 6-5). A short piece of 12 or 14

gauge copper wire is stripped at each end about two inches. One end is hose
clamped to an absorber plate header. The other end is connected to the collector
frame. The frame connection usually involves the collector mounting hardware.
FIGURE 6-5
A Properly
Grounded Collector
After installing or reconnecting this ground, use an ohmmeter to make sure there is
a solid electrical connection between the absorber piping and the frame. Cover the
junction between the aluminum frame and the copper wire with silicone sealant to
reduce galvanic corrosion.
At the mechanical room, use the ohmmeter to confirm that the collector loop piping
is connected to ground. If it is not, hose clamp another section of copper wire to the
collector return line. Run this over to a mechanical ground, usually the same one
used for the building electrical system.
Remember that the surface of anodized or painted aluminum does not conduct
electricity. Anodized aluminum may not appear to have any coating.
MAINTENANCE
Collector Flow Rates Balanced
Measure the outlet temperatures of each collector group in the array.
These temperatures should all be within 5 degrees of each other. If not, rebalance
the flow rates between collector arrays.
Balancing must be done on a sunny day when the system is operating. Open all
balancing valves fully. Reduce the flow slightly through the array with the lowest
outlet temperature. Wait three or four minutes, and recheck all the array outlet
temperatures. Continue balancing and waiting until all the temperatures are within
five degrees of each other.
NOTE
Close the balancing valves as little as possible. Reducing the flow rate
through the collectors reduces their efficiency.
Sensor Wires and Sensors
Check sensor wires for UV degradation. They should be secure and make a
watertight connection where they pass through the roof. They should not be near
sharp edges, or within 1 foot of 120V and 2 feet of 240V wiring or loads.
Make sure the connection to the sensor is still electrically sound. If the connectors
do not appear watertight, replace them.
Make new sensor connections by twisting the wires together, then twisting on small
wire nuts. After installing the wire nuts, fill them with silicone sealant. Tie a knot in
the wires for strain relief.
Unless they are defective, the actual sensors should require no maintenance. Each
sensor must be within 1 inch of the collector housing, well insulated from the outside
air, and protected from weather and mechanical stress.
Sensor testing is described in Section 3.1.7 and replacement is described in Section

5.2.7.
MAINTENANCE
6.1.2 Interior and Exterior Piping,
Insulation
Repair or replace any loose or missing pipe insulation. Exterior runs must be
covered with adequate insulation and a weatherproof jacket. This includes the short
pipes between collector headers, and the unused (and capped) headers.
Elastomeric insulations (such as Armaflex™ or Rubatex™) do not require jackets,

but repaint or cover them to protect them from the sun’s UV radiation.
Fiber glass and rigid foam insulation must be jacketed. Section 2.7.8 has more
information on pipe insulation and jacketing materials.
Interior piping must also be insulated, but jacketing or painting is only required for
appearance, color coding, or protection from inhabitants.
Use materials and techniques similar to those used originally to repair piping
insulation. Do not use duct or electrical tape to hold the insulation together. This
method will fail in a few months, making the system look and perform worse than
ever.
Hangers
Replace missing hangers, and tighten loose ones. Be sure galvanized hangers are
not in direct contact with copper tubing. (The galvanic corrosion resulting from this
will “eat” the solder out of the joints.) Provide adequate cradles for the pipe
insulation to keep it from being crushed.
Leaks
Leaking soldered joints must be repaired with a high-temperature solder- not 50/50
(Tin/Lead)! 95/5 (Tin/Antimony) can be used on all copper-to-copper joints. Joints
involving bronze should be repaired with 96/4 (Tin/Silver) solder. The use of 50/50
will result in joint failure within a few months, and is a violation of plumbing code.
MAINTENANCE
WARNING!
Glycols and oils will burn when exposed to soldering torch flames.
Always drain the piping before unsoldering joints! Before heating
the joints, remove the air vent to allow fluid vapors to escape. As the
joint comes apart, be prepared for a brief flare. Keep a fire
extinguisher with you- not out in the truck!
Threaded joints in piping filled with glycols or synthetic oils must use teflon-based
thread sealants. Teflon tape, or Rectorseal #100 are two good choices. The only
appropriate sealant for threads exposed to silicone oils is fluorosilicone.
Brazed joints, and flared or compression fittings are all acceptable, but are rarely
used because they are less convenient than soldered or threaded joints.
Be sure to completely reinsulate the repaired piping.
CAUTION
The common practice of hydrostatic pressure testing is not

acceptable for systems filled with either synthetic or silicone oils.
Never put water into piping used for oils.
Bypass and Balancing Valves
Compare the configuration of flow balancing and bypass valves against the system’s
Operations & Maintenance manual, or against tags or labels on valve handles.
If neither source of information exists, trace the piping to check valve positions. Use
pumps and check valves for clues to flow directions. When flow direction is
determined, tag the valves with this information or mark it on the insulation jacket for
future reference.
Tempering Valves
Check for proper tempering valve operation by running hot water from a fixture until
the temperature stabilizes and measuring the water temperature.
MAINTENANCE
This can only be done when the outlet temperature of the tank preceding the valve
is hotter than the valve setting.
Expansion Tanks
Check expansion tanks with diaphragms in closed loops by very briefly depressing
the schrader valve stem. (Figure 6-6) If any fluid comes out, the diaphragm is
leaking and the tank must be replaced.
FIGURE 6-6
Schrader Valve on a
Diaphragm-Type
Expansion Tank
NOTE
Repeated testing of diaphragm-type expansion tanks as described

above will eventually release enough air to interfere with proper
operation. Whenever the fluid is removed from the loop, the air
pressure of the tank should be measured and necessary air pumped
in.
MAINTENANCE
On tanks without diaphragms, check the sight glass to determine the fluid level.
Depending on system pressure, about half the tank volume should be air, but you
should at least be able to determine the fluid level.
6.1.3 Pumps,
Make sure all wiring, conduit and junction boxes are securely fastened. All wire
connectors and cover screws should be in place and tight. Turn shutoff switches or
breakers off and on to check them. Use an ohmmeter to confirm that the pump
motors are properly grounded.
Check all pump ports for signs of leakage or corrosion, both while the pump is
running and when it is off. Look for leakage at the body seal on wet rotor pumps
and the shaft seal of external motor pumps.
Remember that packing seals are designed to drip slowly. If the leakage is too high,
compared to the manufacturer’s recommendation, tighten the packing gland bolts
one-half turn at a time so the tightening is uniform. Tighten until the leakage rate is
appropriate.
If the pump has flanges, make sure the bolts are all in place and tighten any loose
ones. If it has isolation flanges, make sure the shutoff valves close easily and check
them for leakage.
Support
Tighten any loose pump supports. Any rust should be removed, and the supports
repainted.
Flow Rate
Check the flow rate of all pumping loops using a direct-reading flow meter, a flow-
setter and differential pressure gauge or pressure gauges on each side of the pump.
In general, the pressure change across the pump, while it is running, is converted
from PSI to Feet of Water. The manufacturers published pump curve is checked to
determine the flow rate at that pressure difference. These methods are reasonably,
but not completely, accurate. They are described in detail in Section 3.1.4.
MAINTENANCE
Lubrication
The motors of wet rotor pumps never require lubrication. External motor pumps
should be checked at every inspection. If there is no way to determine lubricant
levels, a regular schedule for adding oil should be established, to avoid over-oiling
the motor.
Add oil to sleeve bearings very slowly. When you see it coming from the overflow
hole, or the indicator cup is full, enough has been added (Figure 6-7).
Ball bearings are greased, rather than oiled (Figure 6-7). The entire assembly of
those that are permanently lubricated must be replaced when worn out.
FIGURE 6-7
Sleeve Bearings
Lubricated by Oil
(left)
and Ball Bearings
Lubricated by
Grease (right)
If grease can be added, remove the relief or drain plug, and add grease with a
grease gun on the fill (“zerk”) fitting. Keep filling until all the old, dirty grease has
been pushed out the plug. The motor can be run during filling to make it easier, as
long as the pump is not assembled and being run without liquid.
Do not attempt to add grease without removing the relief plug. Leaving the plug in
will cause the bearings to be packed solidly. This may cause overheating and
bearing failure.
MAINTENANCE
Shafts and Bearings
External motor pumps should be checked for shaft alignment and bearing wear. If
the shaft is out of alignment, bearings will wear quite rapidly. Listening to the pump
is one of the best ways to check and correct alignment.
Current Draw
Another excellent way to spot pump problems is by measuring the current draw of
the pump and comparing it to the manufacturer’s specifications.
Table 3-l in Section 3.1.4 gives a general indication of the pump’s condition based
on current readings.
6.1.4 Heat Exchangers,
Check all heat exchanger ports for signs of leakage or corrosion. Tighten loose bolts
to stop leakage at the bonnets of shell and tube heat exchangers. If necessary,
replace or repair the bonnet gasket. The fluid against this gasket should be water,
so no special materials should be necessary.
Supports
Tighten up any loose connectors in heat exchanger supports. Clean off any
corrosion, prepare the surface, and repaint.
Flow Rate
Methods of checking flow rates are described in Section 3.1.4. Compare it to the
specifications in the system’s O & M manual, or check them against the rules of
thumb in Appendix B.
If potable water flow rates are significantly lower than the system specifications,
scale may have built up on heat exchanger passages.
Some heat exchangers can be mechanically descaled with brushes. To do this,

drain and open the heat exchanger. Run the brush through each tube several
times. After brushing, flush the heat exchanger with plenty of water so small pieces
of scale cannot get stuck in system components.
MAINTENANCE
In many cases, the scale cannot be removed mechanically. The heat exchanger
may not be built for it, or the scale deposits may be too hard or thick. In these
cases, chemical descaling, using various types of acid is necessary. Information on
this process is in Section 5.2.5.
WARNING!
If the water being heated is potable (used for drinking, cooking or

bathing), the descaling solution should not be toxic! If this is not
possible, be sure to completely flush the heat exchanger with fresh
water after descaling.
Temperature Change
While the system is running, check the temperatures at the inlets and outlets of all
heat exchangers. Make sure the temperatures change in the appropriate directions.
The fluid entering the heat exchanger from the collectors should be higher in
temperature than the fluid leaving the heat exchanger going back to the collectors.
The water coming in from the storage tank should be cooler than the water going
back to the tank.
Sacrificial Anodes
If the heat exchanger has a sacrificial anode in the tube manifold, check it by
unthreading it, if it is accessible from outside the heat exchanger. If not, remove the
bonnet to check it.
If the anode is gone, or nearly gone, a replacement should be obtained and

installed.
If an exact replacement cannot be obtained, it may be possible to saw off a one or

two inch chunk of water heater anode and place it inside the shell. Use a standard
threaded plug to close up the port in the heat exchanger. Reinsulate the heat
exchanger.
Draindown Tank/Heat Exchanger
Add distilled or deionized water until the fill port overflows when the solar loop pump
is off.
Drainback systems are normally filled with distilled or deionized water.
MAINTENANCE
6.1.5 Solar Fluids.
Water
If water quality is poor, water treatment equipment may be used. The product water
from the treatment equipment should be checked.
Usually, water is “softened,” to remove scale-causing “hardness.” Typically, this is

done with ion-exchange softening equipment. Test for hardness with any standard
water hardness test equipment.
Sometimes iron is a problem. Standard ion-exchange softeners, specialized iron

filters, or chlorine-based treatments are used to remove iron. These can all be
easily checked with a test kit for total iron (both ferrous and ferric iron).
Glycols
Check for the recommended pressure from the system’s operation and maintenance
manual. If no such manual exists, Section 5.2.6 includes a chart of recommended
pressures.
Glycol-based fluids should be checked for glycol concentration and the condition of
the corrosion inhibitor. If these two cannot be checked, at least check the pH
(acidity/alkalinity) of the fluid.
To check glycol concentration, some manufacturers (including Dow Chemical

Company) furnish simple test kits with simple test strips and color charts. Another
method is an optical refractometer. Both these methods only require a few drops of
fluid and are quite simple.
To check the condition of the corrosion inhibitor, measure either the pH or the
reserve alkalinity of the fluid. Most glycol manufacturers recommend that the pH
should not drop below 7.0 and the reserve alkalinity should not drop below 8.0.
Should either condition be too low, the fluid must be replaced or reinhibited.
To check the pH, use pH paper or tape, or have a laboratory analyze the fluid. If
using pH tape, use fairly fresh tape with a pH range from 6.0 to 8.0. Water
treatment specialists or swimming pool chemical suppliers are good sources for pH
tape. To check the reserve alkalinity, use a special test strip from the manufacturer,
or have a lab check it.
MAINTENANCE
If glycol-filled loops are equipped with automatic water make-up, close gate valves,
if possible, and tag them so they will remain closed.
Synthetic and Silicone Oils
Oils do not require replacement or reinhibiting. However, the fluid pressure must be
adequate.
Check for the recommended pressure from the system’s operation and maintenance
manual. if no such manual exists, Section 5.2.6 includes a chart of recommended
pressures.
6.1.6 Controls.
Check all conduit and wiring connections. Make sure the system is mechanically
grounded (to earth). Pay particular attention to the sensor wire connections. Make
sure no small strands of wire from adjacent terminals touch each other. Such
contact provides a direct short circuit which completely disrupts normal control
operation.
Mounting
Be sure the control and associated conduit is securely mounted.
Control Operation
jumper the two terminals marked “Collector” (or “COLL,” etc.). The solar loop pump
(and water loop pump, if used) should come on. (Figure 6-8)
FIGURE 6-8
Checking On/Off
Operation by the
Jumper Method
MAINTENANCE
With the collector sensor terminals shorted, jumper the sensor terminals marked
“Storage” (or “STOR,” etc.). The pump(s) should go off. (Figure 6-8)
To test the high limit function, jumper the collector sensor terminals on the control.
Once the system is running, hold the leads of an appropriate resistor against the
storage sensor terminals. (Figure 6-9) The system should turn off, as the control is
being told the storage tank is above the high limit temperature.
FIGURE 6-9
Checking High
Limit Function
with a Single
Resistor
Use Table 3-3 or 3-4 to determine the right resistance to use to impersonate a
particular temperature. An abbreviated version, with resistor color codes, is
presented in Table 4-3.
MAINTENANCE
Controls: Tester Method

designed for that purpose. (Figure 6-10) Normally, these units have four leads or
terminals. These are connected to the collector and storage sensor terminals of the
control. The tester supplies a calibrated resistance to the two sensor inputs.
FIGURE 6-10
Solar Control
Tester
use that instead of the numbers on the tester dial.
Sensors
To check suspicious sensors, disconnect the wires from their terminal at the control.
Leave the connections intact at the sensor for the time being. Using an ohmmeter
and Table 3-3 or 3-4, determine if the resistance of the sensor is appropriate for the
temperature it should be measuring.
If the control has a digital display, leave the sensor wires connected and use the
appropriate, disconnect the sensor wires from the control and use an ohmmeter as
previously described.
MAINTENANCE
CAUTION
Do not immerse sensors in warm or cold water. Most sensors are not
waterproof and can be damaged with water. Resistance readings of
an immersed sensor will not be correct. If water must be used to
provide temperature extremes for testing, place sensor in a watertight
plastic bag.
Remember, sensor resistance goes up as temperature goes down. A temperature

increase results in a resistance decrease. If the ohmmeter shows a direct short
(zero ohms), or an open circuit (infinite ohms), check the sensor wiring as well as
the sensor itself.
Make sure sensor wiring is located at least 1 foot away from 120V, and 2 feet away
from 240V wiring and motors. It is very easy for a tiny electrical current to be
induced in the low voltage sensor wires. This current will make normal control
operation impossible.
6.1.7 Storage Tanks,
Drain Valves
Check that the drain valve on the storage tank opens and closes properly without
leaking. On DHW or process heating systems, rapidly drain one gallon for every ten
gallons in the tank. For example, drain eight gallons from an 80 gallon tank.
Insulation
Tank insulation must be complete, dry and properly jacketed. If foam insulation has
been applied to the exterior, make sure it is still in good condition.
If the tank is buried, take tank-top temperature readings one hour after the end of a
solar collection day and again the next morning. During that night, bypass the tank,
so any temperature loss is through the tank wall and insulation, not to a load. The
overnight loss of heat on a properly insulated tank will typically result in a
temperature loss of less than ten degrees Fahrenheit.
MAINTENANCE
Sacrificial Anode
Unscrew and inspect the sacrificial anode in steel tanks with glass linings. The pipe
dope used by the manufacturer makes the rod difficult to remove the first time. After
inspection, clean this dope off the threads and use teflon tape. This will make
subsequent removal easier.
If only a few inches of anode rod are left, replace it. If the distance between the tank
top and the ceiling prohibits installing a straight anode rod, use a sectioned rod.
This looks like links of sausage, and eliminates having to disconnect the tank.
Fittings and Piping
Check all fittings for leaks and evidence of corrosion. Insulation on piping must be
complete. Insulation jacketing, if used, must be intact.
Temperature and Pressure Relief Valves
Leaking or inoperative temperature and pressure (T & P) relief valves must be

replaced immediately. The usual standard valve for tanks connected to city water
pressure is 210°F/125 PSI.
WARNING!
Never, under any circumstances, use a pressure-only relief valve in

place of a temperature and pressure relief valve.
Heating Element
If the tank has a back-up electric element, be sure the sensor and back-up element
wiring are separated by at least one foot.
MAINTENANCE
6.2 Sample Maintenance Checklist
A maintenance checklist is shown next. It can be copied and used directly, or it can
be retyped with modifications for particular systems.
If a particular maintenance operation is performed, place a check in the column

before each operation. If that operation cannot be done, or is not necessary for a
particular system, make an appropriate notation in the column.
We suggest using “N.A.” for operations not applicable to a system, and an asterisk,
*, if it cannot be done. Put another asterisk in the “Notes” section with an
explanation. Use the “Necessary Repairs” section near the end to describe required
major repairs.
After the checklist is filled out, use it to pinpoint necessary maintenance or repairs.
Then file it with all the other system inspection sheets, or with the operation and
maintenance manual for that system.
MAINTENANCE
6.2 SAMPLE CHECKLIST 222
Solar System Maintenance Checklist
Collectors

Frames, seals and gaskets tight or resealed
Mounting hardware secure, corrosion cleaned and painted
Flow rate balanced throughout array
Sensor and wires secure
Exterior Piping

Leak check, none found, PRV’s check out
Interior Piping
Insulation complete, secure

Leak check, none found, PRV’s and T&P’s check out
Valves in correct positions, open and close properly
Pumps

Leak check, none found
Flow rate in appropriate range
Adequate lubrication supplied (dry rotor pumps only)
Current draw is appropriate
For information on correct flow rate, temperature and

pressure ranges, check the system’s O & M manual, or
this manual’s Appendices for more information.
MAINTENANCE
223 6.2 SAMPLE CHECKLIST
Heat Exchanger

Piping connections secure
Anode in water manifold checked, replaced if necessary
Temperature differences appropriate
Water level in drainback tank, if used, correct
Closed-Loop Fluid, if used
Adequate pressure
Glycol pH, alkalinity and concentration acceptable
Automatic water make-up, if present, is shut off and tagged
Control

Control and conduit securely mounted
On/off differentials checked
High limit function checked
Sensor resistance checked
Sensor wires checked
Sensor wires routed correctly
Storage Tanks

10% of water drained out of tank (DHW or process heating)
T & P installed, working
Sensor and wiring secure
Heating element thermostat, if used, checked
For information on correct flow rate, temperature and

pressure ranges, check the system’s O & M manual, or
this manual’s Appendices for more information.
MAINTENANCE
6.2 SAMPLE CHECKLIST 224
Paperwork
O & M manual for system on site or available

Flow Diagram and Control Sequence of Operations on site or available
(see Inspection Checklist)
Service record for system on site or available
This maintenance record filed in service record
Notes:
Necessary Repairs
Performed by:
Approved by:
MAINTENANCE
225 6.2 SAMPLE CHECKLIST
are in Appendix F.
6-1 Glazing are breaking repeatedly on one collector of an array. What is the most
likely cause?
a) Defective glass
b) Vandalism
c) Incorrect collector tilt angle
d) Out of square collector frame
6-2 Which direction are collectors most likely to be forced by wind?
a) Down
b) UP
c) North
d) South
6-3 What is the first step in collector array flow balancing?
a) Reduce the flow slightly through the bank with the lowest
outlet temperature
b) Reduce the flow slightly through the bank with the highest
outlet temperature
c) Open all the balancing valves all the way
d) Close all the balancing valves all the way
6-4 What is the best way to connect sensor wires together?
a) Twist the wires together, fill the wire nut with silicone
and twist the wire nut on the wires
b) Twist the wires together, twist the wire nut on the wires and
fill the wire nut with silicone
c) Solder the wires together and cover with tape
d) Use wire nuts and cover with tape
6-5 Which of these must be done to fiber glass insulation used outside?
a) Painting
b) Jacketing and painting
c) Jacketing
d) Nothing
MAINTENANCE
6-6 Which of these piping materials can be used in a collector loop filled with
silicone oil?
a) Standard pipe dope

b) Teflon tape
c) 50/50 solder
d) Fluorosilicone
6-7 Which of these can be used in a closed-loop system’s collector loop?
a) Temperature and pressure relief valve

b) Draindown solar control valve
c) Vacuum breaker
d) Pressure relief valve
6-8 What is the correct maintenance for sleeve bearings on pumps?
a) No oil is required
b) Oil every two to five years
c) Oil once or twice a year
d) Oil as often as possible
6-9 Which fluid will require a sacrificial anode in the heat exchanger bonnet?
a) Silicone oil
b) Ethylene glycol
c) Tap water
d) Propylene glycol
6-10 Which of the following fluids is the most toxic?
a) Deionized water
b) Ethylene glycol
c) Synthetic oil
d) Propylene glycol
6-11 What does pH indicate?
a) Acidity
b) Concentration
c) Temperature
d) Pressure
MAINTENANCE
6-12 What is needed yearly to maintain synthetic oil?
a) Replacement
b) pH adjustment
c) Rebuffering
d) Nothing
6-13 What are typical on/off differentials in degrees F for solar controls?
a) 5/20
b) 20/5
c) 1/5
d) 1/20
6-14 Why is water periodically drained from a solar storage tank?
a) To check the back-up heating thermostat

b) To check the thermistor sensor
c) To remove fallen sediment
d) To remove scale from the tank walls
MAINTENANCE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Diamond, S.C., Avery, J.G and Wood, C., Active Solar Energy System Design,
Installation and Maintenance Manual, DEB-TR-86-01, Tyndall Air Force Base, FL,
Air Force Engineering and Services Center, April, 1986
Dow Chemical USA, Engineering and Operating Guide for Dowfrost and Dowtherm
SR-1 Heat Transfer Fluids, 180-1190-85, Midland, Ml.
Durlak, Edward R., Preventative Maintenance: Solar Energy Thermal Systems,

Techdata Sheet 84-14, Port Hueneme, CA, Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory,
August, 1984.
Durlak, Edward R., Solar Energy Thermal Systems, Techdata Sheet 84-12, Port
Hueneme, CA, Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, August, 1984.
Goodrich, E.W., and Carr, J.B., “Guidelines for Reliable Sensing,” S o l a r

Engineering, May, 1981.
Grumman Energy Systems, Installation and Maintenance Instructions for Model

60FS and Model 60FST, SDMAN-3, Ronkonkoma, NY, August, 1978.
ITT Bell and Gossett, Booster Pump Service Manual, HA-105-SM, Rev. 2, Morton
Grove, IL, May, 1969.
Kirby, James and Mirvis, Kenneth, Solar Energy: An Installer’s Guide to Domestic
Hot Water, National Association of Solar Contractors, 1982.
Meeker, John, and Boyd, Lew, “The Great, The Good, and The Unacceptable,”
Solar Age, Vol. 6, No. 10, October, 1981.
Revere Solar and Architectural Products, Inc., Revere Sun-Pride System

Installation Manual, RSAP 5, Rome, NY.
Solar industries, Installation and Operation Manual, Farmingdale, NJ.
Solar Thermal Systems, Daystar Solar Domestic Hot Water Systems Installation,
Burlington, MA, July, 1979.
SolarVision Publications, Inc., Energy Products Specification Guide, Harrisville, NH,

1984.
Tavino, Ralph R., Novan Energy Dealer Manual, Boulder, CO, 1982.
Bibliography-1 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bibliography-2
APPENDIX A
Standardized System Designs
The following systems are based on the ongoing efforts by military and civilian
authorities to standardize the layout of solar systems. Hopefully, this will make the
operation and maintenance of systems installed in the future easier.
These standardized system diagrams are not meant to be used as a plan to

rehabilitate incorrectly designed systems. They are meant to help you determine
when performance problems are actually caused by design errors.
These diagrams draw heavily on the Active Solar Energy System Design,
Installation and Maintenance Manual prepared by Los Alamos National Laboratory
for the Air Force Engineering and Services Center.
A-1 APPENDIX A
FIGURE A-1 Closed-loop System
FIGURE A-2 Drainback System
APPENDIX A A-2
FIGURE A-3: Draindown System
FIGURE A-4: Direct Pool System
APPENDIX A
FIGURE A-5: Absorption Cooling System
APPENDIX A A-4
APPENDIX B
Rules of Thumb for Solar Systems
Introduction
The rules of thumb in this appendix are not intended to replace proper design
procedures. They are included to allow you to determine if an existing system is
operating within generally accepted ranges.
If the manufacturer’s design recommendations are available, use them, instead of

these rules of thumb.
Flow Rates
All flow rates for collectors are in gallons per minute per gross (overall) square foot
of collector (GPM/sq ft). N.A. is used when that type of fluid is not used with that
system component.
NOTE
If a system appears to be outside of the recommended ranges, and

corrective actions on the system do not bring them back into the
range, get design assistance from personnel on-base or in your
Engineering Field Division (E.F.D.).
B-1 APPENDIX B
TABLE B-1 : Suggested Flow Rates for Solar Applications
System Fluid Type

Component
Water 50/50 Oils
Glycol
Gpm/sq ft Gpm/sq ft Gpm/sq ft
of Collector of Collector of Collector
Glazed 0.025 0.025 0.050

Flat-Plate to to to
Collectors 0.030 0.030 0.060
Evacuated 0.012 0.012

Tube to to N.A.
Collectors 0.014 0.014
Unglazed 0.050
Pool to N.A. N.A.
Collectors 0.250
Closed Loop 1.25 to 2.0

System Storage times that of N.A. N.A.
Water Loop collector loop
Draindown 1.25 to 2.0

System Storage times that of N.A. N.A.
Water Loop collector loop
Pipe Sizes
Solar system piping should be sized to supply an adequate flow without

unnecessarily large pumps. This normally means larger sizes. However, in closed
loops, the piping should be sized to provide a velocity of at least 1.5 ft/sec. to aid in
air elimination, but not more than 4.0 ft/sec to avoid erosion corrosion of copper
tubing and fitting walls.
The following table lists appropriate flow rate ranges for various sizes of copper
tubing.
APPENDIX B B-2
TABLE B-2: Flow Rates for Various Copper Tubing Sizes
Tubing Size, Flow Rates (gpm)

Nominal (inches)
Minimum Maximum
1/2” 1.5 3.5
3/4” 2.5 6.5
1” 4.0 10.0
1 1/4” 7.0 18.5
1 1/2” 9.5 25.0
2” 15.0 42.0
Storage Volume
Generally, storage volume is based only on collector area, and should be between
1.5 and 2.5 gallons per square foot of gross collector area.
Systems with a load which overwhelms the solar system should have storage
volumes at the lower end of the range. Systems which collect more heat than the
load can use per day should have storage volumes in the upper end of the range.
Collector Tilt
Collectors should be tilted from the horizontal (not from a pitched roof!) according to
the table below. The tilt should be within 10 degrees of the listed angle. For
example, a spaceheating system at a latitude of 35º, which should have a tilt of 50°,
can have a tilt angle of 40º to 60º without a noticeable decrease in annual
performance.
B-3 APPENDIX B
TABLE B-3: Solar Collector Tilt Angles
Application Tilt Angle
DHW Latitude
Space Heating Latitude + 15º
DHW + Space Heating Latitude + 10º
Space Cooling Latitude - 15º
DHW + Space Cooling Latitude - 15º
Process Heating Latitude
Pool Heating, summer Latitude - 15º
Pool Heating, all year Latitude
FIGURE B-1
Collector Tilt Measured
from the Horizontal on
Tilted and Level
Surfaces
APPENDIX B B-4
Collector Orientation
For proper operation, the collectors must be oriented as close as possible to true
south. In most areas, this varies from the magnetic south given by a compass. A
simple correction must be made.
First, find the magnetic variation from an isogonic map. This is given in degrees
east or west from magnetic south. Use the map below if the site is in the continental
United States. Otherwise, a local map will show the magnetic variation.
FIGURE B-2
lsogonic Map of the
United States
For example, a site in Montana has a magnetic variation of 20 degrees east. This
means that true south is 20 degrees east of magnetic south. On a compass
oriented so the north needle is at 360 degrees, true south is in the direction
indicated by 160 degrees.
FIGURE B-3
Magnetic Variation on
a Compass
B-5 APPENDIX B
FIGURE B-3
Collector Orientation
The collectors should be installed within 20 degrees of a true south orientation.

Generally, errors toward the west are preferable to errors toward the east.
If the collectors cannot be oriented within this range, performance will be

significantly affected.
APPENDIX B B-6
APPENDIX C
Tool, Material and Spare Parts Lists
Tool and Material Lists
These lists include information on the need for specific tools and materials in
different types of operations. Not all systems or operations will require every listed
item or material, but these lists provide a starting point.
C-1 APPENDIX C
TABLE C-1 : Recommended Tool List
Tool Needed for:

Inspection Troubleshooting Repair Maintenance
Tool Pouches X X X
Carpenter’s Hammer X X
Tape Measure X X X X
Compass X X
Inclinometer X X X
Utility Knife X X X
Screwdrivers,
Phillips X X X X
Slotted X X X X
Wrenches,
Adjustable X X X
Open/Box X x X
Pipe X X
Socket X X X
Allen X X X
Caulking Gun X X
Torpedo Level X X X X
Hacksaw X
Wire Strippers X X
Needlenose Pliers X X
Gloves X X
Fire Extinguisher X
Paint Brush X X
Electric Drill X X
Reciprocating Saw X
Multimeter X X X X
Snap-Around
Ammeter X X X X
Control Tester
or Resistors X X X X
Mitre Box X X
Hand Truck X
Drop Light X X X X
Channelock Pliers X
Vise Grips X
24’ Extension Ladder X X X X
or Stepladder X X X X
APPENDIX C C-2
TABLE C-1 (continued)
Tool Needed for:

100’ Extension Cord X X X X

Charging Pump, with
Hoses and Bucket X X
Soldering Torch,
with Tools X
Broom X X X
Compressor or
Air Bottle X X X
Safety Glasses X X X X
Tin Snips X X
Staple Gun X X
Flashlight X X X X
First Aid Kit X X X X
100’ 1/2” Manila
Rope X
Rubber-soled Shoes X X X X
Wire Brush X
TABLE C-2: Recommended Material List
Material Needed for:

Rags X X X
Solder,
95/5 or 96/4 X
Flux X
Gritcloth X
Thread Sealant X
Copper Tubing X
Copper Fittings X
Silicone Sealant
or Roof Cement X X
Cable Ties X X X
Wire Nuts X X X
Electrical Tape X X X
C-3 APPENDIX C
TABLE C-2 (continued)
Material Needed for:
Solar Fluid X X
Distilled Water X X
Pipe Insulation X X X
Insulation Jacket
or Paint X X
Liquid Soap or
Leak Detect X X X
Pipe Hangers
and Saddles X X
Various Fasteners X X
1’ 12 AWG Copper Wire X X
Glass Cleaner X X
APPENDIX C
Spare Parts List
The exact number of spare parts depends on the number, size and types of
systems. Experience has shown a range of inventory levels appropriate for each
component. The following percentages are based on the total number of that
component on base, not the number of systems.
An asterisk indicates that at least one of that component should be in stock at all
times, regardless of the number of systems or components in service, as long as
that component is used on at least one system.
The minimum quantity of solar fluid is the amount required to refill the largest
system.
TABLE C-3: Recommended Spare Parts List
Component Percentage Range
Collector Glazings, with Gaskets* 0.3% - 5.0%

Complete Collectors, or Absorbers* 1.0% - 3.0%
Collector Sensors* 2.5% - 10.0%
Storage Sensors* 2.5% - 5.0%
Differential Thermostats* 2.5% - 5.0%
Wet Rotor Pumps (or Cartridges) 1.5% - 5.0%
Solar Loop Dry Rotor Pumps 1.5% - 3.0%
Storage Loop Dry Rotor Pumps 1.0% - 3.0%
Tempering Valves* 0.5% - 2.0%
Pressure Relief Valves* 0.5% - 2.0%
Pressure and Temperature Relief Valves* 1.0% - 3.0%
Check Valves* 2.0% - 5.0%
Heat Exchangers 2.5% - 4.0%
Expansion Tanks* 1.5% - 4.0%
Draindown Control Valves* 5.0% - 25.0%
Gallons of Solar Fluid* 5.0% - 10.0%
C-5 APPENDIX C
APPENDIX C-6
APPENDIX D
Product and Supplier Information
Most of the companies listed sell their products through manufacturer’s

representatives, distributors or both. Contact the manufacturer to find your local
supplier. These may not be the only sources of supply, but if the original source of
supply is unavailable, and local suppliers do not carry the appropriate materials, the
companies listed below will be able to help.
Pumps
Goulds Pumps, Inc. Myson, Inc.

Seneca Falls, NY 13148 P.O. Box 5025
(315)-568-2811 Embrey Industrial Park
Jet pumps Falmouth, VA 22401
(703)-371-4331
Grundfos Pumps Corporation Wet rotor, bronze
2555 Clovis Ave.
Clovis, CA 93613 Taco, Inc.
(209)-299-9741 1160 Cranston St.
Wet rotor, stainless steel or cast iron Cranston, RI 02920
(401)-942-8000
ITT Bell and Gossett Wet rotor, cast iron or bronze
8200 N. Austin (also heat exchangers)
Morton Grove, IL 60053
(312)-667-4030
Dry rotor, cast iron or bronze, Piping Accessories
(also heat exchangers)
Amtrol, Inc.
Little Giant Pump Co. 1400 Division Road
3810 N. Tulsa W. Warwick, RI 02893
Oklahoma City, OK 73112 (401)-884-6300
(405)-947-2511 Air vents, expansion tanks, air scoops,
Magnetic drive circulators and acid valves, etc.
pumps
D-1 APPENDIX D
SISCO Pyramid Controls
P.O. Box 197 421-16 N. Buchanan Circle
Riverton, NJ 08077 Pacheco, CA 94553
(609)-829-8686 (415)-827-0160
Pressure/temperature test plugs Differential thermostats, sensors,
remote temperature indicators,
Sunspool Corporation control testers
439 Tasso Street
Palo Alto, CA 94301 Rho Sigma, Subsidiary of WATSCO
(415)-324-2022 1800 West 4th Ave.
Draindown control valves Hialeah, FL 33010
(305)-885-1911
Watts Regulator Co. Differential thermostats, sensors, BTU
10 Embankment St. meters, control testers
Lawrence, MA 01842
(617)-688-1 811
Valves, vents, etc. Heat Exchangers
See Taco and ITT Bell and Gosset in

Controls and Sensors pumps section
Heliotrope General Young Radiator Company

3733 Kenora Drive 2825 Four Mile Road
Spring Valley, CA 92077 Racine, WI 53404
(619)-460-3930 (414)-639-1011
Differential thermostats, sensors, Shell and tube heat exchangers
remote temperature indicators,
electronic aquastat/thermostats,
control testers Storage Tanks
Independent Energy A.O. Smith Corp.

P.O. Box 860 P.O. Box 28
42 Ladd St. Kankakee, IL 60901
East Greenwich, RI 02818 (815)-933-8241
(800)-343-0826 Glass lined, 66 to 120 gallons, up to
(401)-884-6990 100 gallons
Differential thermostats, sensors,
remote temperature indicators, Bradford-White Co.
electronic aquastat/thermostats, 24th & Ellsworth St.
control testers Philadelphia, PA 19146
(215)-735-6250
Glass lined, 65 to 120 gallons
APPENDIX D D-2
Ford Products Corp. CertainTeed Corp.
Ford Products Road P.O. Box 860
Valley Cottage, NY 10989 Valley Forge, PA 19482
(914)-358-8282 Fiber glass pipe insulation
Stone lined, 40 to 120 gallons, coil in
tank available
Solar Fluids
Mor-Flo Industries, Inc.
18450 S. Miles Rd. Dow Chemical Company
Cleveland, OH 44128 Specialty Chemicals Dept.
(216)-663-7300 Midland, Ml 48674
Glass lined, 52 to 120 gallons (800)-258-2436
Inhibited ethylene and propylene glycols
Vaughn Corp.
386 Elm St. Dow Corning
Salisbury, MA 01950 South Saginaw Rd., Dept. 2314
(617)-462-6683 Midland, Ml 48640
Stone lined, 66 to 120 gallons, coil in (517)-496-5985
tank available Silicone oil
Novan Energy, Inc.

Solar Glazings 1630 N. 63d St.
Boulder CO 80301
Rocky Mountain Solar Glass (3030-447-9193
7123 Arapaho Ave. Inhibited propylene glycol, Brayco™
Boulder, CO 80301 synthetic oil, and small quantities of
(303)-442-4277 other solar components
Pipe and Collector Insulations
Armstrong Cork Co.

PO. Box 3001
Lancaster, PA 17604
(717)-397-0611
Elastomeric and closed-cell pipe
insulation
Celotex Corp.
P.O. Box 22602
Tampa, FL 33622
Foil-faced polyisocyanurate foam
D-3 APPENDIX D
APPENDIX D D-4
APPENDIX E
Fluids and Materials Compatibility
City Loop* Propylene Ethylene Synthetic Silicone

Water Water Glycol Glycol Oils Oils
Butyl
Rubber Yes Yes No No No No
Bronze/Brass Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Cast Iron No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Copper Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
EPDM Yes Yes Yes Yes No No
Fluorosilicone Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Galvanized No Yes No No Yes Yes
Hydrin Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Pipe Dope** Yes Yes No No No No
Polypropylene Yes Yes No No No No
Steel No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Stainless Steel Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Teflon Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Viton Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
* This is water trapped in a loop, replenished only occasionally with fresh water.
** This is standard pipe dope, not teflon-based.
E-1 APPENDIX E
APPENDIX E E-2
APPENDIX F
Answers to Questions for Self-study
Chapter 2 Chapter 4 Chapter 6
2-1 d 4-1 b 6-1 d

2-2 c 4-2 c 6-2 b
2-3 a 4-3 c 6-3 a
2-4 c 4-4 a 6-4 b
2-5 b 4-5 c 6-5 c
2-6 b 4-6 c 6-6 d
2-7 b 4-7 d 6-7 d
2-8 c 4-8 b 6-8 c
2-9 b 4-9 c 6-9 c
2-10 c 4-10 b 6-10 b
2-11 a 4-11 a 6-11 a
2-12 b 4-12 d 6-12 d
2-13 d 4-13 a 6-13 b
4-14 c 6-14 c
4-15 b
4-16 a
Chapter 3 Chapter 5 Chapter 5

(continued)
3-1 c 5-1 b
3-2 c 5-2 c 5-17 b
3-3 b 5-3 a 5-18 d
3-4 a 5-4 c 5-19 d
3-5 c 5-5 d 5-20 b
3-6 c 5-6 a 5-21 d
3-7 b 5-7 b 5-22 d
3-8 b 5-8 b
3-9 a 5-9 d
3-10 a 5-10 b
3-11 b 5-11 c
3-12 c 5-12 c
3-13 c 5-13 d
3-14 a 5-14 a
3-15 a 5-15 b
5-16 a
F-1 APPENDIX F
APPENDIX F F-2
INDEX
Absorber plates, in collectors, Bronze, E-1

Operation, 7, 13, 20-23, 40 Butyl, E-1
Inspection, 62, 63, 66, 69, 70, 95
Troubleshooting, 108, 125 Capacitors of pumps, 139
Repair, 138, 142, 144, 146, 147, Capacity of system components, 185
149, 150, 152, 153 Cartridges, of pumps, 139, 164, 170,
Maintenance, 203, 204, 207, C-5
208, 223 Cast iron, E-1
Suppliers, D-3 Caulking, 147, 206, C-2
Absorption chillers, 11, 12, A-4 Cavitation, of pumps, 38, 74, 161
Alignment, pump shafts, 23, 80, 111, Celotex, D-3
123, 214 CertainTeed, 48, D-3
Aluminum, 26, 64, 144, 152, 153, 187, Charging closed loops, 37, 176-187,
202, 204, 207 c-3
American Solar King, 150 Checklists and record sheets, 94, 99,
Amperage, 123, 124,170 195, 222
Amtrol, 186, 246 Closed-loop systems, see also Glycols,
Anodes, see Sacrificial anodes Heat exchangers and Oil-based fluids
Antimony, 26, 129, 156, 209 Operation, 7, 14-17, 24, 26,
Aquastats, D-2 38-43, 54-57
Armaflex, 48, 71, 154, 209 Inspection, 68, 74, 82
Armstrong; D-3 Troubleshooting, 108-111
ASME, 30 Repair, 159, 162
Maintenance, 232
Barber Coleman, 86 Coil-in-tube heat exchangers, 29
Bearings, pump shaft Colt, 150
Inspection 80 Compatibility of fluids and materials, 23,
Troubleshooting, 111, 123, 124 27, 37, 71, 129
Repair, 139, 164, 165, 168 Chart, E-1
Maintenance, 213, 214 Condensation inside collectors, 62-64,
Bell and Gossett, see ITT Bell and 110, 202
Gossett Controls,
Bradford-White, D-2 Operation, 6-10, 13, 18, 33, 44-
Brass, E-1 46, 50-57
Brazing, 150-151, 156, 174, 210 Inspection, 85-92, 97, 101
Index-1 INDEX
Controls (cont.) Flow rate, 236
Troubleshooting, 105-119, 123- Inventory, 245
125, 131 Schematic diagram, 233
Repair, 140, 152, 153, 172, 184, Suppliers, 247
187-190, 193 DTT, 87, 119
Maintenance, 207, 212, 217-220,
222, 224 EPDM, 27, 39, E-1
Suppliers, D-2 Escutcheon plates, as heat shields 147,
Controlex, 86 148, 188
Copper, E-1 Evacuated tube collectors, 2, 9, 11, 20,
Copper-nickel, 13 21, 22, 63, 202, B-2
Current draw, Expansion tanks
Heating elements, 195 Operation, 15, 17, 26, 27, 38-40,
Pumps, 80, 81, 90, 96, 106, 123, 43
124, 214 Inspection, 68, 74
Daystar, 150 Troubleshooting, 120, 121
Delta-T, 51 Repair, 158, 160, 161, 178, 180,
Descaling, 171-173, 214, 215 185-187
Diaphragms, in expansion tanks, Maintenance, 211, 212
Operation, 27, 38-40 Suppliers, D-2
Inspection, 74, 75 Extrol, 186, 187
Troubleshooting, 120, 121
Repair, 160 Fiberglas, 50
Maintenance, 211, 212 Filling closed loops, see Charging
Dow, 83, 128, 216, 229, D-3 closed loops
Dowfrost, 84, 128, Bibliography-1 Flange, 139, 140, 194
Dowtherm, Bibliography-1 Flanges, 34, 76, 109, 139, 163, 170,
Drainback systems, 212
Operation, 7, 16, 17, 26, 30, 43, Fluorosilicone, E-1
46, 54 Flow rates, see specific system and
Inspection, 68, 71, 82, 83, 96 Appendix B
Troubleshooting, 108-111, 122, Flow-setters, 76, 212
126 Ford, D-3
Repair, 162, 175, 176
Maintenance, 224 Galvanic corrosion,
Schematic diagram, A-2 Inspection, 64, 66, 67
Draindown systems, Troubleshooting, 130
Operation, 7, 17, 18, 33, 34, 40, Repair, 152, 155
43, 44, 45, 46, 53, 54, 56 Maintenance, 206, 207, 209
Inspection, 68, 70, 82 Galvanized steel,
Troubleshooting, 108-111, 121, Pipe, 26, 193, E-1
131 Pipe hangers, 130, 155, 209
Repair, 162 Mounting hardware, 64, 144, 204
Maintenance, 215
INDEX Index-2
Galvanized steel (cont.), Troubleshooting, 109, 110, 127,
Tanks, 30, 33, 38, 39, 96, 110, 131
130,138 Repair, 140, 171-175, 185, 186
Gaskets, Maintenance, 214, 215
Operation, 14, 23, 27, 33 Suppliers, D-2
Inspection, 63-65, 71, 95 Honeywell, 86, 154
Troubleshooting, 123, 129 Humming, 111
Repair, 138-144, 157, 163, 167, Hydrin, 27, 39, E-1
173, 194
Maintenance, 202, 204, 206, 214 Impellers, of pumps, 79, 80, 124, 139,
Inventory, C-5 166, 167, 168, 169, 170
Glass, Inclinometer, C-2
Operation, 20, 21, 30, 31, 32, 48 Inhibitors, 26, 83, 127, 128, 140, 175,
Inspection, 63, 75, 82 176, 216, 217
Troubleshooting, 122 Insulation, pipe and tank, see also
Repair, 141, 142, 143, 158, 190 Jackets
Maintenance, 201, 203, 212, 221 Operation, 47-50
Inventory, C-5 Inspection, 70-73, 93
Suppliers, D-3 Troubleshooting, 109, 110, 131
Glycols, Repair, 138, 140, 141, 154-155,
Operation, 26, 27, 39, 40 157, 192
Inspection, 75, 79, 83, 97, 127- Maintenance, 209, 220, 221
129, 131 Inventory, C-4
Repair, 160, 175-178, 180-187 Suppliers, D-3
Maintenance, 210, 216, 217, 224 Insulgrease, 154
Suppliers, D-3, Insulsleeve, 48
Goulds Pumps, D-1 Insultek, 48
Grounding, Intech, 171
Inspection, 66, 67, 75, 85, 95, 97 Ion-exchange, 83, 216
Troubleshooting, 105, 110, 119 Iron,
Repair, 138, 152, 153, 188 in piping or pumps, 23, 24, 26,
Maintenance, 206, 207, 212, 173, 246, E-1
217, 223 in water, 83, 127, 216
Grumman, 150, Bibliography-1 Isocyanurate, 48
Grundfos, 169, D-1 ITT Bell and Gossett, 169, Bibliography-1
Gulf Thermal, 150 D-1- D-2
Hangers, 155
Heat-conductive compounds, 154 Jackets, insulation, for
Heat exchangers, Piping, 47-49,69, 72, 73, 141,
Operation, 7, 13-15, 17, 26-30, 154, 155, 209, 221, C-4
34, 56 Tanks, 50, 93, 192,193, 220
Inspection, 81, 82
Index-3
INDEX
Latitude, B-3, B-4 Repair, 140, 147, 156, 157, 162,
Leaks, 175, 176, 178-181
Inspection, 62, 63, 68, 70-76, 81, Maintenance, 210,217
82, 93, 95-97 Compatibility, E-1
Troubleshooting, 108, 120-123, Flow rates, B-2
129, 131 Silicone oils, 26, 28, 71, 72, 85,
Repair, 138-141, 144, 147, 148, 129, 140, 144, 147, 152, 154
150, 151, 156-161 164, 166, 156,189 204, 210, 217
173-175, 180, 184, 190-193 Suppliers, D-3, E-1
Maintenance, 202-204, 209, 211, Synthetic oils, 26, 27, 71, 129,
212, 214, 220-224 156, 157, 210, 217, E-1
Lightning, 66, 95, 206 Outgassing, in collectors, 63-66, 145,
Lubrication, 23, 79, 96, 123, 162-165, 202, 203
213, 223 Oxygen, dissolved in water, 6, 26, 31,
126
Magnesium, 127
Manganese, 127 Packing seals, pumps, 165, 166,212
Meters, Packings, valve, 37, 41, 71, 156, 157
BTU, 57, 247 Painting, 155, 204, 209
Electrical, for pH, 31, 83, 97, 126, 128, 140, 184, 216,
Inspection, 75, 80, 81, 86, 224
89, 90, 93 Phelps-Dodge, 149
Troubleshooting, 111, 112, Phoscopper, 150
115, 119, 123, 124 Phosphoric acid, 171, 173
Repair, 152, 153, 162, 168 Photovoltaic, 1
Maintenance, 207, 219, Pipe dope, E-1
220 Pipe hangers, see also Galvanized,
Inventory, C-2 Inspection, 66, 72, 95, 96
Flow, 76, 121-125 Troubleshooting, 130
Monitoring, 55, 57 Repair, 138, 140, 155
Mor-Flo, D-3 Maintenance, 209, 223
Morning star, 150 Inventory, C-4
Myson, D-1 Pitch, roofing, 147, 206
Polyethylene, 47
Neoprene, 206 Polyisocyanurate, 48, 145, 248
Novan, 229, D-3 Polypropylene, E-1
Polystyrene, 47
Ohms, 52, 86, 90, 112, 115, 117, 220 Porcelain, 31
Oil-based solar fluids, see also G/yco/s Porosity, 129
Operation, 10, 26-28,39 Potentiometers, 86, 115, 119
Inspection, 71,82, 85 Preheating systems, 8-12
Troubleshooting, 129
INDEX Index-4
Pressure gauges, Reservoirs, 16, 17, 30, 82, 122
Operation, 33,55-57 Resistors, 51, 87, 88, 89, 116, 117, 119,
Inspection, 76-79,97 218, C-2
Troubleshooting, 108-110, 121, Revere, 150, Bibliography-1
125,132 Rho Sigma, 87, 119, D-2
Repair, 139, 158, 159 Robertshaw, 86
Maintenance, 212 Rocky Mountain Solar Glass, D-3
Suppliers, D-2 Rollbond, 149, 150
Pressure reducing valves, Rotten egg smell, in water, 191
33,40,75,129,224 Rubatex, 48, 71, 154, 209
Pressure relief valves, Rust, 204, 212
33, 36, 68,73, 192, C-5, D-2
Pressure-temperature plugs, see also Sacrificial anodes, 32, 82, 93, 175, 215,
Pressure gauges, 221
55,139 Saddles, 48, C-4
Pumps, Scale on pipes and heat exchangers,
Operation, 1, 5-17, 23-27, 34, 37, see Descaling and Water
38, 43, 50-53, 56, 57 Scalestrip, 171, 173
Inspection, 73-80,82, 85-87,96 Schrader valves, 38, 74, 75, 121, 160,
Troubleshooting, 106, 109, 110, 211
115, 119-125, 127, 130-132 Screeching noises, in pumps, 111
Repair, 139, 161-170, 176, 178, Sealants,
179,181-186 Operation, 27, 28
Maintenance, 212-215,218, 223 Inspection, 64, 72
Flow rates, B-2 Troubleshooting, 129
Inventory, C-3 Repair, 142, 144, 152, 154, 156,
Suppliers, D-1 177,179,189, 191
PVC, 192 Maintenance, 204, 207, 208, 210
Pyramid, 87, 119, D-2 Inventory, C-3
Pyrometer, 67 Seals,
Operation, 14, 23, 27, 33, 35, 41,
Radio Frequency (RF) noise, 52, 188 42
Re-inhibiting glycols, 175, 176 Inspection, 65, 68, 71, 75, 95
Read-outs, on controls 89, 119 Troubleshooting, 123, 129, 131
Recharging closed loops, see Charging Repair, 138-140, 144, 147, 154,
closed loops 156, 157, 161, 162, 163, 164
Rectorseal, 156,210 166, 167, 168, 174, 177, 179,
Refilling closed loops, see Charging 206,212,214,223
closed loops Seats, 27, 35, 37, 41, 42, 68, 127, 156,
Reflectors, under evacuated tube 162,177,179
collectors, 21,22, 63, 202 Sensors,
Refractometer, 83, 84, 127, 128, 216, Operation, 6, 7
217 Inspection, 50-55,66, 69, 70, 85-
Reinhibiting glycols, 83, 85, 128, 217
Index-5
INDEX
93,95, 97 B-3
Sensors (cont.) Inventory, C-5
Troubleshooting, 105, 111-119, Suppliers, D-2, D-3
131 Strain relief, 154, 189, 208
Repair, 138, 140, 141, 152, 153, Strainers, 110, 181
154, 187-190, 193, 194 Sun-Pride, 229
Maintenance, 207, 208, 217-220, Sunspool, 247
223,224 Sunstream, 150
Inventory, C-5 Sunstrip, 149
Suppliers;. D-2 Sunworks, 150
Shell and tube heat exchangers, see Swimming pools, 2,8, 12-13, 22-23, 83,
Heat exchangers 216
Silicone oils, see Oil-based heat Synthetic oils, see Oil-based heat
transfer fluids transfer fluids
Silver solder and brazing alloy, 26, 129,
150,156, 174,209 Taco, 170, D-1, D-2
SISCO, D-2 Tanks, see also Storage tanks,
Sleeve bearings, 164, 165,213 Cement-lined, 33
Sludge, 83, 131 Epoxy-lined, 30, 33, 191
Snap-switches, 54,70 Galvanized, 33
SolarVision, Bibliography-1 Glass-lined, 31, 32, 190, 221,
Solder, D-2, D-3
Operation, 25 Manways, 141,190
Troubleshooting, 129, 130 Phenolic resin-lined, 30, 33, 191
Repair, 147, 150, 151, 155-157, Stone-lined, 30, 32, 33, 190, D-3
174,178,189,191 Teflon, 27,93, 154, 156, 177, 191, 210,
Maintenance, 209, 210 221, E-1
Inventory, C-3 Temperature and pressure relief valves,
Solderless connectors, 189 33, 36, 37, 74, 192, 221, 224,
Solenoid valves, 18, 44, 45 C-5, D-2
Spool valves, 45 Tempering valves, 73, 109, 130, 210,
Squeaking, in pumps 110 C-5
Stainless steel, 13, E-1 TempTrak, 87, 119
Staples, 90, 112, 154, 189, C-3 Terralite, 149
Steel, E-1 Thermafin, 149
Stewart-Hall, 171 Thermistors, 51, 52, 55, 69, 228
Storage tanks, Thermometers, 34, 55, 56, 67, 131,
Operation, 1, 6-9, 11, 12, 14-17, 132,139,157,158,186
26-33, 36, 46, 50 Thermosiphoning,
Inspection, 74,93, 94, 97, 101 In closed loop systems, 15, 34,
Troubleshooting, 108-111,131, 45, 109,130, 131
132 Water heating systems, 18, 19
Repair, 141, 190-195 Thermostats, see Controls
Maintenance, 220,221 Toxicity, 27, 81, 171, 215
Flow rates and volumes, B-2, Tube-in-tube heat exchangers, 28
INDEX Index-6
Waterproofing,
Ultraviolet radiation, 48, 69,71, 72, 73, Inspection, 69,71,72,95
143,154,208,209 Troubleshooting, 111
Unglazed collectors, 2,23, B-2 Maintenance, 170,208,209, 223
Unsoldering, 147,156,178,210 WATSCO, D-2.
Urethane, 48, 50 Watts Regulator Company, D-2
U.S. Solar, 150 Weep holes, 64, 65, 66, 110, 144, 145,
203,205
Vacuum breakers, 33,46,122, Welding, 160, 167, 173-175, 191
Valves, Western Solar, 149
Operation, 9, 13-18, 27, 33-38, Wicking, 164
40, 42, 44-46,53 Wiring,
Inspection, 68, 71, 73-76, 78,80, Operation, 52
93,96,97 Inspection, 66, 67, 69, 75,85,
Troubleshooting, 108-110, 121, 89, 90, 93, 95, 97
123,124,127,129,130,131 Troubleshooting, 105, 109-112,
Repair, 138, 139, 141, 149, 152, 115,131
156-160, 162, 163, 170, 177-182 Repair, 140, 141, 152-154, 163,
184,186, 191-193 187-190, 193
Maintenance, 208, 210-212, 217, Maintenance, 206-208, 212, 217,
220-225 218-220,222-224
Inventory, C-5, Inventory, C-2-C-4
Suppliers, D-1, D-2
Vaughn Corporation, D-3 Young Radiator Company, D-2
Vents, air, automatic and manual,
Operation, 33, 41, 42, 43, 46 Zerk fittings, 165, 213
Inspection, 68, 69,70 Zinc, 26, 33, 129, 144, 204
Troubleshooting, 108, 109, 110,
120,122,129
Repair, 161,162, 182, 184
Suppliers, D-1, D-2
Viton, 27, E-1
Volutes, of pumps, 80, 124, 139, 164,
167,168,170
Water,
Acidic, 126
City, E-1
Hardness, 81,83, 127,216
Loop, E-1
Potable, 24, 26, 27, 40, 81, 120,
171,214,215
Index-7

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Deputy Commander for

AMENDMENT AMENDMENT POST DATE POSTED BY

6. Preventive Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . 201

Appendix A. Standardized System Designs. . . . . . . A-1

Figure 2-1: A Piping Loop . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Figure 3-1 : Condensation on a Collector Glazing 63

Figure 5-1: Carrying Glass Properly . . . . . . . . 142

Figure 6-1: Condensation and Outgassing . . . . . . 202

Figure A-1 Closed-loop System . . . . . . . . . A-2

Table 2-1: Pump Application Guide . . . . . . . . . 24

Table 3-1: Current Readings and Pump Problems.. . . . . 80

Table 5-1: Typical Repair/Replace Choices . . . . . . 138

Table B-1: Suggested Flow Rates for Solar Applications . . . B-2

What You Will Find in This Chapter

1.1 PURPOSE OF THIS MANUAL

This manual provides information on the operation, inspection, troubleshooting,

o How does it work? (Operation)

This manual is designed to be used in the field by staff

1.2 SCOPE OF THIS MANUAL

Chapters of this manual are:

System design is not specifically addressed. However, it cannot be completely

It is recommended that the completed worksheets be three-hole punched and

1.3.4 Appendices. The manual contains six Appendices. Appendices A and

Valuable information on tools, spare parts and parts suppliers is contained in

1.3.5 Notes. Cautions and Warnings. Boxes containing notes, cautions

CAUTIONS draw attention to the possibility of equipment damage if the instructions

What You Will Find in This Chapter:

2.1 BASIC SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

2.1.1 Definition of Loops. Frequent reference is made to different piping

A recirculating DHW system is an example of an open loop. The water changes on

Most collectors have

Domestic Hot Water

Process Water Heating

The two basic types of “traditional” space heating systems are:

Another way to provide back-up is to install a mechanical or electrical chiller, in

Notice that both types

Swimming Pool Heating

Closed-loop systems use a relatively small pump to move a non-freezing fluid

The fluid falling down

The pump circulating water must be of bronze or stainless steel construction, to

Because collectors in a closed-loop system do not need to drain themselves on a

2.3 BASIC CONFIGURATION OF DRAINBACK SYSTEMS

2.4 BASIC CONFIGURATION OF DRAINDOWN SYSTEMS

2.5 BASIC CONFIGURATION OF THERMOSIPHON SYSTEMS

2.6 BASIC CONFIGURATION OF INTEGRATED COLLECTOR-STORAGE

2.7.1 Solar Collectors. Because of the effects of the earth’s atmosphere,

SINGLE WALL DOUBLE WALL

TABLE 2-1: Pump Application Guide

Application Typical Choice