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CHE 304

Chemical Engineering Laboratory-III

(Heat Transfer & Unit Operation)

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Experiment #1 Study of Double Pipe Heat Exchanger


Experiment #2 Study of Steam Condensation on a Single Vertical Tube
Experiment #3 Study of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Experiment #4 Study of Single Effect Evaporator
Experiment #5 Study of Pressure in Masses of Particles
Experiment #6 Study of Constant Pressure Filtration
Experiment #7 i) Investigation of Liquid-Solid and Gas-Solid Fluidized bed.
ii) Investigation of 2D and 3D Gas-Solid Fluidized beds
Experiment #8 Study of Crushing and Grinding

SCHEDULE FOR LEVEL-3, TERM-2

Week
Group
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
INTRODUCTION

BOARD VIVA

2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1
QUIZ

3 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2
4 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3
5 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4
6 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5

1
EXPERIMENT #1

STUDY OF HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT IN A DOUBLE PIPE HEAT


EXCHANGER

1. OBJECTIVES

a) To obtain individual and overall heat transfer coefficients.


b) To study the variation of heat transfer coefficient with Reynolds number (Re) and
fluid velocity (v).
c) To compare experimental and estimated heat transfer coefficients.

2. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
2.1 Double Pipe Heat Exchanger

Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate the exchange of heat between two fluids that
are at different temperatures while keeping them from mixing with each other. Heat
transfer in a double pipe heat exchanger usually involves convection in each fluid and
conduction through the wall separating the two fluids.

(a)

(b)
Figure 1: (a) Schematic diagram of a double pipe heat exchanger and (b)
Temperature profile of a double pipe heat exchanger.

2
The rate of heat transfer between the two fluids at a location in a heat exchanger depends
on the magnitude of the temperature difference at that location, which varies along the
heat exchanger.

2.2 Experimental Set-up

Tube length = 7' 4''


Inner tube: Nominal diameter =1''
Schedule 40

2.3 Experimental Procedure

1 Set the thermometers in proper places and record the necessary data for this
experimental system.
2 Pass water through the inner pipe.
3 Allow steam to flow through the annulus. Valve opening will determine the steam
pressure at the inlet. This is shown on the pressure gauge.
4 Fix the pressure at a convenient value and record the inlet and outlet water
temperature. Also note the amount of water and condensate collected for a known
interval of time. Keeping the steam pressure fixed, obtain all readings for different
water flow rates.
5 Repeat step 4 for different steam pressures.
6 Enter the results in the table shown below.

2.1 Data Sheet Preparation

Table 1: Observed data

Steam
No. Water temperature Water Condensate
pressure
of
P Inlet (T1) Outlet (T2) Weight Time Weight Time
obs.
(psig) (Unit) (Unit) (Unit) (Unit) (Unit) (Unit)

3
3. REPORT WRITING

3.1 Calculations
Mass flow rate of water Mw = Ww/t
Mass flow rate of condensate Mc = Wc/t
Rate of heat taken up by water Qw = MwCp(T2 - T1)
Rate of heat given up by steam Qc = Mc s
Mean rate of heat flow Qm = (Qw+Qc)/2
Saturation temperature of steam, Ts, heat of vaporization, s
Temperature difference at inlet, T1=Ts-T1
Temperature difference at outlet, T2 = Ts-T2
T1 T2
Log mean temperature difference, T1m
ln( T1 / T2 )
Outside area available for heat transfer, Ao
Qm
Exptl. Overall heat transfer coefficient, UOE =
T1m Ao
Mean temperature of water, Tm = (T1+T2)/2
Tube wall temperature on steam side, Tw= (Ts+TM)/2
Water side heat transfer coefficient for turbulent flow using Dittus-Boelter euation
km
hi = 0.023 (Re) 0.8 (Pr)1 / 3
Di
Film temperature, TF =Ts 0.75(Ts-Tw)
Steam side heat transfer coefficient
Nusselt equation for film type condensation
1/ 4
k f 3 2f g s
ho=0.725 (Laminar flow)
D0 (Ts Tw ) f

The parameters k f , f , and f are to be evaluated at TF .

Overall heat transfer coefficient is estimated by


1
1 D x D
UOT = o W o

ho D1 h1 k M Dlm

4
4. 3.2 Report
1. Plot Nusselt Number (NNu) versus Reynold Number (Re) on a logarithmic plot and
determine the applicability of Dittus-Boelter equation.
2. Plot h versus velocity (v) on a logarithmic plot.
3. Draw a Wilson plot. i.e. plot (1/U) versus (1/v)0.8 .

5. REFERENCES

1. Foust, A. S., L. A. Wenzel, C. W. Clump, L. Maus, and Andersen, L. B. (1980).


Principles of Unit Operations, 2nd edition., New York: John Wiley & Sons.
2. Kern, D. Q. (1050). Process Heat Transfer, International Edition, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, pp. 102-108.

5
Marking Scheme
Report on
Study of Heat Transfer Coefficient in a Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
(Student must attach this page with submitted report)

Name:

Student number:

Section and % marks allocated Marks

Summary (10%)

Experimental set up (20%)

Observed data (5%)

Calculated data (10%)

Sample calculation (20%)

Result and discussion (20%)

Quality of tables and figures (10%)

Overall presentation (5%)

Total (100%)

6
EXPERIMENT #2

STUDY OF STEAM CONDENSATION ON A SINGLE VERTICAL TUBE

1. OBJECTIVES

The experiment will be conducted to fulfill the following objectives:

i) To demonstrate film-type condensation and to estimate the steam side heat


transfer coefficient.
ii) To estimate the overall heat transfer coefficient associated with the water.
iii) To study the variation of local convection coefficient and film thickness with
distance from the top of the tube.
iv) To determine the effect of the velocity of water through tube on the overall heat
transfer coefficient.
v) To find the relationship how heat load and mass flow rate of water varies with
wall temperature.
vi) To estimate the heat loss to the surroundings.

2. INTRODUCTION

Processes of heat transfer accompanied by phase change are more complex than simple
heat exchange between fluids. A phase change involves the addition or subtraction of
considerable quantities of heat at constant or nearly constant temperature. The rate of
phase change may be governed by the rate of heat transfer, but it is often influenced by
the rate of nucleation of bubbles, drops, or crystals and by the behavior of the new phase
after it is formed. Examples of systems in which condensation and vaporization both
occur are conventional home air conditioners and refrigerators.

Consider a solid surface at some temperature Tw in contact with a vapor at an elevated


temperature T. If the surface temperature Tw is less than the saturation temperature of
the vapor, then the vapor will begin to condense on the surface. That is, the vapor will
undergo a phase change, forming a 1iquid that will flow downward along the surface
under the action of gravity. If the liquid does not wet the surface, the condensate takes the
form of droplets that fall downward in a random fashion (just like water droplets along
the side of a waxed automobile surface). This is called drop wise condensation; the
droplets do not exhibit an affinity for the surface and do not cover it. Another way in
which a vapor condenses on a surface is by forming a smooth film. The liquid wets the
surface, which becomes completely covered with liquid. During the process, known as
film wise condensation, the liquid film falls under the action of gravity and grows in

7
thickness with increasing distance. A temperature gradient exists across the film from the
surface temperature to the saturation temperature at the free surface. The film thus
represents a thermal resistance to hear transfer.

The type of heat exchanger used for condensation purpose is known as condenser. The
primary function of a condenser is to remove latent heat, although it is sometimes
necessary to remove sensible heat as well. Condensers are typically multi-pass shell and
tube exchangers with floating heads. The heat is removed by contacting vapor with a cold
surface (the tube wall). The liquid then flows off the tube under the influence of gravity,
collects, and flows out of the exchanger.

Condensation study includes the measurement of inlet and outlet cooling water
temperature at different flow rate as well as at different steam pressure. Overall heat
transfer coefficient is determined for each set of data. Nusselt equation can be used to
estimate steam side heat transfer coefficient considering film-type condensation. To
calculate heat-transfer rates, physical-property data (such as viscosity, thermal
conductivity, density, specific heat, latent heat, and surface tension) at the average bulk
fluid temperature are generally sufficient.

3. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION

3.1 Experimental Set-up

In this study a vertical tube which is made of 1 2 inch standard type K copper tubing 64
inch long is inserted into a cylindrical glass shell of 2 inch diameter. Cold water flows
through the copper tube. Low pressure steam (in the shell) condenses on the outside
surface of the tube and the inside surface of the glass shell.

3.2 Experimental Procedure

1. Run cooling water through the condenser and adjust the rate of flow to the desired
value
2. Introduce steam of known quality at the desired pressure
3. Read the thermometers occasionally until the system has reached equilibrium
4. Collect and weigh the condensate over an interval of several minutes
5. Record the cooling water flow rate as well as the inlet and outlet water temperatures
6. Repeat the experiment at various rates of water flow (at least 4) keeping the steam
pressure constant
7. Conduct the experiment at various steam pressures (at least 3 different steam
pressure)

8
3.3 Data Sheet Preparation
Table 1: Observed data
Steam
No. Water temperature Water Condensate
pressure
of
P Inlet (T1) Outlet (T2) Weight Time Weight Time
obs.
(psig) (Unit) (Unit) (Unit) (Unit) (Unit) (Unit)

4. REPORT WRITING

4.1 Calculations

Mass flow rate of water = Mw


Mass flow rate of condensate = Mc
Saturation temperature of steam = TS
Heat of vaporization = s
Rate of heat taken up by water Qw = MwCp(T2- T1)
Rate of heat given up by steam Qc = Mc s
Mean rate of heat flow Qm = (Qw+Qc)/2

T1 T2
Mean temperature of water, TM
2
Tw should be calculated based on the bulk average water temperature (inlet to outlet),
TS TM
e.g., tube wall temperature on steam side, TW .
2
The physical properties of the condensate film should be based on the film
TW TS
temperature, Tf .
2
Determine percent loss of heat to the surroundings.
Determine steam side heat transfer coefficient h0 by selecting appropriate equations
from one of the reference books. You must mention the reference in your report.
Determine overall heat transfer coefficient, U using the following relation:
Qw = UAcTm; where Ac is the condenser area exposed to cooling water and Tm is
the logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD).
Calculate thickness of the condensate film (yf) and local heat transfer co-efficient
(hlocal) as a function of distance from top of copper tube (z) for different observations
at each steam pressure.
Calculate average value of yf and hlocal at a certain steam pressure.

9
4.2 Graphs

1. U as a function of velocity of water at different pressure


2. Film thickness as a function of distance from top at different pressure
3. Local heat transfer coefficient as a function of distance from top at different pressure
4. Heat load of water as a function of wall temperature at different pressure
5. Mass flow rate of water as a function of wall temperature at different pressure
6. [You should have total 15 plots for 3 different steam pressures]

4.3 DISCUSSIONS

1. Briefly explain the effect of different parameters on the heat transfer coefficient.
2. Briefly explain the nature of the curves.
3. Briefly explain the acceptability of the experimental heat transfer coefficient values.

4.4 CONCLUSIONS

1. Comment on experimental steam side heat transfer coefficient and overall heat
transfer coefficient values in comparison with literature values.
2. Comment on effect of wall temperature and water velocity on the heat transfer
coefficient.

5. REFERENCES

1. Foust, A. S., L. A. Wenzel, C. W. Clump, L. Maus, and Andersen, L. B. (1980).


Principles of Unit Operations, 2nd edition, New York: John Wiley & Sons.
2. Holman, J.P. (1997). Heat Transfer, 8th edition, McGraw-Hill book Company, P 517-
526.
3. Incropera, F. P., and David P. DeWitt, (1998). Fundamentals of Heat and Mass
Transfer, 4th edition, John Wiley & Sons.
4. Janna W. S. (1986). Engineering Heat Transfer, PWS Publishers, Boston, P 650-660.
5. Kern, D. Q. (1050). Process Heat Transfer, International Edition, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, pp. 102-108.

10
Marking Scheme
Report on
Study of Steam Condensation on a Single Vertical Tube
(Student must attach this page with submitted report)

Name:

Student number:

Section and % Marks Allocated Marks

Summary (10%)

Experimental set up (10%)

Experimental (30%, 5+5+10+10)

Result and discussion (20%)

Quality of Tables (10%)

Quality of figures (10%)

Overall presentation (10%)

Total (100%)

11
EXPERIMENT# 3
STUDY OF A SINGLE PASS SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

1. OBJECTIVES

1. To study the single pass shell and tube heat exchanger.


2. To determine experimentally individual and overall heat transfer coefficients of
heating water with steam.
3. To compare experimental heat transfer coefficients with theoretical values.
4. To calculate the tube-side pressure drops and compare them with those obtained
experimentally.

2. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION

2.1 Experimental Setup

HEAT EXCHANGER
Shell: Nominal Size 6
Schedule No. 40
Passes: Shell side=1
Tube side=1
Tubes: OD =0.5 inch
BWG =16
Length =96 inch
Number = 19
PUMP
Centrifugal Pump

1.5 kW; 240 V; 50 Hz ; 2900 rpm


Hmax: 38m; Qmax: 250l/h

Figure 1: Schematic Diagram of 1-1 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger.

12
2.2. Experimental Procedure

1. Start the pump. Keep the heat exchanger-inlet fully closed and purge line from the
pump discharge fully open. Wait until the water tank is filled up to a sufficient height.
2. Open the inlet line and purge the tubes by flushing with running water.
3. After draining out, fill the tubes with fresh water.
4. Open the steam valve and purge the shell with steam.
5. Maintain a constant water flow rate and steam pressure.
6. At steady state condition, record water flow rate, inlet and outlet water temperatures,
steam pressure and manometer reading. Measure the condensate amount for a given
period.
7. Repeat step 5 and 6, varying the flow rate of water.
8. For a different steam pressure, repeat steps 5 to 7.

2.3 Flow Rate Adjustment

1. Adjust the control valve such that the manometer difference is approximately 1.5 in
Hg. The value corresponds to a Reynolds number of 5000 or a tube side velocity of 2
ft/s (approx.). (Students are recommended to verify this using the flow meter).
2. Increase the flow rate at subsequent stages maintaining a reasonable increase in
Reynolds number at each stage. The final reading should correspond to the maximum
velocity (or Reynolds number).

Data Sheet Preparation

Weight of bucket, W1=

Obs. Steam Flow Water Wt. of Time (t) Manometer


No. Pressure Meter Temperature bucket + Reading
(psi) Reading (unit) condensate (unit)
Inlet Outlet (W2) Water Condensate left right
(T1) (T2) (unit)

Find the saturation temperature of steam (Ts) from Steam Table.

13
3. REPORT WRITING

3.1 Calculations
1. Heat balance: Calculate heat load from both temperature change of water and steam
condensation rate.
2. Calculate LMTD.
3. Calculate Experimental Overall heat transfer coefficient.
Q = UOEAOTln (based on outside surface area).
4. Use Sieder-Tate equation to calculate water side heat transfer coefficient (h1).
5. Calcualte film temperature
Tf = Ts - 0.75 (Ts - Tw),
where wall temperature
Tw = [Ts+ 0.5 (T1+T2)]/2
6. Correlation for estimating condensation coefficient of steam:
Use Nusselt equation given below to calculate the shell side heat transfer coefficient ( ho ).
0.25
( v ) gh fg k f 3
ho 0.725
f nd (Tg Tw )
Where, d = outer tube diameter
n = no. of tubes
Tg Ts
h fg = heat of condensation
use, v = steam 0
Physical properties such as viscosity ( ), density () and thermal conductivity (k)
of the condensate are evaluated at film temperature.
7. Calculate Nusselt number and Prandtl number for tube side heat transfer.
8. Theoretical overall heat transfer coefficient:
Calculate theoretical overall heat transfer coefficient based on outside area (UOT)
using the following equation
1
1 D
U OT o
ho Di hi
9. Calculate tube- side pressure drop.

3.2 Graphs
1. Calculate individual and overall heat transfer coefficient both theoretically and
experimentally. Compare the values.
2. Plot Nu.Pr-1/3(/w)-0.14 vs. Re in logarithmic coordinate and establish the validity of
Sieder-Tate equation.
3. Plot pressure drop vs. water velocity data, generate a calibration curve.

14
Marking Scheme
Report on
STUDY OF A SINGLE PASS SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
(Student must attach this page with submitted report)

Name:

Student number:

Section and % marks allocated Marks

Summary (10%)

Experimental set up (20%)

Observed Data (5%)

Calculated Data (10%)

Sample Calculation (20%)

Result and discussion (20%)

Quality of Tables and figures (10%)

Overall presentation (5%)

Total (100%)

15
EXPERIMENT #4
STUDY OF A SINGLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR

1. OBJECTIVES

1. To study, operate, and obtain characteristics of a single effect evaporator


2. To perform material and energy balances for a single effect evaporator
3. To determine steam economy

2. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION

2.1 Experimental Procedure

1. Fill the first effect of the evaporator to the proper level with feed (here it is water)
and close the feed valve.
2. Open the water line for the condenser and adjust the flow rate
3. Introduce steam to the steam chest of the evaporator by opening the steam inlet
valve at a pressure not more than 10 psig.
4. Collect the condensate from the steam trap continually.
5. Measure the label of condensate in the condensate storage tank periodically.
6. When steady state is reached, record steam pressure, still temperature, vapor
temperature, condenser temperature, and condenser water flow rate.
7. Shut down the experiment when a steady evaporation rate is obtained.
8. At the end of the experiment, drain out all tanks and shut down the steam valve and
the condenser water line pump.

2.2 Data Sheet Preparation

Steam Pressure =
Vapor Temperature =
Still Temperature =
Flow rate of water in the condenser =
Condenser inlet temperature =
Condenser outlet temperature =

16
Water Steam
No. Time evaporated condensed
of (level in the tank)
Obs. Time wt.
(unit) (unit) (unit) (unit)

3. REPORT WRITING

1. Draw a plot to show the time required to reach steady state i.e. plot condensation rate
of the evaporated water vs. time.
2. Include a neat flow diagram of the whole setup.
3. Determine cumulative steam economy of all the observed data as well as the overall
steam economy.
4. Comment on you results.

4. CHECKLIST

You should have a thorough knowledge on the following topics:


1. Types of evaporators.
2. Factors to be considered in designing evaporators.
3. Why is vacuum used in evaporators? Why vacuum has not been provided in this
experiment?
4. Boiling point elevation. Boiling point lowering.
5. Variables to be fixed to attain steady-state operation.
6. Steam economy.
7. Auxiliary equipments
i. Steam traps
ii. Condensers
iii. Entrainment Separators
iv. Vacuum Pumps
v. Ejectors
8. Effect of feed temperature.
9. Methods of feeding.
10. Multiple effect evaporators.
11. Optimum number of effects.
12. Choice of steam pressure.
13. Scale formation and its pitfalls.

17
5. REFERENCES

1. Foust, A. S., L. A. Wenzel, C. W. Clump, L. Maus, and Andersen, L. B. (1980).


Principles of Unit Operations, 2nd ed., New York: John Wiley & Sons.

2. McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C., and Harriott, P. (2005). Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill, Singapore.

3. Badgers, W. L., and Banchero, J. T. (1955). Introduction to Chemical Engineering,


McGraw-Hill Book Company.

18
Marking Scheme
Report on
STUDY OF A SINGLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR
(Student must attach this page with submitted report)

Name:

Student number:

Section and % marks allocated Marks

Summary (10%)

Experimental set up (20%)

Observed Data (10%)

Calculated Data (10%)

Sample Calculation (10%)

Result and discussion (20%)

Quality of Tables and figures (10%)

Overall presentation (10%)

Total (100%)

19
EXPERIMENT #5

STUDY OF PRESSURE IN MASSES OF PARTICLES

1. OBJECTIVE

When solid particles are stored in containers, such as bins, hoppers, silos etc. they exert
pressure on the bottom and side walls of the container. However, because of the particle
interlocking, this pressure does not increase linearly as the storage height is increased,
and after a certain height this pressure becomes practically constant. The objective of this
experiment is therefore to observe the above phenomena and to verify the well known
Janssen equation.

2. THEORY

Masses of solid particles especially when they are dry and non-sticky have properties.
One of these properties is investigated in this experiment. The pressure applied by a
column of material, say sand does not vary linearly with height of the column.
Base Pressure

Height of Column of Solids

Figure 1: Base Pressure in Cylindrical Bins (McCabe et al., 1985)

i. Pressure in Bins, Silos and Hoppers, Janssen Equation:


Theoretical Base Pressure, Pb, in kg/m2:

r g / g 2 'k ' z
Pb b ' ' c 1 e r
2 k

Where,
r = radius of the column
b = bulk density of material

20
' = coefficient of friction
k ' = ratio of normal pressure to applied
z = height of sand
The coefficient of friction at column wall, ' = tan m

1 sin m
The ratio of normal pressure to the applied pressure, k ' =
1 sin m
ii. Flow Out of Bins
The rate of flow of granular solids like sand by gravity through a circular opening at
the bottom of the following empirical rate equation
p Do n
m
(6.288 tan m 23.16)( D p 1.889) 44.90

Where, n = 3
Do = Opening diameter
p = Particle density
Dp = Particle diameter
m = Angle of internal friction.
iii. Storage in Bins and Silos

1. Bulk storage
2. Angle of repose
3. Angle of internal friction
iv. Flow of Solids from Bins
1. Mass flow
2. Tunnel flow/ Core flow
3. Arching
4. Interlocking
5. Ratholing

3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. Set the apparatus and take the initial reading when the glass column is empty.
2. Pour a weighed quantity (about 1 kg) of well graded particles into the glass column.
Record weight reading and the height of the stored particles.
3. Repeat step 2 until two successive weight reading becomes practically the same.
4. Now fill the second column with the same particles and measure the discharge rate
from its bottom outlet.

21
3.1 Sample data collection:

Diameter of first vertical column, D = (m/inch)

Table 1: Observed Data for Pressure in Masses of Particles.

Observation Mass of sand Mass of sand in Height of sand in


No. added column column
(lb) (lb) (mm)
1.
2.

Opening diameter of the second column, Do = (m/inch)

Table 2: Readings taken of Mass and Time of Sand Discharge.

Obs, No, Mass of sand Mass of sand in Height of sand in


added column column
(lb) (lb) (mm)
1.
2.
3.

4. REPORT WRITING

1. Convert weight reading into experimental base pressure, (P = F/A). Convert all data
into SI units.
2. Find theoretical base pressure using Janssen equation.
3. Compare the experimental and theoretical base pressures in a Table. Also compare
your results in a graph.
4. Discuss your results.

5. REFERENCES

1. Nicholas P. C, and Paul N. C. (1984). Hydrodynamics of Gas Solid Fluidization, Gulf


Publishing Company, p.1-7, 44, 48-52.
2. McCabe W. L., Smith J. C., and Harriott P. (2005). Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, 7th Edition, McGraw-Hill International, p. 757-766.

22
EXPERIMENT # 6
CONSTANT PRESSURE FILTRATION

1. OBJECTIVES

1. To study the filtration processes and determine which are the major contributing
factors to its operation.
2. To determine the flow rates through the filters.
3. To determine the specific cake resistances and the filter medium resistance for a
number of constant pressure-runs.

2. INTRODUCTION

The plate-and-frame filter press is one example of a variety of industrial filtering


equipment. It is used particularly when the quantity of solid to be filtered is not large
enough to justify the use of a continuous automatic filter or if the solids to be separated
have a high value. Although the plate-and-frame filter is lower in capital cost per unit of
filtering surface than its competitors and requires the least floor space , the operating
costs for such a press is high and this filter is therefore not always the most economical
choice.
Plate and Frame Filter Press
It uses _______ ______ Plates and has a ________ ft3 cake capacity. Similar presses
are used on a larger scale, such as solids removal in waste water treatment. The
mechanism of cake filtration can be demonstrated clearly with the plate-and-frame filter
press. In this experiment it will be shown that the filtering characteristics of a solid can be
determined by a straightforward laboratory procedure.

3. THEORY

Filter presses operate under pressure using the process of cake filtration. This involves
sending slurry through the press, which is equipped with filter clothes. The cloths pick up
the particles in the slurry and allow the solvent (water) to pass through. As more slurry
moves through the press, the cake builds up and assists the filtration process. The rate at
which the slurry moves through the press depends on the viscosity of the liquid, the
thickness and resistance of the cake, and the pressure drop across each plate. To
determine the flow rate at any time through the press, a simple differential equation is
used. The rate of filtration is given by Equation 1.

23
v pAg c
...(1)
t ( Rc Rm )
Where,
v
= Filtration rate that is the volume of the filtrate passing through the bed per
t
unit time.
A = Filtration area.
(p) = Pressure difference driving force.
Rc = Resistance of the cake.
Rm = Resistance of the filtering medium.
= Viscosity of the filtrate.
The resistance of the cake may be assumed to be directly proportional to the amount of
the cake deposited, therefore,
Rc = w .....(2)
Where,
w = Mass of the cake deposited per unit area
= Specific cake resistance
The mass of the cake deposited per unit area is related to the cumulative volume of filtrate
V by
wA = cV (3)
where, c = Concentration of the solids in the suspension.
cV
Now, from Equation 2 and Equation 3, Rc
A
From Equation 1,
v pAg c

t (cV R )
m
A
1 c Rm
2 V
v A (p) g c A(p) g c
t
t
aV b . (4)
v
c Rm
Where, a= &b= .
A (p) g c
2
A(p) g c
Therefore, a plot of dt/dV vs. V will give a straight line from which a and b can be

24
evaluated. Integration of Equation 4 yields,
a
t V 2 bV . (5)
2
This equation relates cumulative volume of filtrate to filtration time (t).
During constant pressure filtration the rate of flow starts at a maximum and progressively
decreases. A decision must be taken as to when the filtration cycle should be ended and
the filter cleaned out. An optimum cycle time can be calculated as follows:
The average (i.e, overall) rate of filtrate flow in a complete filtration cycle
V
Qavg (6)
t td
Where, td = downtime i.e, time required for washing, dismantling and reassembling.
From Equation 4 and Equation 5,
V
Qavg .. . ... . .(7)
a 2
V bV t d
2
For optimum
dQavg
0
dV
a 2
V bV t d V (aV b)
2 0
a 2
( V bV t d ) 2

2
2t d
Vopt .. ... ...(8)
a
Now from Equation 5,
a
t opt Vopt bVopt .... (9)
2

25
Apparatus
The apparatus consists of the following components:
1. Slurry supply
Slurry preparation tank
Slurry pump
Piping and valves
2. Filtration
Sperry plate-and-frame filter press
3. Filtrate collection
Filtrate tank
Volume indicators
4. Piping and valves
a. The plates and frames are hung on a rack using side rails and forced tightly with a
screw. Filter media (canvas / cloth / filter paper / woven wire) are hung over the
plates extending over both faces of the plate. Holes have been cut in the cloth to
match channel holes in plates and frames. When cloth, plates and frames are
correctly aligned press is closed with hand screw or hydraulic system.
b. Feed slurry is then pumped into bottom corner duct (this duct has outlets into each
frame, so slurry fills the frames in parallel). Filtrate flows through the media and
cake and finally on the face of the plate and to the outlet duct of the plate. Solid
builds up as a layer on the frame side of the medium. As cake builds up flow rate
decreases
c. When required, stop the operation and wash the system. (The details of operation
can be further found from Reference 1)
Specification:
Pump:
Centrifugal Pump
Filter Press:
The Slurry Filter Press
D. R. Sperry & CO.
Size 12 Filter Press
Serial No. 83629
Type 47
Slurry Tank:
Volume 180 L

26
4. SAMPLE DATA COLLECTION

Feed slurry composition, c = kg/m3


Down time, td = sec
Filtration area, A= m2

Filtrate water temperature, T= C
Table 1. Observed Data for Constant Pressure Filtration Experiment.
Obs. No. Mass of Filtrate Collected Time
(kg) (sec)
1.
2.
-- -- --

Parameters to be calculated

a. Average flow rate, Qavg


b. Optimum Filtrate Volume, Vopt
c. Optimum time, topt
d. Resistance of the filtering medium, Rm
e. Specific cake resistance,
f. Resistance of the cake, Rc
g. Total mass of cake deposited on the filter, wA

Steps to be followed

a. Convert the mass flow rate of filtrate to volumetric flow rate and calculate
cumulative volume and filtration time.
b. Plot cumulative volume vs. filtration time for different pressure on same graph paper.
c. Plot of dt/dV vs. V for different pressure on different graph paper.
d. The plot of dt/dV vs. V will give a straight line from which a and b can beevaluated.
e. The different parameter can be calculated by using different theoretical equations.

5. REFERENCES

1. Foust, A. S., Wenzel, L. A., Clump, C.W., Maus, L., and Andersen, L. B. (1980).
Principles of Unit Operations, 2nd ed., New York: John Wiley & Sons.

2. McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C., and Harriott, P. (2005). Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill, Singapore.

27
EXPERIMENT # 7
PART A:
INVESTIGATION OF LIQUID-SOLID AND GAS SOLID FLUIDIZED BED

1A. OBJECTIVE

To verify the Richardson- Zaki equation for liquid fluidized beds.

2A. THEORY

Any increase in liquid flow beyond Umf causes the bed to expand to a new height. The
bed expands uniformly from Umf to physical transport of the bed at the terminal settling
velocity of the particles, Ut. The experimentally observed relationship on logarithmic co-
ordinates between U and E has prompted many workers to suggest the following
correlation for spherical particles
U=Utn
This correlation which is also valid for sedimentation is now commonly known as the
Richardson- Zaki equation.

2.1A. Minimum Fluidization Velocity, Umf

The velocity which initiates the bed to expand and fluidization starts, is called minimum
fluidization velocity.

2.2A. Terminal Settling Velocity, Ut

During Fluidization, when the total force on the particles becomes zero, the particle
reaches to a constant velocity and that is terminal settling velocity. Liquid-fluidized
systems are generally characterized by the regular expansion of the bed that takes place as
the velocity increases from the minimum fluidization velocity to the terminal settling
velocity of the particles.

2.3A. Voidage

It is the ratio of the pore volume to the bulk volume.


Vp k
Voidage, = 1
VT H

28
3A. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. Collect initial bed height.


2. Increase the water flow rate by controlling the opening valve.
3. Collect water for a particular time and weigh the collected sample.

4A. RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS

i) On log-log paper plot superficial velocity (cm/s) against voidage ( x-axis). From
this plot find Umf, Ut and n ( R-Z index).
ii) Calculate Umf, Ut and n for the fluidized system studied and compare with
experimental values.

PART B:

INVESTIGATION OF 2-D AND 3-D GAS-SOLID FLUIDIZED BEDS

1B. OBJECTIVE

To study pressure drop characteristics of gas-solid fluidized beds

2B. THEORY

When a fluid is forced through a static bed, three forces act on the particle. Gravity force
acts downward; buoyancy and drag force act upward. When these three forces are
balanced, the bed is fluidized. As long as the bed remains fixed, the pressure drop
increases linearly with velocity. After the bed becomes fluidized, pressure drop becomes
constant.

2.1B. Particulate Fluidization

When the fluid and solid densities are almost same, the velocity of flow becomes
moderate. In this case, fluidization is uniform. This is called particulate fluidization. Here
the dense phase has many characteristics of liquid.

2.2B. Aggregative Fluidization

When the fluid and the solid densities are greatly different or the particles are large, the
velocity of flow must be relatively high. In this case, fluidization is uneven, and the fluid
passes through the bed mainly in large bubbles. This is called aggregative fluidization.
Here, the dense phase has many characteristics of a gas.

29
2.3B. Bubbling

Increase in gas flow rate after the minimum fluidization velocity, results in the formation
of bubbles which tend to increase the number and size of bubbles. Bubbles tend to
coalesce and grow as they rise through the fluidized bed.

2.4B Channeling

The uniformity of fluidized bed is a function of the size and the surface properties of the
fluid. When the particles are less than about 50 microns in diameter, then tend to
agglomerate and therefore channeling takes place.

2.5B. Froude Number

v2
It is the ratio of kinetic to gravitational energy. Fr = . If Fr is less than unity,
gD
particulate fluidization occurs and if Fr is greater than unity, aggregative fluidization
occurs.
3B. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. Sketch the flow pattern at different flow rate.


2. Physically observe the gas-solid fluidized bed and record the pressure drop for
each corresponding velocity of air.

4B. RESULTS

Plot pressure drop against superficial air velocity in a log-log paper.


Data Sheet
Liquid-Solid Fluidized Bed Specification
Column dimensions: Diameter 2 inch; Length 2 ft
Particle : (Density gm/cm3; Diameter mm)
Liquid : Tap water at room conditions

30
Table 1A. Liquid-Solid Fluidization
Flow rate increasing Flow rate decreasing
Weight of Collected Height of Weight of Collected Height of
the water time the bed the water time the bed

Table 1B. Gas-Solid Fluidization


Flow rate of air Height of the manometric fluid
Left Right

5. REFERENCES
1. Foust, A. S., Wenzel, L. A., Clump, C. W., Maus, L. and Andersen, L. B. (1980).
Principles of Unit Operations, 2nd ed., New York: John Wiley & Sons.
2. Perry, R.H. and Green, D.W. (1997). Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7th ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
3. Coulson, J. M., Richardson, J. F., Backhurst, J. R. and Harker, J. H. (1978). Chemical
Engineering, Vol. 2, Pergamon International library of Science, Technology,
Engineering and Social Services.
4. McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C., and Harriott, P. (2005). Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill, Singapore.

31
EXPERIMENT # 8
STUDY OF CRUSHING AND GRINDING

1. OBJECTIVES

1. To study and operate a Jaw Crusher and calculate the power required for size
reduction.
2. To study and operate a Pebble Mill and perform screen analysis of the product and
calculate the mean particle diameter.

2. THEORY

2.1 Energy Laws


1. Kicks Law
2. Rittingers Law
3. Bonds Law
Bonds Law:
Bond postulated that the work required to form particles of size Dp from very large feed is
proportional to the square root of the surface-to-volume ratio of the product sp/vp. The
equation for surface-to-volume ratio is given by:
sp/vp = 6/sDp
From this equation the Bond postulated:
P K
b (1)
m DP

where Kb is a constant that depends upon the type of machine and on the material being
crushed. To use Equation 1, a work index Wi is defined as the gross energy requirement
in kilowatt-hours per ton (2000 lb) of feed needed to reduce a very large feed to a size
that 80% of the product passes through a 100 m screen. This definition leads to a
relation between Kb and Wi. If Dp is in millimeters, P in kilowatts, and m in tons per hour,

K b 1000 10 -3 Wi 0.3162 Wi
.
If 80% of the feed passes a mesh size of Dpa mm and 80% of product a mesh of Dpb mm,

P 1 1
0.3162Wi
m D DFa
Pb
The work index includes the friction in the crusher and the power is gross power.

32
2.2 Work Index

Work index Wi is defined as the gross energy requirement in kilowatt-hours per ton (2000
lb) of feed needed to reduce a very large feed to a size that 80% of the product passes
through a 100 m screen. The work index includes the friction in the crusher.

2.3 Mesh

Particle size is determined by screen analysis using mesh or screen. It is the number of
opening per linear inch counting from the center of any weir to a point exactly 1 inch
distant or by an opening specified in inches or millimeters, which is understood to be the
clear opening or space between the weirs.

Tyler Standard Mesh

Tyler Standard Mesh is one kind of standard mesh. The characteristics of the Tyler series
are given in Appendix, in which the length of one side of the square opening is given as
the hole size.

2.4 Screen Interval

Screen interval is a series of testing serves having an opening in a fixed succession. In the
Tyler screen interval the widths of successive opening having a constant ratio of 2 or
1.414, while the area of the successive opening have a constant ratio of 2.

2.5 Mean Diameter

Mean diameter is such that a particle of this diameter will have a mean mass.

Types of Mean Diameter

1. Volume mean diameter


2. Surface mean diameter
3. Linear mean diameter

Linear mean diameter

x1

d1
Linear mean diameter D =
x
12
d1

33
3. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION

3.1 Experimental Procedure

1. Weight several full size bricks and run them into the jaw crusher.
2. Record the KWH reading from the energy meter.
3. Collect a sample of 4/6 mesh and weigh.
4. Grind the sample in a pebble mill for one hour.
5. By this time, take several large pieces of concrete and crush them in the jaw crusher.
6. Record the KWH reading from the energy meter for loaded condition of concrete and
as well as for empty state of the jaw crusher.
7. Collect the sample, weigh and perform screen analysis of the product.
8. When the grinding operation is over, perform screen analysis for ground bricks as
well.

3.2 Data Sheet Preparation

100 revolution =
Time required for one revolution at empty state of the jaw crusher =
Time required for two revolutions during the crushing of concrete =
Mass of concrete collected during crushing =
Screen aperture used for feed concrete =
Mesh no used for feed brick =

Concrete

No of Observation Mesh No Screen Aperture Retained Mass of Concrete

Brick

No of Observation Mesh No Screen Aperture Retained Mass of Brick

34
4. REPORT WRITING

1. Calculate the power required for size reduction and compare the result with power
requirement calculated from the three common laws for crushing and grinding.
2. Plot screen-opening (x -axis) vs. cumulative mass fraction (y axis) for the ground
product.
3. Calculate linear mean diameter of the product.
4. Discuss all your results.

5. REFERENCES

1. Foust, A. S., Wenzel, L. A., Clump, C. W., Maus, L. and Andersen, L. B. (1980).
Principles of Unit Operations, 2nd ed., New York: John Wiley & Sons.
2. Perry, R.H. and Green, D.W. (1997). Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7th
ed., McGraw-Hill, New York.
3. Coulson, J. M., Richardson, J. F., Backhurst, J. R. and Harker, J. H. (1978).
Chemical Engineering, Vol. 2, Pergamon International library of Science,
Technology, Engineering and Social Services.
4. McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C., and Harriott, P. (2005). Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill, Singapore.

35
APPENDIX

Tyler Mesh Size:

36

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