Shumow – First Amendment Outline

FIRST AMENDMENT OUTLINE

I. SUPPRESSION OF DANGEROUS IDEAS & INFORMATION

A. SUBVERSIVE ADVOCACY
I. ESPIONAGE CASES
1. Espionage Act of 1917 – crime to willfully obstruct the
recruiting or enlistment of US military
2. Schaffer (20) – Court use BAD TENDANCY TEST to
determine probable bad tendency of decreasing enlistment
when defendant mailed book of seditious utterances.
A. If the incited activity has the tendency to lead to a
substantial evil, the government may regulate the
incitement.
3. Masses (21) – J. Hand draws a distinction between MERE
ADVOCACY OF IDEAS AND EXPRESS
INCITEMENT
4. Schenk (24) – J. Holmes rejects Blackstone’s ban on only
prior restraints in favor of CLEAR AND PRESENT
DANGER TEST, which is just trotted out and not
explained. It looks a lot like bad tendency test, but it was
intended to be more protective
A. Whether the words used in the particular
circumstance will bring about a clear and present
danger of evils Congress has the right to prevent.
II. DISSENTING TRADITION
1. Abrams (30) – Russian immigrants call for general strike of
the proletariat. Conviction upheld
A. Dissent (Holmes) – CLEAR AND PRESENT
DANGER test should be used: must be an
imminent danger and the defendant poses no
danger; there must be specific intent to create the
imminent danger.
B. Relies on marketplace of ideas rationale that good
ideas will compete with and beat bad ideas in the
marketplace
2. Gitlow (35) - Left Wing Socialist distributes propaganda
promoting the eventual proletariat uprising that will
overthrow the government. Conviction upheld.
A. Dissent (Holmes): Applies CLEAR AND
PRESENT DANGER TEST to decide that
subversive advocacy is not present – not to happen
immediately.
B. Four categories of speech – measuring “present”
I. Criticizing the government
II. Law-breaking may be necessary
III. Law-breaking will be necessary in the future

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IV. Law-breaking necessary NOW

C. Gitlow is #3 and should be allowed; only #4 should
be barred.
3. Whitney (41) – Moderate Socialist convicted for extreme
wing’s call for uprising. Court held it was not arbitrary use
of police power to convict her.
A. Concurring (Brandeis) – Applies CLEAR AND
PRESENT DANGER TEST to hold that she
should be convicted.
I. Clear – incitement cannot be punished
unless the resulting harm is serious
II. Present – express advocacy cannot be
punished unless it rises to the level of
incitement (category 4 – call to arms now)
III. Rationale for free speech – self-governance
1. Holmes: marketplace/search for truth
IV. Deference – court shouldn’t defer to
economic rights and not defer to
fundamental rights – anti-Lochner
III. FIRST AMENDMENT AS A PREFERENTIAL RIGHT
1. As political rights gained power, capitalism lost power
A. Carolene Products, footnote 4 – end of Lochner-like
deference on economic issues where none existed
for “fundamental rights”
2. SCOTUS invalidated three subversive advocacy
convictions on technical grounds between 1927-1937
A. Shows that the court is willing to take a close look
at the factual record
B. Ensures due process rights for alleged criminals
C. First Amendment (and selected other rights) are tied
to democracy – people have a PREFERENTIAL
RIGHT in the First Amendment
IV. MODERN SUBVERSIVE ADVOCACY – BLACK LETTER LAW
1. Dennis (48) – Leaders of the Communist Party are
convicted of violating the Smith Act (subversive advocacy)
when they promoted the eventual overthrow of
government. Court upholds conviction under WATERED-
DOWN CLEAR & PRESENT DANGER TEST.
A. Learned Hand’s formulation adopted: The gravity of
evil less its improbability must be greater than the
harm caused by invasion of free speech
I. No need to wait until overthrow occurs to
censor the activity; still “imminent”
II. Highly deferential to Congress

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B.Douglas’ dissent: Should have considered the case

on evidentiary grounds, because the overthrow of
the US Government was NOT imminent!
I. Commies are “miserable merchants of
unwanted ideas” – marketplace of ideas
II. Free speech is what defeats Communism –
similar to the Brandeis Concurrence in
Whitney
C. Different from Holmes-Brandeis Clear & Present
Danger Test
I. More deferential
1. Frankfurter concurrence – defer to
Congressional findings on dangers of
Communism
II. No imminence
2. Brandenburg (59) – Leader of KKK convicted for his
message that white separatists will have their “revengence”
on US Government for embracing Blacks and Jews. Per
curiam opinion holds that the conviction was wrong. NEW
TEST: Subversive advocacy must be directed to inciting or
producing imminent lawless activity that is likely to
produce such action
A. Black: Clear & present danger is dead – Dennis
only cited in showing that Gitlow & Whitney are
overturned
B. Douglas: Clear & present danger is dead because its
Dennis version was (1) too malleable and (2)
overregulated speech

Subversive Advocacy – four tests

1. Bad tendency - If the incited activity has the tendency to lead to a substantial
evil, the government may regulate the incitement.
2. Holmes-Brandeis Clear & Present Danger – must be serious (clear) and
imminent (present) danger to regulate the advocacy of speech
CATEGORY FOUR SPEECH ONLY
3. Dennis Clear & Present Danger – The gravity of the harm, discounted by its
improbability, must be greater than the harm of invading speech
ADOPTS L. HAND’S FORMULATION
4. Brandenburg – Must be (1) express advocacy of violation of the law, (2) that
calls for immediate action, and (3) is likely to occur.
SERIOUSNESS IGNORED, but maybe under factor 1

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B. THREATS & PROVOCATION

I. THREATS
1. Bridges (66) – Two cases: (1) Union president threatened to
cripple the West Coast with a strike if the Secretary of
Labor enforced a new law and (2) LA Times Editorial said
it would be a big mistake for elected judges to let off two
“union goons.”
A. Convictions overturned under CLEAR AND
PRESENT DANGER TEST –
I. The substantive evil must be EXTREMELY
SERIOUS and the degree of IMMINENCE
EXTREMELY HIGH before utterances are
punishable
2. Watts (69) – Potential draftee not convicted for saying, if
drafted, he would go after LBJ. Speech is only a hyperbole
if clear & present danger test is satisfied. Here, speech was
not likely nor imminent (neither clear nor present).
II. PROVOCATION
1. Cantwell (Supp. 3) – Jehovah’s Witness was convicted for
selling material on Cassius Street without a license and for
disturbing the peace by playing Judge Rutherford’s records.
SCOTUS overturned the conviction, because the regulation
was OVERBROAD!
A. Speech is too important to hinge on a bureaucrat’s
ability to arbitrarily regulate speech via a license
I. Requiring a license sounds like a prior
restraint
2. Feiner (76) – Man was convicted for breach of peace
during a protest. Conviction upheld under CLEAR AND
PRESENT DANGER TEST.
A. Watered-down version of test: when clear and
present danger of immediate threat to public safety
appears, the State may regulate or prevent the
speech.
B. Dissent: If a police officer is silencing speech, it is
the police officer who is violating the law, not the
speaker.

Threats – clear & present danger test

Threat: An individual (1) intends to communicate a serious expression of a threat
(2) to commit an unlawful act of violence (3) to a particular individual or group of
individuals
True threats: unprotected
Some threats are protected - The substantive evil must be (1) extremely dangerous
and (2) the degree of imminence must be extremely high before the utterances are
punishable.

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Provocation -
Clear and present danger test: when clear and present danger of immediate threat
to public safety appears, the State may regulate or prevent the speech
But that was laid out before Brandenburg factors changed the test.

III.
FIGHTING WORDS
1. Chaplinksy (83) – Jehovah’s Witness convicted for calling
a cop a “goddamned racketeer” under a statute (so
construed by the state courts) to disallow only face-to-face
fighting words.
A. TEST: Government may regulate words that men
of common intelligence would understand to be
words likely to cause an average addressee to fight.
I. Subjective (thus narrower protection)
II. Categorical
B. Fighting words defined: words that (1) inflict injury
and (2) incite an immediate breach of peace merely
by their utterance
2. Gooding (87) – Statute is overbroad on its face, because
state court didn’t limit statute to only face-to-face fighting
words.
3. No conviction upheld under fighting words since
Chaplinsky.
4. Philosophy
A. Posner – lots of conventional ideas today were once
radical
B. Alternate: some speech just shouldn’t be protected
if it neither adds to process of self-government nor
adds to the search for truth
C. CONFIDENTIAL INFORMATION
I. NATIONAL SECURITY (Pentagon Papers)
1. Court refused to grant injunction on NYTimes and WAPost
to prevent them from publishing information about Vietnam
War, because Executive Branch could outlaw the activity in
a more narrow way by outlawing the leaking of
information.
2. In order to grant an injunction, it must be the most narrow
solution possible.
II. PRIVACY (Cox)

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1. Newspaper identified a rape victim based on information

learned in court proceedings. Court refused to prevent or
punish information lawfully obtained and newsworthy.
III. DUE PROCESS (Nebraska Press)
1. Court refused to allow gag order on NE paper to stand,
because (1) prior restraints are disfavored and (2) less
restrictive alternate means exist to prevent leak of
information about multiple murders in NE.
IV. JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION (Landmark)
1. Court refused to punish the press that leaked information
about the state ethics board’s review of “crooked” judges,
because (1) it’s a matter of public concern and (2) it’s
important for people to know whether elected or appointed
judges are corrupt.
V. DANGEROUS TECHNICAL INFORMATION (Progressive)
1. Press allowed to publish instructions on how to make an H-
bomb on technicalities.

FACIAL CHALLENGES – OVERBREADTH, VAGUENESS, & PRIOR RESTRAINT

II. PRIOR RESTRAINT
A. LICENSING
I. Lovell (125) – City statute gave the mayor the decision whether to
allow distribution of literature on city streets. The SCOTUS
invalidated a conviction of Jehovah Witnesses under that statute,
because the statute was overbroad.
1. Licensing is only allowed if there are (1) clear standards by
which to qualify for the license and (2) procedural
safeguards.
B. INJUNCTION
I. Near (131) – MN statute allowed injunction against “malicious,
scandalous, or defamatory” publications. The SCOTUS
invalidated the statute, calling it “the essence of censorship.”
1. Content-based prior restraints are highly disfavored.
C. PROBLEMS WITH PRIOR RESTRAINT
I. Ideas don’t get out
1. Only rationale present in Near
II. Censorship is over-inclusive
III. There’s a lack of standards
1. Problem in Lovell
IV. A censor is more likely to want to censor
V. There’s an absence procedural safeguards
1. Problem in Lovell
III. OVERBREADTH
A. Gooding (113) – GA statute prohibits saying any “abusive words” to other
people. A war protester is convicted for telling a police officer that he

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would cut the officer to pieces. SCOTUS invalidated the conviction,

because it was too broad – can’t cover ALL abusive language.
I. Similar statute to Chaplinsky, except that statute was construed
narrowly by the state courts to cover only fighting words.
B. Definition: accessing constitutionality of a statute by examining the
various forms of speech regulated by the face of the statute regardless of
the criminal’s guilt or innocence
C. Rationale for an Overbreadth Defense
I. First Amendment is so important that the court can root out
constitutional defects in laws
II. The government AND THE ACCUSED needs to protect third
parties possibly chilled by the invalid statute
D. Criticisms
I. Ignores case & controversy clause
II. Let’s guilty go free
III. Little guidance to legislators
IV. VAGUENESS
A. Persons of common intelligence must be able to know what is punishable
under the law before they are punished

Statutes that facially regulate speech must be drawn with precision

NO PRIOR RESTRAINTS – either in licensing (Lovell) or injunction (Near)
NOT OVERBROAD – can’t regulate too much speech (Gooding)
NOT VAGUE – can’t regulate without clear language that allows regulation

V. CONTENT-BASED LOW VALUE SPEECH

A. DEFAMATION
I. FORMS OF DEFAMATION
1. Libel – written
2. Slander - spoken
II. PUBLIC FIGURES
1. New York Times v. Sullivan (140) – Elected AL Police
Commissioner alleged libel for advertising in the NY Times
based on false statements of facts regarding civil rights
violations by “police” under his supervision (though he is
not mentioned by name). SCOTUS reversed judgment,
holding THERE MUST BE ACTUAL MALICE TO
SUSTAIN LIBEL AGAINST A PUBLIC
OFFICIAL/FIGURE.
A. Actual malice manifested either
I. Knowingly false
II. Reckless regard for the truth of the matter
asserted
B. Actual malice is underprotective
I. There is an absolute right to speak

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II.Any ability to curb speech chills robust,

wide-open speech rights
C. Actual malice is overprotective
I. SCOTUS undervalues reputation
II. Maybe chilling false statements isn’t bad!
III. Might drive sensitive people out of politics
IV. Cheapens the First Amendment to extend
Actual Malice too far
D. Applies to public “figures” as well – GA Athletic
Director (Butts) could not claim libel to reputation
when he was accused of rigging a game between
GA and AL unless there is ACTUAL MALICE.
2. Two types of public figures
A. All-purpose
B. Limited purpose
3. Officials as public figures
A. “Major” officials are
B. “Minor” officials are not
I. but this distinction isn’t very helpful in line-
drawing
III. PRIVATE FIGURES
1. Gertz (151) – Publisher accused Gertz of setting up a
murder for which he later defended the family. SCOTUS
held that NYTimes actual malice does not control, because
Gertz is not a public figure. But ACTUAL MALICE IS
REQUIRED FOR PUNITIVE DAMAGES.
A. Each state may create its own standard for
defamation, but it must be a lower standard than
NYTimes’ actual malice.
B. Public figures and public officials have greater
access to channels of communication, so they can
combat false statements more easily.
C. Public figures & officials assume the risk of some
defamation by taking their role in society.
2. Dun & Bradstreet (158) – Plurality of the court decided that
private figures defamed on matters of private concern need
not show actual malice for punitive or compensatory
damages.

Matter of PUBLIC Not a matter of public

CONCERN concern
Public official/figure is Actual Malice (New York (no private life for public
defamed Times v. Sullivan) figures)
Private person is defamed (Limited purpose public Less Than Actual Malice
figure?) (Dun & Bradstreet) – less
than actual malice for both

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punitive & compensatory

damages
Gertz – less than Actual Malice for private individuals (except for punitive damages)

For Defamation, three questions:

1) Is it a public official or figure or is it a private individual? (NYTimes v. Sullivan)
2) If it is a private individual, is the speech on a matter of public concern? (Dun &
Bradstreet)
3) If it is a private individual and the speech is a matter of public concern, are the
requested damages compensatory or punitive? (Gertz, as limited by Dun &
Bradstreet’s plurality by Powell, Rehnquist & O’Connor, concurred by White &
Burger who want to wholly overrule Gertz)

B. COMMERCIAL SPEECH
I. Virginia Pharmacy (169) – SCOTUS invalidated a VA statute that
barred disseminating information about prescription drug prices,
out of fear of the effect on the market. SCOTUS held that
commercial speech is protected under the First Amendment unless
it is false or misleading. (CONTENT-BASED)
1. Blackmun’s new First Amendment rationale: Free Flow of
Information to Sustain an Efficient Market
A. Different than search for truth or self-governance
B. Rehnquist dissents based on the novel rationale
II. Central Hudson (180) – Utility commission allowed utility to
engage in commercial speech where advertising is informational
rather than promotional. SCOTUS invalidated regulation, because
it fails new intermediate scrutiny test:
1. Commercial speech must be lawful, not misleading
2. Government must have a substantial interest in regulating
activity
3. Regulation must directly advance government purpose
4. Regulation must be no more restrictive than necessary
A. Sunni v. Fox: tailoring prong (#4) doesn’t require
least restrictive means but only a “reasonable fit”
B. Posadas (182) – PR legalized gambling, but made it
illegal to advertise gambling. Rehnquist used
“greater includes the lesser” rationale, noting that
PR can prohibit gambling, so they can also prohibit
advertising.
C. 44 Liquormart (184) – Rejects Posadas “greater
includes the lesser” argument.
D. Lorillard (185) – MA statute prohibits advertising
within 1000 feet of public playground. SCOTUS:
the regulation is too geographically broad.
E. Thompson (187) – SCOTUS invalidated Congress’
ban on advertising for compounding drugs, because

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there are available ways to ban large-scale

compounding and protecting speech.
III. Central Hudson intermediate scrutiny test is lower standard than
Virginia Pharmacy, which barred regulation on ANY lawful, non-
misleading advertisements (per Blackmun)
1. Close to strict scrutiny  and thus very protected

Intermediate Scrutiny under Central Hudson:

1. Commercial speech must be lawful, not misleading
2. Government must have a substantial government interest in regulating
the speech.
3. The regulation must directly advance the government interest.
4. The regulation must be a “reasonable fit” (SUNNI)
Regulations tend to fail on this ground, despite Sunni’s deference
(LORILLARD)

C. OBSCENITY
I. GENERALLY
1. DEFINITIONAL
A. Roth (198) – SCOTUS affirmed conviction of man
who mailed a publication with erotic literature
inside, because the publication taken as a whole
appeals to the prurient interests of the average
person, under community standards.
B. Memoirs – Obscene material (1) has a dominant
theme as a whole that appeals to the prurient
interests (2) is patently offensive the community,
and (3) with “utterly without redeeming social
value”
C. Stanley – you can watch porn when you’re alone in
your own living room
D. Miller (206) – SCOTUS reversed conviction for
Miller who sent unsolicited ads of illustrated sex
acts.
I. Whether the material as a whole appeals to
the prurient interest of the average person,
considering community standards
1. Must be turned on
2. Local, subjective standard
II. Whether the work depicts sexual conduct in
a patently offensive way
1. Must be grossed out
2. Local subjective standard
III. Taken as a whole, the work lacks serious
literary, artistic, political, or scientific value
1. National, objective standard

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E. Paris Adult Theatre (209) – SCOTUS held there’s a

substantial government interest in stemming the tide
which has an “arguable correlation” to the
government interest of stemming the tide of
commercialized obscenity.
2. SUPPRESSIVE
A. Now that “obscenity” is defined in Miller, the
question is how much suppression of obscenity is
allowed.
II. CHILD PORN
1. Ferber (218) – Adult bookstore sold videos of boys
masturbating. Court categorically excluded child porn
from Miller Test. Instead, no child porn allowed – unless
actor is young-looking adult or made of clay or something
like that.
A. Sale makes it more likely that children will be used
in child porn.
B. Child porn is abusive to children.
C. Prosecuting possession of child porn will dry up the
market.
2. Free Speech Coalition (221) – Congress outlawed having
of-age actors who look younger, but the SCOTUS
invalidated the law because it went beyond Ferber.
A. No harm to children under these facts.
B. Erotic themes with children is motif in literature –
Romeo & Juliet.
D. INDECENT SPEECH
I. GENERALLY
1. Cohen (225) – Cohen convicted for disturbing the peace
with offensive conduct when he only wore a jacket that said
“Fuck the Draft” inside a courthouse in protest of the
Vietnam War. SCOTUS denied the conviction, relying on
self-governance rationale.
A. Not libel, fighting words, hostile
audience/incitement, obscenity
B. Captive audience – people are trapped and cannot
leave, such that your freedom of speech infringes on
their privacy
I. Here, people can simple “avert their eyes” –
no captive audience problem
C. “One man’s vulgarity is another man’s lyric”
2. Erznoznik (232) – SCOTUS invalidated Jacksonville’s
ordinance banning drive-in theatres from showing nudie
movies, because the law was too broad to fulfill the
government interest of protecting the public from offensive
materials.

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A.Lots is offensive besides nudity.

3. Pacifica (233) – SCOTUS allowed FCC to regulate when
radio station could play Carlin’s “Seven Dirty Words” bit
by AD HOC BALANCING.
A. One man’s lyric is another man’s vulgarity (inverse
of Cohen)
B. Impossible to “avert eyes” after hearing it – but this
conflicts with Cohen’s captive audience rejection
II. ZONING & NUDE DANCING
1. Young (246) – Detroit restricts adult theatres by zoning
regulations. SCOTUS allows since porn houses are low
value speech, even though it’s content-based speech.
2. Renton (251) – Ordinance prohibited adult theatres due to
the secondary effects of the theatres. SCOTUS considered
the regulation content neutral since it was based on the
secondary effects and allowed the ordinance to stand.
A. Affirmed by Alameda (253)
I. Four justice dissent calls this “content
correlated” not content neutral or content
based
E. HATE SPEECH
I. Defined: “Speech that is so offensive to particular and discreet
groups with such a history as to treat the speech differently
1. Handicaps marketplace of ideas (since not all are equal)
2. Recognizes injuries associated with speech (as with
fighting words)
3. Slight social value to speech
II. Beauharnais (255) – SCOTUS upheld conviction of White Circle
League president for group libel when he promoted segregation
and raised awareness of “black encroachment.”
1. This is libel, so low-value speech under Chaplinsky
2. The courts defer to the states power to punish
3. Received rational basis review
4. Considered odd holding today
A. Nature of harm is different with a group than an
individual
B. Nature of the statement is different with a group
than with an individual
C. Contemporary doctrine (NY Times) would ask
whether the defamed subjects (blacks) are a public
official or figure – strange question here
III. RAV (263) – SCOTUS invalidated St. Paul law that made it illegal
to use symbols that arouse resentment based on race, creed,
religion, or gender, because these ordinances are VIEWPOINT
BASED and thus discriminatory on their face.
VI. CONTENT-NEUTRAL RESTRICTIONS

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A. CONTENT NEUTRALITY
I. CONTENT NEUTRAL
1. Regulation that has an incidental effect on speech but is not
intended to regulate speech based on what is said
A. Receives intermediate scrutiny
B. Watch for differential impact in suppressing one
side over the other based on the favorability of
some opinions in the marketplace
II. CONTENT BASED
1. Speech regulated based on what is in the speech itself
A. Receives strict scrutiny
2. Viewpoint-based
A. Regulates speech on only one side of an issue
I. Receives heightened version of strict
scrutiny
III. Schneider (281) – SCOTUS invalidated an ordinance outlawing
leafleting, because it failed the tailoring required: just regulate
littering if the goal is to keep the streets clean.
IV. Martin (282) – SCOTUS invalidated ban on handing out literature
door-to-door under the guise of preventing crime and protecting
the homeowner from unwanted intrusion, because of tailoring
reasons: the law could just prohibit soliciting homeowners who
have said they don’t want to be solicited.
V. Kovacs (283) – SCOTUS allows an ordinance regulating sound
trucks.
1. Speech’s effectiveness is what makes it regulate-able under
SCOTUS’ rationale.
VI. Metromedia (285) – SCOTUS invalidated a San Diego ordinance
that banned all billboards for the purpose of traffic safety and
aesthetics.
1. Brennan: no link to safety and not comprehensive enough
to qualify under aesthetics argument
2. Stevens in dissent: government has a substantial interest
and there are ample means of alternate expression
VII. Ladue (286) – SCOTUS invalidated ordinance that banned all
political expressions on yard signs, using Stevens rational in
Metromedia dissent.
1. Time Place & Manner restrictions must
A. Be justified without regard to content (facial content
neutrality)
B. Be narrowly tailored
C. Be a significant government interest
D. Allow ample alternate means for exercising speech
B. PUBLIC FORA SPEECH

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I.Davis (295) – Government has the same rights to restrict speech

that private homeowners have (so Boston can exclude speakers
from Boston Common).
II. Hague (296) - Adverse possession or public trust used as rationale
for requiring speech rights on public lands
III. Traditional Public Fora
1. Constitution requires holding these lands open for speech
A. Required for banning speech: reasonable time,
place, and manner restrictions that take place on
public fora must be content neutral (Ladue case)
2. Limited Public Fora – government could close off speech
but chooses to leave open to speech
A. As long as government holds the area open, it must
allow speech
3. Schneider & Hague cases
IV. Nonpublic Fora
1. Government may foreclose speech if done so (1)
reasonably and (2) in a content-neutral manner
C. SYMBOLIC SPEECH
I. O’Brien (361) – SCOTUS refused to consider burning of a draft
card as “symbolic speech,” when federal statute prevents
knowingly destroying the card.
1. SPEECH: (1) message, (2) audience, and (3) “intent” of the
speaker to communicate
2. Intermediate scrutiny test:
A. Constitutional power to regulate speech
I. Here, the power to raise armies under I, § 8
B. Regulation furthers a substantial govt. interest
I. Proof of draft registration
II. Reminders on card (when moving, e.g.)
C. Regulation is unrelated to suppression of speech
I. Doesn’t stop protests, only burning cards
D. Burdens are no greater than necessary to fulfill
govt. interest
I. If you buy the arguments under #2, no
problem here
II. Texas v. Johnson (373) – SCOTUS invalidated a TX statute
prohibiting burning of the American flag when a protestor of
Reagan’s policies burned a flag at the ’84 GOP Convention in TX.
1. Govt. is taking away symbols only from one side of the
debate – like RAV. TX doesn’t prohibit ALL burning the
flag, but only when it is offensive to others.
A. Content-based, so subject to strict scrutiny
I. No govt. interest in protecting only one side
of the argument.

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III.Eichman (375) – SCOTUS invalidated Congressional Act

prohibiting desecration of the flag.
1. No singling out certain ideas and banning them based on
their successful communicative effect.
IV. NUDE DANCING
1. Barnes v. Glen Theatre (376) – nude dancing is speech but
no core speech
2. Pap’s A.M. (379) – there is something incrementally
expressive in taking off the last piece of clothing
3. Secondary Effects Doctrine – Not content-neutral to look to
a particular business’ effects in banning the business
D. RIGHT OF LITIGATION AS EXPRESSION
I. NAACP v. Button (412) – SCOTUS invalidated VA law that
prohibited interest groups from bank-rolling individuals, allowing
them to make legal challenges.
1. The right of association is an implied right under the First
Amendment
2. For the NAACP, litigation is not resolution of private
disputes, but POLITICAL SPEECH.
3. Brennan (majority) noted the statute was vague and broad.
II. Primus – SCOTUS held the ACLU may ambulance chase, since
theirs is an expressive/associative purpose.
III. Ohralik – SCOTUS held (on the same day as Primus) that true
ambulance chasers are not protected from Ohio Bar sanctions,
because theirs is not an expressive (but an economic) purpose.
E. RIGHT OF ASSOCIATION AS EXPRESSION
I. Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees (416) – SCOTUS invalidated a social
networking group restriction that prohibited women from being
full members. (“Young Boys Club”)
1. Jaycees have the right to association, including the right to
exclude. But MN’s anti-discrimination policy does not
violate that right to association. Jaycees failed to show
how having women around would thwart their expressive
purpose.
II. BSA v. Dale (418) – SCOTUS accepted (at trial) BSA’s assertion
that homosexuality is contrary to the group’s beliefs, such that
being forced to accept a gay as a scoutmaster violated the group’s
right to free association (including the right to dis-association).
1. Different than Jaycees, because forced inclusion here
would be destructive to the group’s expression.
F. THE RIGHT NOT TO SPEAK
I. Pruneyard v. Robbins (424) – SCOTUS prevented a private
shopping center from excluding student leafleting when center
alleged only a right to dis-associate.
1. Rehnquist: Just put a sign that says you don’t agree.
2. It’s clear that the message is the students, not the center’s.

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II. Barnette – SCOTUS held the government cannot compel flag

salute and pledge.
1. Overrules Gobitis.
2. Pruneyard involved preventing speech; this is
COMPELLING speech.
III. Wooley – SCOTUS prevented NH from punishing people who
covered their license plates (“Live Free or Die”) when the motto
offended NH residents.
1. Govt. can’t compel speech.

VII. FREEDOM OF THE PRESS

A. Is there Special Treatment for the Press?
I. Generally, no.
1. Burger, C.J.: (1) history suggests originally “freedom of
speech” and “freedom of press” were synonymous and (2)
creates extraordinary definitional problem in determining
what is and is not “press”
II. Stewart: press is a “fourth” wing of the govt.
B. Is there a First Amendment right to gather news?
I. Branzburg v. Hayes (474) – SCOTUS held that a reporter does not
have a FA right to refuse to testify before a grand jury in protection
of his confidential sources.
1. Reporter can: (a) be a martyr and go to jail, (b) seek
protection under applicable state laws, or (c) use a motion
to quash
2. Motion to quash always available if prosecutor is (a)
singling out the reporter or (b) are frivolous to the issue in
the case
II. Food Lion – Press is not protected from tort damages in gathering
news, but press is protected from any incremental increase in
damages as a result of publication.
III. Cohen – SCOTUS refused to create “legally binding
confidentiality” when press reneged on pledge to keep
confidentiality in exchange for hot gossip about the CA govenor.
IV. Pell & Hutchens – Press has no right to receive information that is
not available to public.
V. Globe – Trials should be open to the public.
1. Both Globe and Pell & Hutchens hinge on right of PUBLIC
not PRESS, which prevents line-drawing in (1) who is the
press and (2) what special information they deserve
C. Can laws single out the press for special regulatory burdens or
punishments?
I. Generally, no.
1. Viewed as highly suspicious.

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2. Minnesota Star & Tribune (495) – can’t single out and treat
the press differently, because laws must be of general
applicability.
A. Here, a tax on ink and paper used in newsprint.
D. Can the government regulate the press to improve the “marketplace” of
ideas?
I. Generally, not unless the medium is scarce.
1. Miami Herald (499) – Govt. can’t compel “equal”
editorials.
2. Red Lion (500) – Radio airwaves are scarce, so govt. holds
them in the public trust and may regulate content.
(PACIFICA)
3. Turner Broadcast Systems (509) – Govt. cannot regulate
cable channels, which are more like newspapers than radio
stations in terms of a lack of scarcity.
4. ACLU v. Reno – The internet, too, is more like
newspapers/cable channels in terms of scarcity.

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