Title:

Problems in teaching English to Japanese students revealed by using a tally

sheet and a short ethnographic-style commentary

Name: Fumie Takakubo

Date: January, 2000

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1. Introduction

On the 20th of December 1999, I had an opportunity to observe a class at a p

rivate language school where I also teach English. During the class, I actu
ally sat behind the students in the classroom and took notes on class activi
ties, classroom events and the atmosphere with the permission of the teacher
. I was not able to video-tape the class. As shown below, I employed two o
bservation techniques to describe the class in this report, which are a tall
y sheet and a short ethnographic-style commentary. The aims of this study i
s: (1) To describe types of question the teacher used, modification techniqu
es of them and L2 production generated from learners. (2) To describe feedba
ck and intervention the teacher provided and to clarify a policy of the teac
her in providing them. (3) To estimate the teaching approach of the teacher
and make suggestions to improve her teaching. Based on the observations, so
me possible applications of class observation techniques to further research
es were suggested, and difficulties in teaching English to middle school stu
dents in a private language school in Japan were also mentioned in this repo
rt.

2. Background

2.1 Class background

The class is a basic level, sixty-minute general English class for non-nativ
e speakers of English. It is held once in a week in Monday evening from 6pm
to 7pm at a private language school in Matsuyama, Japan.

2.2 Students

The class consists of five first-grade Japanese students of middle school.

They are 3 girls and 2 boys. None of them goes to the same middle school.
They have been studying English together since April, 1999. In general, the
girls seem to be more enthusiastic than the boys.

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2.3 Teacher

A female Japanese teacher with 5 years teaching experience. She has been in
charge of this class for approximately 4 months. She spent about 3 hours on
planning and preparing the class. Of the 3 hours, she spent around 1 hour o
n making flash cards for the drill-type exercise for making past-form verbs
from present-form verbs.

2.4 Lesson plan

The lesson aims were as follows:

1) So far, the students have learned the present tense and the present progr
essive form. The teacher introduces them past-tense sentences in the simple
S+V+O form today.
2) The teacher explains a grammatical point in making past-tense sentences,
that is verbs should be in the past form.
3) The teacher explains grammar points related to how to make verbs in the p
ast form from those in the present form. Regular verbs and one type of irre
gular verb (the A-A-A type) are focused on today.
4) The students practice forming past-form verbs from those in the present f
orm. The teacher uses flash cards for this purpose.

3. Observation technique

I employed two observation techniques to describe the class in this report,

which are a tally sheet and a short ethnographic-style commentary. The reas
ons why I employed these approaches are as follows:
1) The combination of a tally sheet and a short ethnographic-style commentar
y can complement each other, and provide both quantitative and qualitative i
nformation.
2) The seating chart observation schedule system was not expected to be very
useful because there were only 5 students in the class and the teacher gave
them almost the equal opportunities to speak in the class.
3) Using the foreign language interaction system for recording would have en
ded up generating piles of information on the class which would go beyond th
e scope of this paper.

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4. Results

4.1 Class observation records

4.1.1 Tally sheet

In order to provide as objective an overview of classroom events as possible

, I had decided the items to be focused on prior to the observation of the c
lass in conjunction with the teacher whose classroom was being investigated.
A tally sheet presented by Nunan (1989) was used as a basis for the discuss
ion, and according to the teacher's lesson plan, the item of "T asks a refer
ential question" was removed from the list because these questions were expe
cted to be few and instead of that, the items "T asks students to talk about
themselves" and "T asks to rethink answer" were added. The item "T asks a d
isplay question" was subdivided into two, which are (a) questions to find ou
t differences in English sentences or words and (b) questions to compare L2
and L1, because the latter is one of teaching methods based on the second la
nguage acquisition theory (Ellis, 1985) and the former is rather direct in t
his sense. The item "L answers a question" was also subdivided into (a) not
in drill and (b) in drill, because the answers in the drill were all past-te
nse verbs and not sentences, and I intended to make clear how much drill wor
k was done by the students. The results are shown on page 13 (see Appendix 1).

4.1.2 Short ethnographic style commentary

See Appendix 2 on page 14.

4.2 Questioning

(a)

1) What type of question does the teacher use?

The types of questions the teacher used in this class was listed on the tall
y sheet (see page 13). One of the characteristics of them would be that the
teacher asked very few referential questions. This is probably because the
class was basically designed in order to increase students' grammar knowledg
e, put that into practice and enrich students'
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vocabulary. This also explains the fact that the items "T explains a gramma
tical point", "T explains meanings of a vocabulary item" and "T answers a qu
estion in drill" had more tallies than the items "T explains a functional po
int", "T explains points relating to content of the lesson" and "T gives ins
tructions/directions" had (see Appendix 1).

In the light of roles of each question, the questions she used in this class
can be categorized as follows. This also provides the answer to one of the
questions in (a), "How much/what sort(s) of L2 production do questions gener
ate from the learners?".

1. Questions relating to the students themselves, plays and/or games such as

"Did you go to the Christmas party?" or "Have you ever blown soap bubbles?"
etc. catch students' attention to her talks and excite their interests in En
glish especially at the opening of the class, which enables a smooth introdu
ction to learning to some extent.
2. Display questions such as "How do you say when you --- ?" basically guide
the students in learning and also improve their speaking ability and enrich
their vocabulary.
3. Open-ended referential ones, such as "What did you do yesterday?" improve
their speaking ability and enrich their vocabulary.
4. Questions to let the students find out differences among sentences or wor
ds, such as "Can you see any differences between this sentence and that sent
ence? What are they? How are they different?" give them some clues to find
out structures of sentences and grammatical modification of words. This pro
cess will give them an opportunity to remember what they have learned before
and compare and consider carefully about the differences. It would provide
an effective learning process.
5. Questions to remind the students of some grammar points in their first la
nguage and/or make the students become aware of common or different grammar
points between their first language and the second language, and help them i
n understanding and remembering the grammar in L2.
6. Questions in drills by using flash cards, such as "What is the past form
of this verb?", build up their vocabulary and help internalize their grammar
knowledge.
7. Questions on meanings of words build up students' vocabulary.

2) Is there a preponderance of any particular type(s)?

As we can see from the Tally sheet (see Appendix 1), the item "L answers a q
uestion in drill" obtained the largest tally (18). This result show that qu
estions in drills
by using flash cards, such as "What is the past form of this verb?", were us
ed most
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frequently. This was followed by questions asking meanings of words (10 occ
urrences). This is probably because the class was basically designed in ord
er to increase students' grammar knowledge, put that into practice and enric
h students' vocabulary.

3) What modification techniques does she employ when questions are not under
stood?

When questions are not understood, firstly she repeats them at a lower speak
ing rate. I also do the same because pupils often do not catch them due to
their poor listening ability. If the student still does not understand them
, she changes the questions into the easier questions with similar meanings
when possible. For example, when the student has difficulties in understand
ing the question "What did you do yesterday?", she gives alternative questio
ns, such as "Did you watch TV yesterday?" and "I think you studied English y
esterday. Am I right?" Thus, she also gives students clues to understand h
er questions by giving them some examples.

4) How much/what sort(s) of L2 production do questions generate from the lea

rners?

The answers have already been described on pages 4 and 5 in the section of "
1) What type of question does the teacher use?".

4.3 Feedback

(b)

1) What type of feedback does the teacher provide? When and how does she pr
ovide it?

The teacher was very friendly and dedicated. She was well-prepared and even
made very attractive flash cards with attractive drawings for a grammatical
drill. She was patient in working with students of lesser ability, and gave
a chance to speak to students equally in the class.

Some types of feedback the teacher provides are listed on the tally sheet on
page 13. They are "T praises", "T criticizes" and "T asks to rethink answer
". As we can see on the tally sheet, the item "T praises" has the greatest
number in tallies among the items for feedback. Most of the time, she gets
appropriate answers from the students and praises students immediately after
she hears the answers. When the students give her wrong
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answers or they do not know the answers, she repeats the question and asks t
hem to rethink their answers. After the class, she told me that she did not
want the students to give up trying to solve the question too soon, and I to
tally agree with her on this point. She does not criticize students at all.
This is probably a safe way in teaching because sometimes criticism can put
students off, and may offend some students.

The other types of feedback I observed in the class were as follows. When t
he students speak, the teacher listens to them enthusiastically and helps th
em in speaking when the students have difficulties. When the students ask h
er some questions, she answers to them in a very friendly way.

2) Are there times when learners have problems/make errors but the teacher d
oes not intervene? If so, what are the apparent reasons for non-interventio
n? Discuss this with the teacher does she have a policy in when and how to
provide (or not provide) feedback?

The students were relatively active and very quick on the uptake of understa
nding. Therefore, they did not make grammatical mistakes often. But I noti
ced that they had problems in pronunciation, especially when they pronounced
verbs in the past form. However, the teacher did not intervene and did not
correct them. After the lesson, I asked her the reason and she answered, "M
y aims for today's lesson were firstly to introduce them to the idea that we
use past forms of verbs when we describe the past, and secondly to enable th
em to form past forms of regular verbs and one type of irregular verbs. Thi
s is more than enough for a 60-minute class for the fist-year students of th
e middle school. I do not want to cram a lot of knowledge into their heads.
Also, if I correct their pronunciation all the time, they might develop a f
ear of being corrected, feel they are being criticized, and eventually they
might lose their interest in speaking English."

I agree with her on the point that teachers should not provide too much info
rmation to students at a time. This could cause confusion to pupils. Never
theless, there are still problems remaining in relation to the
priority of grammar over pronunciation in teaching English as L2.

The other situations where she did not intervene were as follows. Some stud
ents spoke Japanese even when she asked them to answer in English. One was
probably shy and did not respond when she addressed questions generally. In
the latter case, the teacher could have tried asking him individual questions.
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After the class, I also asked her about what she thought about these phenome
non and she answered to me, "I do not want to force them to speak English.
I fear that they might lose interest in English if I push them too much."

5. Discussion

5.1 Class observation

The advantage in using a tally sheet is that it allows us to express results

numerically. Ellis (1988) surveyed quantitative studies of the role of prac
tice in language learning. His results suggest that quantitative studies co
uld be useful to find correlations between factors in practice and students'
achievement in English learning. Tally sheets can be a powerful tool for th
is type of study, when items are carefully designed. For this purpose, rese
archers should carry out appropriate assessment tests too. Also, in order t
o discover more effective teaching methods, it might be interesting to compa
re the results I have shown in this paper with results of the same teaching
method applied to other groups of students, or with results of a different t
eaching method applied to students with the same background as the students
I observed, by using tally sheets. In this study, I was given just one oppo
rtunity to observe the class and the tally sheet only showed that the class
was grammar-oriented and teacher-initiated.

To study educational effects for each student, we need to use the seating ch
art observation schedule system (Day, 1990). This system was not employed i
n this report and I mentioned the students' attitudes and responses in the s
hort ethnographic style commentary. However, I recorded individual rates of
giving correct answers in the drill by using a very simple SCORE system. Th
e results were: student A=1/3 (He was asked to answer 3 times. Of the 3 tim
es, he had a correct answer once. His answer was not right and/or he did no
t know the answer 2 times), student B=3/4, student C=4/4, student D=3/4, stu
dent E=4/4. Further studies on correlation between students' ability in for
ming past-tense verbs in drill-type exercise and oral proficiency, such as s
peaking with past-tense verbs, can be designed.

The short ethnographic style commentary provides us qualitative data and giv
es us useful cases to study teacher-student interactions. For instance, we
can see the girl student was struggling to produce past-tense sentences in t
his report. Thus, although the question the
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teacher gave her was a display one, she gave her a chance to consider the an
swer and was trying to implement communicative language teaching (CLT) by te
aching grammar inductively.
Thornbury (1996) described "bottom-up" markers, and the results of analyzing
my short ethnographic commentary according to these markers are as follows:

(1) Referential questions: The teacher asked many display questions and few
referential ones. In addition, the majority of open questions were answered
by a strong student.
(2) Content feedback: Because referential questions were few, her main feedb
ack on content involved responding to the content of what learners were sayi
ng, with hearty but ritualized responses, such as "very good!", "yes!" and "
right!".
(3) Wait time: She gave the students enough time to formulate an answer.
(4) Student-initiated talk: These are important in the sense that students c
an be motivated and pay attention to what teacher says. There were two occa
sions where the students initiated talk at the introduction part of the obse
rved class. However, the teacher initiated talk including explanations of t
he grammar points and the drill during the rest of the time.

These results together with the observations stated in "Results", indicate t

hat the class observed was not communicative. I would suggest the
following innovations to make this class more communicative.
(1) The teacher can ask more referential questions. For instance, when the
student talked about what she did yesterday, the teacher's next question cou
ld have been "Why did you do that?", "What did you feel about that?" and/or
"How did you do that?".
(2) At least the teacher can give student a chance to ask questions on what
she talks about, which may increase student-initiated talk in the class.

Thinking about my own teaching to middle school students, I found myself str
uggling with the same problems as she had. The main reason is that there ar
e so many contents in English to teach for entrance examinations for high sc
hools, and we have so little time to deal with them. However, we have to ma
ke the best of our time.

5.2 Teaching

As I described in "Results" and the above, the class was teacher-initiated a

nd grammar-oriented, with some aspects of the communicative approach at the
introductory part of the class. In this section, I would like to refer to t
eaching materials and using L1 as a way of teaching L2.
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5.2.1 Teaching materials

The teacher did not use a textbook in this class, and instead of that, she c
ontrolled students' attention by using a white board and explained grammar p
oints intelligibly. I think it is rather clever not to use Japanese grammar
books for English because they are often too detailed and hard to understand
. As Swan (1985a, b) mentioned, if teachers aim at students' acquisition of
English in reality, speaking practice of simple sentences using past-tense v
erbs in everyday English can be tried instead of drill-type exercise of verb
s in the latter half of the class. In such case, the teacher can use copies
of some short dialogs on general topics suitable for middle school students
from textbooks (O'Neil, 1982).

5.2.2 L1 as a way of teaching L2

Brown (1994b) pointed out that it is rather illogical to compare the L1 acqu
isition of a child with the L2 acquisition of an adult, including a young ad
olescent. The most obvious difference, in the case of adult L2 learning, is
the tremendous cognitive and affective contrast between adults and children.
However, many Japanese teachers emphasize using only English in teaching st
udents at any ages, which means the idealistic way is more like first langua
ge learning, initiating the process of L1 learning. This reminds me of the
Direct Method described by Richard and Rodgers (1986). This method could ha
ve been employed for the class I observed because the school was a private l
anguage school and the size of the class was small.

As I already mentioned, the teacher did not put much stress on teaching pron
unciation. Pronunciation has been pointed out as the most serious problem i
n English among Japanese people. The method she employed in this class is t
he grammar-oriented teaching method, which could result in worsening our pro
nunciation problems. She could have introduced verbs to the students in the
past form phonetically and then taught the grammar.

Having said that, the reality is that because of the recent economic recessi
on in Japan, private language schools have been becoming like cram schools t
o survive, and many middle school students come to private language schools
to prepare for entrance examinations. Therefore, numerous grammar points, i
dioms, words etc. have to be
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taught in private language schools in a relatively short time. To meet thes
e students' demands, contents related to forms of language such as grammar a
re introduced to students through their knowledge in L1. Learning processes
such as clarifying differences between L1 and L2 and finding common factors
in L1 and L2 may help in learning L2 in terms of the cognitive consideration
described by Brown (1994b).

5.3 Feedback

When the items on the list of good language teaching characteristics present
ed by Brown (1994a) were applied to the performance of the teacher, she had
all characteristics except No 10 in pedagogical skills, which is "Monitors l
essons as they unfolded and makes effective mid-lesson alterations" and No.
13, "Stimulates interaction, cooperation, and team work in the classroom".

Regarding characteristic No. 10, one of the students did not seem to be enth
usiastic but was rather restless all the time and looked a bit bored in the
drill. The teacher appeared not to have given much attention to him. Some
times I am obliged to behave in this way mainly due to being pressed for tim
e. As for No. 13, only the teacher-student interaction was observed. Stude
nt-initiated talks can be seen more often if cooperation and team work are s
timulated in the classroom.

These results suggest that the teacher was generally a good teacher. On the
other hand, I would suggest that there may be a limitation with respect to h
er feedback. That is she probably fears correcting students' mistakes becau
se she is afraid of hurting students' feelings too much.

Students at this age still can be harsh critics of one another's actions and
words and may thus provide a necessary and sufficient degree of pressure to
learn the second language. It might be true that some students do not like
to be corrected in their pronunciation all the time, and even hate speaking
English in the class because they are afraid of making mistakes in front of
people. Aiga (1990) notes that many Japanese students lack confidence in th
eir English speaking abilities, and because of that they do not attempt to s
peak. However, my policy is that language is an excellent way of accomplish
ing communication and speaking plays an important role in communication. It
would be the
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best to correct students' pronunciation as early as possible in the learning
process, before they believe their wrong pronunciations are correct. I also
believe that the only way to remove students' fear of making mistakes in spe
aking is to give them opportunities to speak English as much as possible and
let them gain self-confidence. However, we have to bear in mind that teache
rs should be very careful not to hurt students' feelings in such cases. Als
o, we have to satisfy students' demand for entrance examinations, which are
still heavily grammar and vocabulary oriented. Many Japanese teachers of E
nglish for middle school students have been seeking ways to cope with these
rather challenging aims.

6. Conclusion

The combination of a tally sheet and a short ethnographic-style commentary c

omplemented each other and results of the class observation were shown objec
tively by using them. The results indicated that the class I observed was t
eacher-initiated and grammar-oriented with some aspects of the communicative
approach at the introductory part of the class. The teacher's feedback in t
he class was hearty but rather ritualized responses, and she seemed to fear
correcting students' mistakes. To make the class more communicative, the te
acher can ask more referential questions and give students an opportunity to
speak in the class as many as possible.

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References

Aiga, Y. (1990). "Is Japanese English education changing?" Cross Currents,

17, 139- 145

Brown H. D. (1994a) Teaching by Principles. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prenti

ce Hall.

Brown H.D.(1994b), Principles of language learning and teaching (3rd Ed). En

glewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall

Day, R. (1990) "Teacher observation in second language teacher education."

In J.C.Richards and D. Nunam (eds.) Second Language Teacher
Education. C
ambridge:CUP

Ellis, R. (1985) Understanding second language acquisition. London: Oxford

University Press.

Ellis, R. (1988) "The Role of Practice in Classroom Learning". In Kasper,

G (ed.) Classroom Research: AILA Review 5, 20-39, Amsterdam:
Free Universi
ty Press.

Nunan, D. (1989) Understanding Language Classrooms. Hemel Hempstead, Herts

.: Prentice Hall.

O'Neil, R. (1982) "Why Use Textbooks?". ELT Journal 36 (1), 148-156.

Richards, J. C. and Rodgers, T. S. (1986) Aproaches and methods in languag

e teaching. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.

Swan, M. (1985a) "A Critical look at the Communicative Approach"

part I. ELT Journal 39(1), 2-12.

Swan, M. (1985b) "A Critical look at the Communicative Approach" part II.
ELT Journal 39(2), 76-87.

Thornbury, S. (1996) "Teachers research teacher talk". ELT Journal 50(4),

279-289.
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Appendix 1

Tally sheet

Tallies Total
1. Teacher (T) asks students to talk about
themselves /// 3
2. T asks a display question
a) to find out differences;
what are they?/how different?
b) to compare L2 and L1
///

/
3

1
3. T
explains a grammatical point //// 5
4. T
explains meanings of a vocabulary item //// //// 10
5. T
explains a functional point / 1
6. T
explains points relating to content (theme/topic) of the lesson
/ 1
7. T gives instructions/directions / 1
8. T praises ////
////
/// 13
9. T criticizes 0
10. T asks to rethink answer /// 3
11. Learner (L) asks a question /// 3
12. L answers a question
a) not in drill

b) in drill ////
/

////
////
////
/// 6

18

13. L talks to other L // 2

14. Period of silence or confusion 0

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Appendix 2

Short ethnographic style commentary

(Note: Japanese was spoken by both the teacher and the students unless other
wise stated)

BEGIN

6:00pm
The teacher comes in the room with a smile saying "Hollow! How are you? It
is very cold today, isn't it? The last lesson in 1999!" in English, and set
s up the desk area. She seems quite relaxed. The students are sitting down
in a half circle rather quietly. When the teacher comes in, they say "Hollo
w!" in English. They seem relaxed too. She looks over the classroom and si
lently fills in the attendance sheet, and notices one boy has not come yet.
She asks the other students if they know whether he will come to the class t
his evening. One of them answers he will. Then she says, "OK. Let's wait
for him for just a few more minutes." The students agree. While they talk
are talking, he arrives and joins the class. She says to this boy, "Hollow!
How are you?" in English, and he says "I was in the toilet." Everyone giggl
es.

6:05
The teacher starts talking in English about the Christmas party for adult st
udents held by this language school a day ago. She talks about the attendan
ce, the food and the drinks in the party, and especially about the attractio
ns. For example, she says, "I went to the Christmas party last night. We p
layed funny games and saw an wonderful show. One of the American teachers o
f this school blew soap bubbles into many interesting shapes. His performan
ce was excellent. I enjoyed it very much." She uses easy English words and
sentences, and puts the stress on the past form of verbs by repeating them.
Sometimes she explains words in Japanese. Students seem to be very interest
ed in her talk and ask her some questions about the entertainment. She answ
ers them in English.

6:13
Two girls are talking to each other in Japanese about past-tense verbs which
the teacher uses in her talk but they do not understand. She joins their co
nversation, and explains the words. One of the students say, "I think I hav
e heard them before."

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6:15
The teacher asks one of the female students in English, who seems to be the
best student in this class, to tell the class what she did yesterday. The s
tudent says in English, "I play a computer game.". The teacher says, "That'
s nice. I like a computer game too. But, how do you say when you play a co
mputer game today?". The student answers in English "I play a computer game
today.". The teacher asks again, "Is it the same as the one describing abou
t what you did yesterday?". The student goes, "Muuuu...". Other students a
re in silence, but they seem to be thinking too.

6:20
She reminds students of the sentences and the verbs she used in talking abou
t the Christmas party at the beginning of the class. She also reminds them
when we describe events in the past we use the past tense in Japanese senten
ces. She gives some examples. All students nod. She says, "It is the same
in English. We use the past tense in English when we talk about the past,"
and writes some example sentences in the present, the present progressive (w
hich she taught them in the last few classes) and the past forms, such as "I
enjoy the Christmas party./I am enjoying the Christmas party./I enjoyed the
Christmas party yesterday." The students write them down in their notebooks.

6:30
She points out the same verb written on the board both in the present and th
e past forms and says in English "Please look at these words very carefully.
Are there any differences?" Two students answer immediately in Japanese, "
The one in the past form has "ed" at the end of the word!". She praises the
m and says "that's how to make past-form verbs.".

6:35
She starts explaining grammatical points on how to make past-form verbs: reg
ular verbs and one type of irregular verbs (cf. cut-cut-cut). She writes th
e points on the board and gives examples, and writes them down on the board.
The students write them down in their notebooks. For each example word, sh
e asks the past form of that verb to students individually. When they get t
hem right, she praises them. When they do not know the answer or make error
s, she explains the grammar again, asks them to rethink the answer and gives
them the opportunity to answer again. Each student answers around 3 times o
n average in this drill.

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6:45
She shows students flash cards (15 cards in total). One card has one verb,
and the present form is written one side and the past form of the same verb
is written on the other side. These verbs are also written on the board as
examples. She shows the students the present form first and questions gener
ally the past form of the same verb. Three students answer together in high
spirits, but the rest are quiet. She does not say anything to these two stu
dents. After she hears their answer, she turns over the card and shows the
students the correct answer. She asks the meanings of words too. The stude
nts answer them in Japanese. When they give her the right answers, she prai
ses them saying, "Well done!" or "Very good!" etc. in English. When she hea
rs wrong answers, she goes "Can you say that again?" in English. She basical
ly repeats this question until they give her the correct answer, which means
she actually does not say "that's wrong!". Sometimes students pronounce the
words wrongly, but she does not correct their pronunciation.

6:55
She erases verbs written on the board, and repeats the same drill using the
same flash cards. This time, she asks the students to form past-tense verbs
one by one. One of the students does not seem to be enthusiastic but is rat
her restless all the time looks a bit bored, but the teacher appears not to
give much attention to him. At this stage, the students give her correct an
swers, verbs in the past form, almost all the time.

7:00
The teacher says in English with a big smile, "OK. All of you did very well!
. Have a merry Christmas and a happy new year! I'll see you next year! Goo
d-night!". The students say in English, "Thank you teacher! Good-night!" an
d rush to go home. She cleans up the desk and leaves the room. She records
what she teaches in this class today on the school file.

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