METALLOGENIC MINERAL PROVINCES AND WORLD CLASS ORE

DEPOSITS IN EUROPE.

W. De Vos1, M. J. Batista2, A. Demetriades3, M. Duris4, J. Lexa,5

J. Lis6, K. Marsina5, and P.J. O’Connor7
1
Geological Survey of Belgium, Brussels, Belgium
2
Geological and Mining Institute of Portugal, Lisbon, Portugal
3
Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration, Athens, Greece
4
Czech Geological Survey, Prague, Czech Republic
5
Geological Survey of Slovak Republic, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
6
Polish Geological Institute, Warszawa, Poland
7
Geological Survey of Ireland, Dublin, Ireland

Introduction

Europe is rich in minerals, both metallic and and according to size they are called metallogenic
industrial, and has an ancient tradition of mining provinces or districts. Also, some individual
and ore processing. Their impact on the mineral deposits are so huge as to deserve world-
geochemistry of the European environment is class status. This section will examine some of the
substantial, and is generally stronger for metallic most striking examples of natural mineral wealth
than for industrial minerals. Some geological on the European continent.
areas are richer than average in certain elements,

Large Ore Deposits of Iron, Copper and Nickel in the Baltic Shield

In the Precambrian Fennoscandian Shield of Outokumpu. It is a volcanic hosted massive

north-eastern Europe, some exceptionally large sulphide deposit, the main minerals being pyrite,
ore deposits of iron, copper and nickel are found. chalcopyrite, sphalerite and pyrrhotite. The total
Many of them are situated in a composite metal content exceeds 1 Mt and present reserves
sulphidic ore belt running SE-NW through central are more than 20 Mt of sulphides.
Finland and into Sweden, including the The Skellefte district in Sweden was also
Outokumpu region in the southeast, Pyhäsalmi in developed in the 20th century and includes the
the centre, and the Swedish Skellefte district in Boliden polymetallic deposit, which was once the
the northwest. The metamorphic host rocks, of richest Au-As deposit in Europe, producing also
volcano-sedimentary origin, belong to the north Cu, Ag, Pb and Zn. Several similar polymetallic
Karelian schist belt, including gneiss, serpentinite, deposits, although smaller, are mined at present.
dolomite and skarn, with an average geological The combined cumulative gold production from
age of 1.9 billion years (Ga). these mines is in excess of 220 tonnes, sixty
The Outokumpu deposit, discovered in 1910, percent of which came from the Boliden deposit.
is a high grade Cu deposit containing minor Co, Geologically, these ore bodies are related to
Ni and Zn. The main ore minerals are pyrrhotite quartz porphyry or other granitoid intrusions in a
(23%), pyrite (21%), chalcopyrite (11%) and volcanic unit of dacitic to rhyolitic composition.
sphalerite (1.7%). The total amount of Cu metal, A second notable ore-producing zone in the
extracted and reserves, is about 1 Mt (million Baltic shield is the Kiruna district in northern
metric tonnes). Sweden, in the late Archaean granite-greenstone
Just south of Outokumpu is the Kohtalahti Ni terrane of the Karelian province. There are two
belt, striking SE to NW, with 150 000 tonnes of mines in operation at present: Kiruna and
Ni metal, extracted + reserves. Malmberget. The iron ore reserves of the Kiruna
Another major deposit is Pyhäsalmi, district have a total metal content of over 1 billion
discovered in 1958, to the northwest of tonnes, and it is the most important iron producer
in Europe at present. The ore minerals are mainly complex of greenstone, conglomerate, phyllite,
magnetite, with some hematite. Most deposits keratophyre and quartz keratophyre, intruded by
belong to the Archaean-type banded-iron several granodioritic porphyry dykes apparently
formations (BIF), but some skarn iron ore occurs, related to the emplacement of the ore.
and a few deposits contain either apatite It is worth mentioning the Kemi chromite
(phosphate) or titanium oxide. The main orebody deposit in northern Finland near the Baltic sea,
at Kiruna, composed of apatite-bearing magnetite, which was discovered in 1959. One of the rare
is roughly tabular, striking northeast and dipping large chromium deposits in Europe, its reserves
about 60° to the SE, with a length of 4 km, an are estimated at 30 Mt of ore with 26% chromite
average width of 80 m and a depth estimated at 2 (Cr2O3). The ore is hosted by mafic-ultramafic
km. It is enclosed in a volcano-sedimentary intrusive rocks.

Polymetallic Deposits, Lead-Zinc Deposits in the Palaeozoic of Europe

Erzgebirge the end of the 19th century, radioactivity was

studied intensively on Jáchymov uranium (U)
The Erzgebirge is a major polymetallic mineral ores, leading to the discovery of radium (Ra), and
province in Europe, on the border between the to the definition and understanding of
Czech Republic and Germany (Saxony), with radioactivity itself.
numerous hydrothermal mineral deposits The Pribram area was mined for silver (Ag)
associated with Variscan and younger granite from the 14th to the 16th century; from the 18th to
intrusive bodies. There are many mines, some of the 20th century the polymetallic deposits were
historical importance, especially in the Middle mined for Ag, Pb, Zn, Sb and Cu, and after 1940
Ages and the Renaissance. uranium (U) was also recovered from the Pribram
Silver mining near Freiberg was described as ores.
early as 1168 AD, and continued until 1968 AD. The Cínovec (Zinnwald) Sn-W-Li deposit
More than 1000 polymetallic ore veins run consists of a regular vein system in greisenised
through the crystalline basement in two roughly zones of a granite body, containing the minerals
perpendicular systems, which are filled with a quartz, wolframite, scheelite, cassiterite,
variety of sulphides, sulphosalts and native silver. zinnwaldite, topaz, fluorite, muscovite, Li-mica
The famous ore deposits of Jáchymov and feldspar. In the Altenberg deposit a large
(Joachimsthal) show a similar mineral wealth. volume of the granite itself is greisenised and
About 180 mineralised veins in micaschist and mineralised in tin (Sn) and tungsten (W).
phyllite around a granite massif contain Ag, U and Somewhat similar to the Erzgebirge, the Harz
minor amounts of Bi, Co, Ni, Zn, Pb, Cu, Sb and Mountains to its north harbour polymetallic
As. The veins are rich in pitchblende, silver- deposits such as Andreasberg, Rammelsberg
bearing sulphoarsenides and native silver, along and Bad Grund, related to granitic intrusions in
with other rare minerals and more common the Variscan orogenic belt. Total historic
sulphides. The Jáchymov ore district was production of Rammelsberg alone is estimated at
discovered in 1516 AD, and quickly developed over 17 million tonnes of ore, mainly copper (Cu),
into one of the largest mining centres of Europe. It lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn). Andreasberg was
attracted Agricola, who wrote a famous 16th extremely rich in silver (Ag) and, together with
century treatise on metals, mining and ore the Erzgebirge district, accounted for three
deposits (“De re metallica”), based largely on his quarters of European silver production at the end
observations at Jáchymov. The word ‘dollar’ was of the Middle Ages.
derived from the German ‘thaler’ which was a
silver monetary unit named after Joachimsthal. At
 Irish Base Metal Deposits (Zinc and Lead)

In recent years, Ireland has become a major Zn sulphate. The typical mineralogical association is
producer in Europe. The Lower Carboniferous sphalerite and galena with accessory pyrite and
carbonate rocks of Ireland are host to a large marcasite. Small amounts of silver are recovered
number of stratabound base metal deposits of from galena. Gangue minerals include calcite,
variable sizes, mined both in the past and at dolomite, siderite and barite. Sulphides occur as
present. Ore-forming processes in this distinctive carbonate replacement, sedimentary layers,
metallogenic province may have been going on disseminations, breccia/fracture infill, and as
for a 50 million year time-span. Several orebodies massive sulphides.
are hosted in limestone and dolomite, known as Recent exploration and research was
Pale Beds, some in younger Waulsortian encouraged by the discovery in 1970 of the
mudmount reefs, and a few in even younger beds, Navan (Tara) deposit with ore reserves of 70 Mt
all belonging to the Lower Carboniferous. These grading on average 2% lead (Pb) and 10% zinc
rocks were deposited in shallow tropical seas (Zn). The Tara mine has a potential output
about 370 to 350 million years ago. Part of the capacity of 170,000 tonnes a year of Zn
sulphides precipitated syngenetically in mud in concentrates and 42,000 tonnes a year of Pb
the near-shore environment, but sulphide concentrates. New Zn-Pb discoveries were made
precipitation also occurred during diagenesis, at Galmoy in 1986 and at Lisheen in 1990. The
dolomitisation and brecciation, partly related to a newly opened Lisheen mine, with 21 Mt reserves,
phase of volcanic activity in the final stages of is expected to produce 190,000 tonnes a year of
carbonate deposition. Later, sulphides were Zn and 33,000 tonnes a year of Pb. Reserves at
deposited in veins, structurally controlled by other deposits include 15 Mt at Silvermines, 10
Hercynian faulting. The probable metal source is Mt at Tynagh, and 7 Mt at Galmoy. The Irish
the underlying basement, whereas most sulphur is metallogenic province has a total content of more
supplied by bacterial reduction of seawater than 14 million tonnes of extractable metals.

Silesian-Cracowian Zn-Pb Deposits of the Mississippi Valley Type (MVT)

The Upper Silesian ore district in south-central galena, pyrite and marcasite, accompanied by the
Poland is an important producer of zinc (Zn), lead gangue minerals dolomite, calcite, barite,
(Pb) and silver (Ag), with mining going back at chalcedony and quartz. Of secondary importance
least to the eleventh century for silver and lead. are lead-arsenic complex sulphides such as
The stratabound deposits occur to the north jordanite and gratonite. In part of the region
and north-east of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin, Middle Triassic dolomites form outcrops, and zinc
where Permian to Mesozoic rocks lie carbonates and rarer zinc silicates appear
monoclinally on a Variscan Palaeozoic substrate. frequently in karst pockets (Przeniosło 2000;
The economic parts of the mineralisation occur Szuwarzyński, 1996). Ores of the Silesian-
mainly in the Muschelkalk series of the Middle Cracowian deposits concentrate Cd, Ag, Ge, Ga,
Triassic, with ore bodies hosted by carbonate As, Tl, Sb and Ni as isomorphic substitutions in
rocks, especially dolomites. The ore forms sulphides or microinclusions (Kozłowski 1995).
replacements, cavity fillings, linings, veins and Mining activity developed in several areas around
mineralized breccias (Szuwarzyński, 1996). the towns Bytom, Tarnowskie Góry, Chrzanów
Recent production is from Zn-Pb sulphide ores and Olkusz.
hosted in a 200 m thick sequence of flat-lying The total extractable metal content of the
shallow-marine Triassic carbonates, where the district is estimated at 30 Mt. For the last twenty
lower and upper units of the sequence enclosing years, the mine production was 4 to 5 million
the ores are marly or argillaceous sediments of tonnes of ores per year, including 140-250
lower permeability. thousand tons of zinc and 40-90 thousand tons of
The main ore minerals include sphalerite, lead.
 Zn-Pb Deposits in Southwestern Sardinia

The region of Iglesiente-Sulcis in SW Sardinia the Palaeozoic. The most important deposits are
is an ancient mining district. Lead, silver and related to Cambrian carbonate platform
copper have been extracted since Roman times, sediments. The Sardinian mining district has
followed later by zinc and barium. Mineralising produced about 15 Mt of metal, which makes it
processes were at work at different times through comparable to the Irish Province in metal content.

The Kupferschiefer in Poland

A major base metal district in Europe is south- whereas in areas with oxidised facies in the same
western Poland, where a copper-bearing shale stratigraphic levels, ore is lacking. The largest
formation, the Kupferschiefer, occurs in the mineralised area covers about 350 km² in the
Permian. Stratigraphically it constitutes the region around Lubin, Rudna, Polkowice and
boundary between the Rotliegendes or Lower Sieroszowice, which are at present the main
Permian, and the Zechstein or Upper Permian. mining centres. The richest part of the
There are three layers mineralised with copper Kupferschiefer is situated structurally in the Fore-
sulphides: the Weissliegendes or White Sandstone Sudetic monocline to the NW of Wroclaw,
formation at the base, with decimetric to metric extending from NW to SE and gently dipping
thickness; its upper portion contains 0.2 to 2% Cu (less than 12°) towards the northeast. Active
in sulphides. Above it, the copper-bearing shale mines reach a depth of 1200 m. The company
(Kupferschiefer) is the principal ore level, with 2 Polska Miedź (Polish Copper), owner of the
to 10% Cu content, and a thickness up to 20 m. mines, produced 486,000 tonnes of copper in the
The shale is usually bituminous, and always year 2000, representing 3.3% of world copper
contains Cu, less frequently Pb and Zn sulphides. production ; silver production was 1119 tonnes,
Carbonate rocks rest upon the copper-bearing and there is also some production of Pb, Au, Ni,
shale; these contain Cu sulphides, and also small Co and Mo. Industrial reserves are presently
clay layers containing lead sulphides. The ore- estimated at 780 Mt of ore with an average grade
bearing stratigraphic layers are mineralised in a of 2% copper (Cu) and 40 to 80 g/tonne of silver
reducing facies, which occurs in large patches, (Ag).

The Iberian Pyrite Belt

The Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB) is an arcuate belt, the Chalcolithic Age (before 3000 BC), and
250 km long and 25 to 70 km wide, in the continued through historical times, particularly in
southwest of the Iberian Peninsula. It belongs to the Roman period. In the 19th century a large-scale
the South Portuguese Zone, a major structural and and new intensive exploitation started, mainly in
palaeogeographic domain of the Iberian massif, open pits like in the Rio Tinto, Tharsis, La
and the most peripheral extension of the Zarza and S. Domingos mines. Numerous
Hercynian orogen in Europe. The Volcano- deposits were traditionally mined for pyrite only,
Sedimentary Complex (Upper Devonian to Lower the polymetallic potential being recognized later.
Carboniferous) hosts a large number of massive More than 50 mines are now closed, leaving
sulphide deposits, with over 1700 million tonnes behind unprotected open pits and significant areas
(Mt) of sulphides, containing 14.6 Mt Cu, 13 Mt occupied by mining tailings. In many cases acid
Pb, 34.9 Mt Zn, 46 thousand tonnes silver (Ag) rock drainage is observed with direct influence on
and 880 tonnes gold (Au). These tonnages make streams and aquiferous waters.
the IPB one of the largest massive sulphide The discovery in 1977 in Portugal of the
provinces of the world. More than 80 deposits are concealed Neves-Corvo deposit, rich in Cu, Sn
known, 8 of which contain more than 100 Mt of and Zn, led to renewed exploration and to new
ore. metallogenic research in the IPB, again leading to
Mining in the area is very ancient. It started in more discoveries. In the 90´s geophysical
exploration led to the discovery of the Las accompany the massive sulphide emplacement,
Majadas, Castiellejitos, Las Cruces and Lagoa with chlorite and sericite as typical minerals, with
Salgada orebodies. Las Cruces and Lagoa a geochemical enrichment in Pb, Zn, Cu, Co, Sb,
Salgada are hosted in the Paleozoic basement As, Sn, Bi, Ag, Se, Tl, Ba, and leaching of Na, Ca
below the Tertiary sedimentary basins of the Sado and immobile elements. Some ore bodies also
and Guadalquivir rivers respectively; both show a contain Au. Gossans are often enriched in the
palaeo-gossan and a well-developed palaeo- same elements. Ore grades are generally between
supergene enrichment zone, with high-grade 0.5% and 1.5% Cu, with notable exceptions like
contents of Au and Ag. Neves-Corvo (up to 14% Cu). Neves-Corvo also
At present six mines are in operation, five in has a unique tin content of up to 12% Sn.
Spain (Tharsis, Sotiel-Migollas, Aguas Teñidas, Historically Zn grades are between 1.3% and
Rio Tinto and Aznalcóllar) and Neves-Corvo in 3.5%, and Pb grades mostly from 0.5% to 2%,
Portugal, the latter being the largest single deposit with some exceptions, in one case even exceeding
in the IPB. Several other deposits are waiting to 20% Zn and 10% Pb. Silver generally reaches
be developed, including the Aljustrel complex in grades of 25 to 60 g/t, and gold, when present,
Portugal as a potential producer of Zn, Cu, Pb and varies between 0.3 and 3 g/t. The sulphur content
Ag. is approximately 46%. Mineralogically pyrite is
The Volcano-Sedimentary Complex of the IPB dominant, with chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena
has a thickness varying between 100 and 600 m. It the most common accompanying sulphides, and
is dated on the basis of its fauna and microfauna many accessory minerals.
as Famennian (Upper Devonian) to Visean It is difficult to talk about the Iberian peninsula
(Lower Carboniferous). Volcanism is bimodal, without mentioning the world class mercury
with basic rocks consisting of tholeitic lava, district of Almadén near Ciudad Real in south-
locally pillow lava, some alkaline lava and central Spain. Red cinnabar and native mercury
dolerite, whereas acidic rocks range from dacite to (Hg) occur in Silurian quartzite, partially intruded
rhyolite. Different types of shale, black shale, by basaltic lava and pyroclastics. The Almadén
siltstone, siliceous shale and chert occur in district produces 30% of the world mercury, and
alternation with the volcanic rocks; shale is more has the largest reserves, about 90,000 tonnes of
abundant towards the top of the sequence. Hg metal.
The massive sulphide deposits have variable Also worth mentioning is the Panasqueira
sizes and show different forms, from stockworks mine district in northern Portugal, one of the
to stratiform massive mineralisation to world’s largest tungsten producers. Quartz veins
disseminations. The ore bodies exhibit Hercynian linked to late Hercynian (Permian) granitic
folding along with the volcano-sedimentary magmatism contain wolframite, cassiterite (Sn)
sequences hosting them. Stockworks often seem and minor sulphides. Current production is in the
to represent the feeder zones of the mineralising order of 700 tonnes of WO3 per year.
fluids. Hydrothermal alteration haloes generally

Antimony-Gold Deposits and Complex Sulphide-Siderite Ore Deposits in the Palaeozoic

Western Carpathians Dúbrava-Magurka and Pezinok ore districts.

The metamorphosed Early Palaeozoic volcano-
The Low Tatra and Little Carpathian mountain sedimentary complex of the Spišsko-gemerské
ranges of the Western Carpathians (Slovak rudohorie mountain range harbours an extensive
Republic) are well known for their Sb-Au deposits ore district with VMS copper (Smolník),
(with antimonite, pyrite and arsenopyrite as the replacement siderite (Nižná Slaná, Železník),
main ore minerals) hosted in granitoids and magnesite (Jelšava – Dúbrava, Košice), vein
migmatites of the Hercynian basement. Historical type siderite/sulphide (Rudňany, Slovinky,
mining lasted here for centuries and stopped in the Gelnica, Rožňava with siderite, barite, pyrite,
early nineties of the 20th century. Up to 1.5 chalcopyrite and tetrahedrite as the major ore
million tons of Sb ore (1.5 to 5% Sb, 1 to 3 g/t minerals) and vein type Sb-Au (antimonite -
Au) were exploited and processed in the Čučma, Poproč) deposits. According to a rough
estimate 15 kt Sb, 500 kt Cu and 45 Mt Fe has 20th century.
been produced in the district until the end of the

Tertiary Carbonate Hosted Deposits

Among the world class deposits is also the have been recognised (Marinos and Petrascheck
Lavrion or Laurium massive sulphide ore district 1956, Gelaude et al. 1996, Lapis 1999).
in Greece, which lies to the southeast of Athens, The ancient Greeks mined from the 7th to the
st
with a total production of about 43 Mt of ore. The 1 century BC about 13 Mt of ore with an average
mineralised zone has a N-S to NNE-SSW trend, grade of 20% lead (Pb) and 400 g/t silver (Ag);
and is approximately 17 km long and at least 6 km the extracted metal was estimated to be about 1.4
wide. The ore occurs at the contact of marble and Mt lead and 3500 tonnes silver (Conophagos,
schist, and is classified as a carbonate-hosted 1980). More recent exploitation, from 1865 to
replacement massive sulphide type. The main ore 1977 AD, mined about 30 Mt of ore with an
minerals are argentiferous galena, sphalerite, average grade of 3% lead and 140 g/t silver; the
pyrite, chalcopyrite and arsenopyrite. Lavrion is a extracted metal was approximately 0.9 Mt lead
mineralogist’s paradise: more than 265 minerals and 4,200 tonnes silver.

Tertiary Volcanic Hosted Deposits

Volcanic hosted precious and base metal pyrite are the major ore minerals. Roughly 80 tons
deposits of the Western Carpathians of gold, 4,000 tonnes of silver, 70,000 tonnes of
Zn, 55,000 tonnes of Pb and 8,000 tonnes of Cu
Neogene volcano-plutonic complexes host have been produced during one thousand years of
porhyry, skarn, replacement and epithermal mining.
mineralisations. The Banská Štiavnica ore The Kremnica epithermal gold deposit has
district with epithermal veins in an area of 100 produced around 20 t gold since the 12th century
km2 represents one of the richest mining districts and the same amount of gold is available in
in Europe. Galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite and reserves of the planned open pit operation.

References and Further Reading

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