3.

Basic principles of solar geometry

Petros Axaopoulos TEI of Athens Greece

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, readers will be able to:

understand the sun-earth geometry and the basic solar geometry angles
perform various calculations between solar angles
distinguish the difference between solar and local time
define the position of the sun in relation to the earth
explain the diurnal and annual apparent path of the sun’s motion
calculate the solar incidence angle for a plane oriented and tilted arbitrarily
relative to the earth

This chapter describes the sun-earth geometry and how it can be used to define the
position of the sun in relation to the earth. For the solar energy applications, it is
important to understand the apparent motion of the sun, as well as the sun-earth
angles. Understanding this mechanism will be of importance in the following
chapters, which include elementary notions of astronomy. Thus, the emphasis is on
the notions and terms that concern the sun-earth angles and their interrelationships,
which are of high importance in solar geometry.

3.1 The Earth’s rotation

The earth rotates around its own axis, known as the Polar Axis P P' (Fig. 3.1). The
points at which this axis intercepts the earth are the north (Np) and the south (Sp)
poles. The great circle EΙWΙ' normal to this axis is called equator and the plane
containing the equator is the equatorial plane that divides the earth in northern and
southern hemisphere. The great circle ESWN normal to the axis ZZ' is called horizon.
The position of the sun in the sky varies throughout the day and season due to the
rotation of the earth around its axis once per day. Similarly, it changes its elliptical
orbit around the sun, once per year, with the sun at one focus of the ellipse (Fig.
3.2).

1
 Ζ
Π

Ι
Α

Β Ν

∆
I’

Π’
Z’

Figure 3.1 Horizon and equatorial plane

Figure 3.2 Rotation of the earth around its axis and its elliptical orbit around the sun

The plane containing the earth’s elliptical orbit is called the ecliptic plane. The

2
seasons are due to the fact that the earth’s axis, which is perpendicular to the
equatorial plane, is inclined with respect to the ecliptic plane (Figure. 3.3).

Figure 3.3 Equatorial and ecliptic plane

Also, ecliptic can be defined as the apparent path of the sun’s motion on the celestial
sphere as seen from earth. The points γγ΄ the ecliptic plane intersects the equatorial
plane of the celestial sphere are called equinoxes. These points determine the dates
that have 12 hours each of daylight and dark. The most northern excursion of the
sun is called the summer solstice and will have the longest amount of daylight. The
winter solstice opposite is the shortest period of daylight.

The solar radiation received at different latitudes and in different seasons varies
because the axis of rotation of the earth is not perpendicular to the ecliptic plane,
but inclined at a fixed angle of 23.45° (Fig. 3.3). Thus, the solar radiation strikes the
earth’s Northern hemisphere more directly near the summer solstice, explaining the
summer in that hemisphere during that period of the year. At the same time, solar
radiation is striking the earth’s southern hemisphere more obliquely, explaining the
winter in that region. Figure 3.2 shows that in the summer solstice, the Earth is
positioned in its orbit so that the North Pole is tilted 23.45° toward the sun, while in
the winter solstice the South Pole is tilted 23.45° toward the sun. During autumn and
vernal equinox neither Pole is tilted toward the sun.

3.2 Longitude and Latitude

3
The geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system that enables every location
on the Earth to be specified via two angles, the longitude (L) and the latitude (φ).
The reference plane is the equatorial plane that is perpendicular to the rotation axis
and intersecting the surface of the Earth along the equator. Circles intersecting
Earth's surface parallel to the equator determine the latitude. The latitude is defined
as the angle between the equatorial plane and a line from the earth's centre and a
location (T) on the surface of the earth. By definition the latitude is positive in the
northern hemisphere and negative in the southern hemisphere.
For the determination of the longitude, one needs a plane perpendicular to the
equator including the rotational axis. This plane will create a circle of intersection, or
two half circles going from one pole to the other named meridians.
The zero longitude is by definition the meridian passing through Greenwich, UK. The
longitude of any location is determined by the angle between the zero meridian and
the meridian passing through the location, with positive values for locations west of
Greenwich and negative values for locations east of Greenwich. Sometimes, the
West/East suffix is used after the value of longitude. These definitions are illustrated
in Fig. 3.4.

T
G

Γ φ
I’ I

µεσηµβρινός µεσηµβρινός
του Greenwich Π’ του τόπου Τ

Figure 3.4 Latitude φ and longitude L for a location T.

3.3 Basic solar geometry angles

In order to determine the basic solar geometry angles, a basic assumption is that the
stars, including the sun, are attached on the surface of the celestial sphere. This
imaginary sphere has an arbitrary radius and its centre depends on the different co-
ordinate systems. The radius is at sufficiently large distance from the earth, so the

4
location of the sun and other stars can be seen as single points. The centre of the
sphere coincides with the position of the observer in the horizontal system while in
the equatorial system coincides with the centre of the earth. Depending on the
system, the position of a point moving on the surface of the celestial sphere can be
specified if two angles are known. This simple model helps in understanding the
diurnal and annual apparent motions as illustrated in Figure 3.5.

In the horizontal system, the reference plane is the horizon of the observer. This
plane intersects the celestial sphere in the horizon. The intersection of the normal on
this plane and the celestial sphere is called the Zenith (Z). In this co-ordinate system
the position of the sun in the celestial sphere is determined by two angles, the solar
altitude angle (h) and the solar azimuth angle (α).

Solar altitude is the angle made by the line joining the centres of the sun and the
observer with its projection along the horizontal plane ranging from -90° to +90°. The
solar altitude is positive when the Sun is above the horizon, negative when the Sun is
below it. The distance to the Zenith is the complement of the altitude angle and is
called zenith angle (θΖ), which is given by

θΖ = 90° - h (3.1)

The solar azimuth (α) is the angular distance between due south and the horizontal
projection of the sun’s rays. A positive solar azimuth angle indicates a position east
of south and a negative azimuth angle indicates west of south. It is measured from
due south in the Northern Hemisphere and from due north in the southern
hemisphere. Solar altitude and azimuth angles can be calculated from simple
spherical trigonometry equations [1].
Z
90-φ
Π ω 180
-α
90 90-h
-δ
I
A H
ω
δ
h K
B N

α
∆ Λ
I’

Π’
Z’
Figure 3.5 The celestial sphere

5
In the equatorial system the reference plane is the equator. The two angles for the
determination of the position of the sun on the celestial sphere at any time are the
solar declination angle (δ) and the hour angle (ω).

Solar declination is the angle between the rays of the sun and the plane of the
earth's equator. It varies by an angle of up to ± 23° 27' (±23.45°).
This variation causes the changing seasons, with their unequal period of daylight and
darkness. The solar declination reaches its maximum value, (+23.45°) in June 21.
This day is called summer solstice in the northern hemisphere and winter solstice in
the southern hemisphere. During the summer solstice, all locations north of the
equator have day lengths greater than twelve hours, while all locations south of the
equator have day lengths less than twelve hours. The minimum value, (-23.45°) is
reached in December 20. This day marks the winter solstice in the northern
hemisphere and summer solstice in the southern hemisphere. During the winter
solstice, all locations north of the equator have day lengths less than twelve hours,
while all locations south of the equator have day lengths greater than twelve hours.
The declination is zero at the vernal equinox (March 21) and at the autumnal
equinox (September 22). During these days, the day lengths, regardless of latitude,
are exactly 12 hours.

Figure 3.6 Solar declination angle for a year

The declination can be assumed to be constant (as it changes ~ 0.5 deg or less) over
a period of day. In Fig. 3.6 this angle is shown in degrees for four characteristic days
of the year.
The declination, in degrees, for any given day may be approximately calculated by
the following equation [2] :

6
  284 + n 
δ = 23.45sin360( ) (3.2)
 365 

where n is the day of the year.

The solar declination depends on the day of the year. However, if monthly mean
values are required, the recommended day of the month for which the declination is
closest to the monthly averaged declination has to be used (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1 Recommended average day of each month and corresponding day of the
year, with monthly mean value.

Month Date Day of the Solar

year declination
Jan. 17 17 -20.9
Feb. 16 47 -13.0
Mar. 16 75 -2.4
Apr. 15 105 9.4
May 15 135 18.8
June 11 162 23.1
July 17 198 21.2
Aug. 16 228 13.5
Sep. 15 258 2.2
Oct. 15 288 -9.6
Nov. 14 318 -18.9
Dec. 10 344 -23.0

Solar hour angle (ω) is the angular distance between the hour circle of the sun and
the local's meridian. To an observer on earth the sun appears to move around the
earth by the rate of 3600 in 24 h or 15o per hour. The hour angle is defined as zero at
local solar noon, the later being the time of day when the sun's altitude angle is at its
greatest. The hour angle decreases by 150 for each hour before local solar noon and
increases by 150 for each hour after solar noon. In other words the hour angle is set
as positive after solar noon and negative before solar noon. In calculating the hour
angle it is important to use solar time (section 3.5) and not clock time.

Example 3.1
At Athens-Greece (φ = 37° 58΄), what is the solar declination on February 15?

Solution
On February 15, n = 46 and from equation 3.2:

 284 + 46 
δ = 23.45sin  360  = −13.29
0

 365 

7
Example 3.2
Calculate the solar hour angle at 09.00 and 13.00 solar time.

Solution
According to the definition of hour angle its value at 09.00 will be :
ω = 15 ⋅ ( 9 − 12 ) = −450
Also, at 13.00 solar time we have:
ω = 15 ⋅ (13 − 12 ) = 150

3.3.1 Determination of solar angles

The astronomical spherical triangle PNZH, relative to the earth's coordinates is shown
shaded in Fig., 3.5 where sides are labelled.

The law of cosines, for this spherical triangle gives the following expression for the
cosine of zenith angle.

cos( 90 - h ) = cos( 90 - δ) cos( 90 - φ) + sin( 90 - δ ) sin( 90 - φ) cos ω (3.3)

or
sinh = sin δ sin φ + cos δ cos φ cos ω (3.4)

By definition of θz (equation (3.1)) the above can be written

cos θ Ζ = sin δ sin φ + cos δ cos φ cos ω (3.5)

At solar noon, in the Northern Hemisphere the hour angle (ω) is equal to zero and
equation (3.4) gives
(3.6)
sinh max = cos(φ - δ)
or (3.7)
h max = 90 - φ - δ

The sunrise and sunset hour angles (ωs), for horizontal surface, are given by setting
the solar altitude angle h of equation (3.4) equal to zero.

cos φ cos δ cos ωs = - sin φ sin δ (3.8)

cos ωs = -tanφ tan δ (3.9)

Solving equation (3.9) for ωs , if -1≤ - tanφtanδ≤+1 gives

(3.10)
ωs = ± arccos( - tan φ tan δ)

a positive sign corresponds to sunset and a negative sign to sunrise.

8
In the case where (- tanφtanδ) < -1 then the sun never sets on that day (Polar
summer), and when (- tanφtanδ) > 1 then the sun never rises on that day (Polar
winter). Also, in the case where (- tanφtanδ) = ±1 then the sun is on the horizon for
an instant only.
The day length in hours is given by:
2 ωs (3.11)
Day length =
15

By applying the rule of sinus to the spherical triangle PNZH, we have

sin(90 - h ) sin(90 - δ) (3.12)

=
sin ω sin(180 - α)

or
cosh cos δ (3.13)
=
sin ω sin α

or

cos δ sin ω
sin α = (3.14)
cosh
The azimuths of the sunrise and sunset may be obtained from equation (3.14) by
setting the solar altitude h to zero and by substituting the values of ωs to ω we have:

sin δ
cos α = − (3.15)
cos φ
In this case there are two solutions for the morning and two for the afternoon. The
correct solutions will be selected such that when the declination is positive the sun
rises and sets north of the east-west line, and when is zero it rises due east and sets
due west, and when is negative, it rises and sets south of the east-west line.

An application of the apparent sun paths for Athens (Greece), is given graphically
directly below.

Figure 3.7 shows the apparent sun’s path across the sky for Athens (Greece) and the
relative location of sunrise and sunset, for winter solstice (Fig. 3.7a), equinoxes (Fig.
3.7b), and summer solstice (3.7c). Also the solar altitude angle at solar noon is
indicated in each Figure. It should be noted that, during the equinoxes the sun rises
due east and sets due west as shown in Figure 3.7b, and the day length is equal to
the night length. Between the vernal and autumnal equinoxes the sun rises and sets
to the north of east - west line, the day length is longer and at solar noon of the
summer solstice the solar altitude reaches its maximum value (Figure. 3.7c). Between
the autumnal and vernal equinox the sun rises and sets to the south of east - west

9
line, the day length is shorter and at solar noon of the winter solstice the solar
altitude reaches its minimum value throughout the year (Figure. 3.7a).

For the graphical representation of the apparent motion of the sun on the celestial
vault, for each day of the year, and for a given location, a software program can be
used [3].

δύση

o
28.55
Ν Β

ανατολή

Figure 3.7a Apparent sun’s path for winter solstice (Athens- Greece)

10
 ∆

δύση

o
55
Ν Β

ανατολή

Figure 3.7b Apparent sun’s path for equinoxes (Athens- Greece)

δύση

o
75.45
Ν Β

ανατολή

Figure 3.7c Apparent sun’s path for summer solstice (Athens- Greece)
Example 3.3
Calculate the solar azimuth angle at Athens-Greece (φ = 370 58΄), on February 25 at

11
14.00 solar time.

Solution
On February 25, n = 56 and from equation 3.2:

 284 + 56 
δ = 23.45sin  360  = −9.78
0

 365 
The hour angle ω, is:

ω = 15 ⋅ (14 − 12 ) = 300

From equation 3.4 the solar altitude angle (h) is :

sinh = sin(-9.78)sin37.97+cos(-9.78)cos39.97cos30 = 0.57

or h = 34.630

The solar azimuth angle can be calculated with equation 3.14:

cos ( −9.78 ) sin 30
sin a = = 0.60
cos 34.63

or α = 36.790

Example 3.4
Calculate the zenith angle of the sun at Athens-Greece (φ = 37° 58΄) at solar noon on
July 20.

Solution
On July 20, n = 201 and from equation 3.2:

 284 + 201 
δ = 23.45sin  360  = 20.64
0

 365 
At solar noon the solar altitude angle is given by equation 3.7:

hmax = 90-(37.97-20.64) = 72.67 0

Thus the zenith angle of the sun at solar noon is given by equation 3.1:

θΖ = 90-72.67 = 17.330

3.4 Solar Incidence Angle

The solar incidence angle is very useful, as it allows a relatively simple calculation of
the radiation incident on a surface. The angular relationships between the direct
solar radiation incident on a plane, such as a wall surface or glazing area, oriented
arbitrarily relative to the earth can be described in terms of several angles. These

12
angles are illustrated in Figure 3.8. The orientation and the tilt of the surface is
determined with two angles respectively: the surface azimuth angle (γ) and the slope
(β).
Surface azimuth angle is the angle between the south and the projection of the
surface normal in the horizontal plane. This angle is taken positive if the normal is
west of south and negative if east of south.
Slope is the angle at which the surface is inclined from horizontal and is taken
positive for south-facing surfaces.
Also, the position of the sun relative to the surface can be expressed using the solar
incident angle (θ).
Solar incident angle is the angle between the surface’s normal and the sun's rays.
The interrelationships of the previous defined angles can be calculated from simple
spherical trigonometry equations, applying the rule of cosines to the spherical
triangle HKC. The angle of incidence of beam radiation on a surface can be related by
a general equation to the slope of the surface, the solar zenith angle, the solar
azimuth angle and the surface azimuth angle. In Figure 3.8, KO is the normal to
horizontal surface, CO is the normal to inclined surface and OZ is the horizontal
projection of the normal to inclined surface and applying the rule of cosines to the
spherical triangle HKC, we have
cos θ = cos β cos θ Z + sin β sin θz cos(α − γ ) (3.16)

Figure 3.8 Various sun – earth angles for a tilted surface.

In the case of an inclined surface, the hour angle at sunrise or sunset ωst, may be less

13
than the value given by equation (3.10), if the corresponding incidence angle is
greater than 90°. For such a situation the hour angle ωst can be found by modifying
equation (3.16), taking into account the equations (3.5) and (3.14).
Therefore, the incidence angle in terms of the latitude, slope, declination and hour
angle is given by:

cos θ = sin δ (sin φ cos β − cos φ sin β cos γ )

(3.17)
+ cos δ cos ω (cos φ cos β + sin φ sin β cos γ ) + cos δ sin β sin γ sin ω

If the surface is facing the equator (γ = 0), equation (3.17) gives:

cos θ = sin δ (sin φ cos β − cos φ sin β ) + cos δ cos ω (cos φ cos β + sin φ sin β ) (3.18)
or
cos θ = sin(φ − β )sin δ + cos(φ − β ) cos δ cos ω (3.19)

Comparing the above equation (3.19) to the solar zenith angle of equation (3.5),
results that a south – facing surface has an effective latitude of (φ-β).
Finally, the sunrise or sunset hour angles ωst for an inclined surface are obtained by
putting θ = 90° in equation (3.19) and solving for ω.

ωs t = ± arccos(- tan(φ − β ) tan δ ) (3.20)

However, since ωst cannot have values greater than ωs, the complete equation for
ωst is given by:

ωs t = min{ωs , arccos(- tan(φ − β ) tan δ )}

'
(3.21)

The sunrise (ω΄sr) and sunset (ω΄ss) angles for an inclined surface that does not face
due south, will not be symmetrical about solar noon and may be obtained from
equation 3.17 by setting the incidence angle θ = 90°. This solution gives two values
for ω depending on the surface orientation [4].

For γ<0
  a ⋅ b − ( a 2 − b 2 + 1)  
 −1   
ωsr′ = − min ωs , cos (3.22)
  a +1
2

   

  a ⋅ b + ( a 2 − b 2 + 1)  
 −1   
ωss′ = min ωs , cos (3.23)
  a +1
2

   
For γ>0

14
   a ⋅ b + ( a 2 − b 2 + 1)  
 −1   
ωsr′ = − min ωs , cos (3.24)
  a +1
2

   

  a ⋅ b − ( a 2 − b 2 + 1)  
 −1   
ωss′ = min ωs , cos (3.25)
  a +1
2

   

where:
cos φ sin φ
a= + (3.26)
sin γ tan β tan γ

 cos φ sin φ 
b = tan δ  −  (3.27)
 tan γ sin γ tan β 

The “min” in the equations 3.22 – 3.25, means the smaller of the two items in the
brackets. Also, for the above equations, it is assumed that the surface azimuth angle
is measured from due south positive westward and negative eastward.

All the previous defined angles are useful in solar radiation calculations. The angle of
incidence of direct solar radiation determines the intensity of the direct component
striking the surface and the ability of the surface to reflect, transmit, or absorb solar
radiation. Knowledge of this component is necessary for determining the total solar
radiation on inclined surfaces.

Example 3.5
Calculate the angle of incidence for a flat plate solar collector that faces 14° west of
south and has a slope of 400 in Athens-Greece (φ = 37° 58΄) on May 20 at 13.00 h
solar time.

Solution
On May 20, n = 140 and from equation 3.2:

 284 + 140 
δ = 23.45sin  360  = 19.93
0

 365 
The hour angle ω, is:
ω = 15 ⋅ (13 − 12 ) = 150
From equation 3.17 we have:

cos θ = sin19.93(sin 37.97 cos 40 − cos 37.97 sin 40 cos14)

+ cos19.93cos15(cos 37.97 cos 40 + sin 37.97 sin 40 cos14)
+ cos19.93sin 40 sin14sin15 = 0.943

15
Hence, the angle of incidence for the solar collector is θ = 19.42°

Example 3.6
A south – facing flat plate solar collector is located in Athens - Greece (φ = 37° 58΄)
with a slope of 45°. Calculate the solar time of sunset for this collector on September
14.
Solution
On September 14, n = 257 and from equation 3.2:

 284 + 257 
δ = 23.45sin  360  = 2.62
0

 365 
From equation 3.10, we have:

ωs = arccos(- tan 37.97 tan 2.62) = 92.050

and from equation 3.21:

arccos(- tan(37.97 − 45) tan 2.62) = 89.680

According to equation 3.21 the solar sunset angle on the collector is the smaller of
the two calculated values. Hence, the solar sunset angle on the collector is 89.680
and the solar time for sunset is at 17.98 h.

Example 3.7
A flat plate solar collector is located in Athens - Greece (φ = 37° 58΄) with a slope of
60° and facing 20° east of south. Calculate the day length that the sun shines on this
collector on October 14.
Solution
On October 14, n = 287 and from equation 3.2:

 284 + 287 
δ = 23.45sin  360  = − 9.23
0

 365 
Since the collector does not face due south, from equations 3.26 and 3.27 we have:

cos 37.97 sin 37.97

a= + = - 3.02
sin(−20) tan 60 tan(−20)

 cos 37.97 sin 37.97 

b = tan(−9.23) ⋅  −  = 0.18
 tan(−20) sin(−20) tan 60 

Using equation 3.10, we have:

ωs = ± arccos(- tan 37.97 tan − 9.23) = 82.710

Since γ<0 the sunrise ( ωsr′ ) and sunset ( ωss′ ) hour angles for the collector are given by
equations 3.22 and 3.23 respectively.

16
   −3.02 ⋅ 0.18 − ( 3.022 − 0.182 + 1)  
 −1    = − min {82.710 ,111.560 }
ωsr′ = − min ωs , cos
  3.02 + 1
2

   
  −3.02 ⋅ 0.18 + ( 3.022 − 0.182 + 1)  
 −1    = min {82.710 , 74.920 }
ωss′ = min ωs , cos
  3.02 + 1
2

   

Thus, the sunrise and sunset hour angles on the inclined collector are - 82.71° and
74.92° respectively. Finally, the day length for the collector is 10.51 hours, while for
horizontal surface is 11.03 hours.

3.5 Solar Time

Time specific to the sun does not coincide with local clock time for two reasons. The
first is the changes in the rotational and orbital angular speed of the earth. This
correction called the equation of time (ET), and can be determined approximately
from Figure 3.9 or can be expressed [5] in equation form (in minutes) as:
ET = 229.2(0.000075 + 0.001868 cos B − 0.032077 sin B − 0.014615 cos 2 B − 0.04089 sin 2 B ) (3.28)

360
where B = ( n − 1) and n is the day of the year.
365

15
minp

10

5
of Time
Equation Χρόνου

0
Εξίσωση

-5

-10

-15
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Months
Μήνες

Figure 3.9 The equation of time (ET) as a function of time of year

17
The second is the difference in longitude between the location (Lloc) and the
meridian with which the standard time is based (Lst). This correction has a magnitude
of 4 minutes for every degree difference in longitude. In many countries, clocks are
advanced one hour beyond Standard Time in summer; such time is called Daylight
Savings Time (C). Thus, the solar time can be written as:

Solar Time = Standard Time +ET± 4(Lst – Lloc) + C (3.29)

where Lst is the standard meridian for the local time zone, Lloc is the longitude of the
location and ET is the equation of time [6]. A local time zone is a region of the earth
that has adopted the same standard time. Standard time zones can be defined by
geometrically subdividing the surface of the Earth into 24 zones, bordered by
meridians each 15° of longitude in width. For example, the standard meridian for
Italy is 15° and for Greece is 30°. Daylight Savings Time correction C is equal to zero
if not on Daylight Savings Time, otherwise C is equal to the number of hours that the
time is advanced for Daylight Savings Time, usually 1hr.

Note that all the terms in the above equation must be converted to minutes. The
positive sign in the third term of this equation is for places West of Greenwich while
the negative sign is for places East of Greenwich.

Example 3.8
Calculate a) the local time of sunset in Athens-Greece (φ = 37° 58΄, L= 23° 43΄) on
April 19 if C = 0 and b) the day length for this day.

Solution
a) On April 19, n = 109 and from equation 3.2:

 284 + 109 
δ = 23.45sin  360  = 10.9
0

 365 
The sunrise and sunset hour angles (ωs), are given by equation 3.10:

ωs = arccos(- tan 37.97 tan10.9) = 98.640 = 6.58 h

Therefore, sunset is at 6.58 h solar time.

From equation 3.28 the time correction on April 19 is 0.765 min. Therefore,
rearranging equation 3.29 we have:
Local standard time = 394.8 – 0.765 + 4(30 - 23.72) = 419.2 min ≈ 7.0 h

Hence, sunset is at 19.00 h local standard time.

b) From equation 3.11 the day length is:

2 ⋅ 98.64
Day length = = 13.15 h
15

References

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[1] Braun J. E. and J. C. Mitchell. 1983. “Solar geometry for fixed and tracking surfaces” Solar Energy,
31, 439-444.
[2] Cooper, P.I. 1969. “The absorption of radiation in solar stills” Solar Energy, 12, 333- 346.
[3] Axaopoulos P. and G. Pitsilis. 2007. “Energy software programs for educational use” Renewable
Energy 32, 1045 - 1058.
[4] Klein S.A. 1977. “Calculation of monthly average insolation on tilted surfaces” Solar Energy 19,
325-329.
[5] Duffie, J. A. and W. A. Beckman. 2006. “Solar Engineering of thermal Processes” John Wiley &
Sons,Inc.
[6] ASHRAE. 1989. Handbook of Fundamentals. Atlanta GA. ASHRAE.

Additional Reading
Achard, P. and R. Gicquel. 1986. “European Passive Solar Handbook”. CEC DG XII.
Bernard, R., G. Menguy, M. Schwartz. 1980. Le Rayonnement solaire. Conversion thermique et
applications. 2e edition, Technique & Documentation Lavoisier.
Coulson K. L. 1975. “ Solar and Terrestrial Radiation”. Academic Press, New York.
Iqbal, M. 1983. “An introduction to Solar Radiation”. Academic Press, Toronto.
Sfeir A. A. and G. Guarracino. 1981. “Ingenierie des systemes solaires” Technique & Documentation.
Astronomical data from the U.S. Naval observatory at http://aa.usno.navy.mil/AA/ NASA's Space
Science Data System at http://ssds.nasa.gov/
http://image.gsfc.nasa.gov/poetry/ask/askmag.html#list

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