Reservoir Engineering 2 PE-402 By: Muhammad Ahmed pe-033

From the paper ‘‘REDUCTION IN PERMEABILITY WITH OVERBURDEN

PRESSURE’’ the results obtained was:
The specific permeability of sandstone decreases with increase in overburden pressure.
Most of the decrease takes place over the range of zero to 3,000 psi overburden pressure.
If the net pressure on the rock is assumed to be 0.56 psi per ft of depth as discussed
above, 3,000 psi of overburden pressure is equivalent to about 5,000 ft of overburden. At
3,000 psi overburden pressure, the permeability of the eight sandstone core samples
tested ranged from 59 to 89 per cent of the permeability without overburden pressure.
Figs. 1 and 2 show the permeability reduction as a function of overburden pressure. The
permeability of the eight cores without overburden pressure ranged from 4.35 md to 632
md; these permeabilities are listed in Figs. 1 and 2.
A question now arises
Q. As from the above results, why the permeability of sample mostly decreases from
0 to 3000 psi?
Ans. With the increase in confining pressure, the sample starts to compress and the pore
throats as well as micro fractures (formed due relaxation of core when brought to surface)
continues to squeeze thereby decreasing permeability. However, at about 3000 psi,
fractures start generating in the sample as more and more confining pressure was applied.
Therefore, the decreasing trend of permeability which was initially steeper, now starts to
become less steep as K is re-balancing a bit due to the generation of fractures.
Note: That the sample used here is a consolidated sample (core) and not an
unconsolidated sample (sand pack or bajree). So, the observed trend is not due to sorting.

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Reservoir Engineering 2 PE-402 By: Muhammad Ahmed pe-033

Confining pressure:
Overburden pressure, also called lithostatic pressure, confining pressure or vertical
stress, is the pressure or stress imposed on a layer of soil or rock by the weight of
overlying material. Confining pressure is specifically the pressure applied on the core
holder.

 Measuring permeability and two or three bubbles of gas remained in the sample
which was assumed to be 100% saturated with water. So, permeability measured
will be effective k and not absolute k.

 These engravings are intentionally made on core sample so that fluid can more
effectively pass through the entire core sample.

Q. What is Net pressure in the above result?

Ans. Net pressure = confining pressure – Pore pressure of rock fluid.

 SEM (Scanning electron microscope)

A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that
produces images of a sample by scanning the surface with a focused beam
of electrons. The signals that derive from electron-sample interactions reveal
information about the sample including external morphology (texture), chemical
composition, and crystalline structure and orientation of materials making up the
sample.

 When core sample is brought to surface, stress is released and the core relaxes. On
observing on SEM, micro fractures are observed
 So, basically the sample in core holder when applied with confining pressure,
these micro fractures are closed and k of sample decreases.
 The other reason of reduction in k is the sliding of grains.
 Diagenesis generates secondary porosity.

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Reservoir Engineering 2 PE-402 By: Muhammad Ahmed pe-033

GAS MATERIAL BALANCE

Material-balance equations provide a relationship between original fluids in place,
cumulative fluid production, and average reservoir pressure. It Is an equation which
relates reservoir’s volume with surface production. Is is used to determine drive
mechanisms, GIIP, and recovery factor. For many gas reservoirs, a simple material-
balance equation can be derived on the basis of the following assumptions:

 Gas-filled pore volume is constant

 Gas dissolved in water or liberated from the rock is negligible
 Reservoir temperature is uniform and constant

Drive Mechanisms
It is the mechanism which forces oil or gas to move and come to surface. It has an impact
on ultimate recovery factor and field development plans. Reservoir-drive mechanisms
include gasdrive (gas cap or solution gasdrive), waterdrive (bottomwater drive or
edgewater drive), combination drive, and gravity drainage. Waterdrive is the most
efficient drive mechanism, followed by gasdrive and gravity drainage. Reservoir-drive
mechanisms are also called natural drives.

 Ultimate recovery:
The amount of oil and gas expected to be economically recovered from a reservoir
or field by the end of its producing life.
For example,
A gas well is in production phase. To maintain pressure, water is injected. But
after certain time, gas will stop producing at required rates and we might close the
well as it might not be economically feasible to transport this gas. So, the
maximum gas that can be economically recovered will be our ultimate recovery
which depends on drive mechanism.
 Example for field development plan,
If water or SO2 is also being produced along with gas so have to install
dehydration plant or sweetening plant to purify the gas. Hence field development
is also dependent on drive mechanism.

Drive Mechanisms for Gas Reservoirs

1. Depletion Drive (Volumetric drive)

2. Water drive

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Reservoir Engineering 2 PE-402 By: Muhammad Ahmed pe-033

Depletion drive
In depletion drive gas reservoir, the primary force is pressure depletion. The pressure
difference between the reservoir and the surface forces gas to come to surface.

Assumptions for Depletion Drive Gas reservoirs:

1. No movement of the aquifer
2. Reservoir volume stays constant.

Water Drive
In water drive gas reservoir, the underlying aquifer replaces the gas produced in the
reservoir and pushes the gas towards the wellbore. A primary condition is that the aquifer
should be big.

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Reservoir Engineering 2 PE-402 By: Muhammad Ahmed pe-033

Material Balance equation for Depletion Drive Gas reservoir

𝐺𝐼𝐼𝑃 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑠 + 𝑢𝑛𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑠

𝐺𝑝 = 𝐺𝐼𝐼𝑃 − 𝑢𝑛𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑠 -------------- eq. 1

Where,

𝐺 = 𝐺𝐼𝐼𝑃 = 𝑉∅(1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖)𝐸𝑖 ------ eq. 2 1

𝐸𝑖 =
𝐵𝑔𝑖
𝐺
= 𝑉∅(1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖) --------- eq. 3
𝐸𝑖

Where, Ei is initial gas expansion factor

𝑝
𝐸𝑖 = 35.37 ------- scf/ft3
𝑧𝑇
or
𝑝
𝐸𝑖 = 198.6 ---------scf/bbl
𝑧𝑇

 Swi is considered to be minimum and is considered constant

 Gp is produced gas in scf

Now,
𝑢𝑛𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑉∅(1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖)𝐸

Where E is the expansion factor after time ‘t’ when pressure is dropped from pi to p

Putting eq.3 in above equation

𝐺
𝑢𝑛𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = ×𝐸
𝐸𝑖

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Reservoir Engineering 2 PE-402 By: Muhammad Ahmed pe-033

Putting above eq. in equation 1

𝐺
𝐺𝑝 = 𝐺 − 𝐸
𝐸𝑖
Divide both sides by G

𝐺𝑝 𝐸
=1− ---------- eq.4
𝐺 𝐸𝑖

Now,
We know that for isothermal consideration.

𝑃 𝑃𝑖
𝐸=𝑐 𝐸𝑖 = 𝑐
𝑧𝑇 𝑧𝑖𝑇

Put above 2 equations in eq. 4

𝑐𝑝
𝐺𝑝 𝑧𝑇
=1−
𝐺 𝑐𝑝𝑖
𝑧𝑖𝑇

𝐺𝑝 𝑐𝑝 𝑧𝑖𝑇
=1−
𝐺 𝑧𝑇 𝑐𝑝𝑖

𝐺𝑝 𝑝𝑧𝑖
=1−
𝐺 𝑧𝑝𝑖

𝑝
𝑧 = 1 − 𝐺𝑝
𝑝𝑖 𝐺
𝑧𝑖

𝑝 𝑝𝑖 1 𝑝𝑖
= −( )𝐺
𝑧 𝑧𝑖 𝐺 𝑧𝑖 𝑝

The above equation is called the material balance equation for depletion drive gas
reservoir.

Compare the material balance eq. with the equation of straight line,

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

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Reservoir Engineering 2 PE-402 By: Muhammad Ahmed pe-033

We get,

𝑐 = 𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 𝑝𝑖/𝑧𝑖

1 𝑝𝑖
𝑚 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = −
𝐺 𝑧𝑖

At initial condition Gp =0 so,

𝑝 𝑝𝑖
=
𝑧 𝑧𝑖

Or
1 𝑝𝑖
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = −
𝐺 𝑧𝑖

GIIP

These reserves are not

recoverable. This is just an
in-place estimation.

This plot is called p/z plot. It determines GIIP, uniform depletion drive mechanism
and determine the recovery factor.

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Reservoir Engineering 2 PE-402 By: Muhammad Ahmed pe-033

Where,
 ‘a’ is (p/z) abandonment or ‘the abandonment p/z’ the corresponding Gp is the primary
recovery’
 ‘b’ is (p/z) abandonment or ‘the abandonment p/z’ obtainment after compression. This
incremental recovery obtained would be secondary recovery or recovery due to
compression. This is not ultimate recovery.
Limitations
1. You cannot plot this graph if you do not have the production data or production
history.
2. The results obtained from this graph could be very earnest in the early life (as
reservoir require time to stabilize). This is why we perform check on regular basis.
3. This graph is rate independent.

 A reservoir with trillion volumes of HC was estimated but pressure depleted to 40

% within small time. The reason was the presence of fault. Production was taken
from a small portion of the reservoir due to the fault barrier.

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Reservoir Engineering 2 PE-402 By: Muhammad Ahmed pe-033

Material Balance equation for Water Drive Gas reservoir

By volume Balance:

𝐺𝐼𝐼𝑃 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑠 + 𝑢𝑛𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑠 ---------- eq.1

Now, Consider the unproduced gas after time ‘t’

𝑈𝑛𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = (𝑉∅(1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖) − 𝑊𝑒)𝐸 -------------- eq. 2

Where ‘We’ is the water encroachment. It is the volume water that invades into the
reservoir once production starts and pressure depletes.

We know that

𝐺 = 𝑉∅(1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖)𝐸𝑖

𝐺
= 𝑉∅(1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖)
𝐸𝑖
Put it in equation 2,

𝐺
𝑢𝑛𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝐸 − 𝑊𝑒𝐸
𝐸𝑖

Put above eq. in 1

𝐺
𝐺𝐼𝐼𝑃 = 𝐺𝑝 + 𝐸 − 𝑊𝑒
𝐸𝑖

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Reservoir Engineering 2 PE-402 By: Muhammad Ahmed pe-033

 Effect of water drive on p/z vs. Gp relationship

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