4. Principles of classification of words into parts of speech. Functional and notional parts of speech.

The problems of parts of speech (interjection,

statives, pronouns)
Parts of speech are lexical-grammatical word classes characterized by a general abstract grammatical meaning expressed in certain grammatical
markers. It means that within certain classes of words certain grammatical features are common to all words of the class.
Functionally all parts of speech fall into two large groups: notional words and functional (form) words.
1. Notional. There are 6 notional parts of speech, 4 are the main ones: noun, verb, adjective, adverb.
They cover 93% of the English lexicon. They fill all the main positions in the sentence. These words are very often called autonomous, autosemantic,
content words - means they possess an independent notional meaning. Plus usually grammarians refer pronouns and numerals to notional ps of sp.
Notional words are characterized by a clear-cut lexical meaning plus they also have a distinct gr meaning. They can perform various syntactic functions.
2.Functional. Other parts of sp serve as connectors between the main ones. They are often called syn-semantic, syntagmatic words. These dependent words
are prepositions and conjunctions. Prepositions act within one clause, conjunctions may connect words, clauses, separate sentences.
So function words express relations but they never denote objects and notions. However, the relations they denote are not purely formal, because each
preposition and conjunction has a definite lexical meaning.
- Their use is sometimes obligatory: depend on.
- They are never used alone in the sentence (without notional words). Sentences containing only notional words are possible: Mary came home late last
night.
- The number of FWs is limited (150). They occur quite frequently.
The interjection clearly falls out of the system. Semantically they express emotions, the attitude of the speaker to the special situation. They are
unpredictable and difficult to define. Functionally it's difficult to distinguish them from Ws and WCs.
Interjections are imitation of sounds, of nature, reflections of surprise, indignation. Sometimes
interjections draw from notional words: well, my.
The number of these elements is limited. Grammarians suggest terming them as emotional
elements, discourse particles, without specifying which part of speech they belong to.
In general now there is a tendency to enlarge the traditional number of parts of speech by including some new items, for example: Words of the category
of state: alive, ajar, asleep. These words are similar to adjectives which can express states and function as predicatives. Grammarians say that this is a
subclass of adjectives limited to the predicative function.
Pronouns - are they a different part of speech?
NO: - Sweet, Sherba
classical school
but - Jesperson: can't be applied to all WCs
YES: Are they notional of functional?
Notional: classical school, functional: present day.Barhudarov: structural Ws.
Principles of classification. The modern classification is traced back to ancient Greece.
Though criticized, it's natural and easy to remember. Principles:
1.Semantic. Has been criticized a lot. Jesperson: Traditional grammar says that by means of the verb something is said about sth/sb. But! "You 're a
scoundret" - it's the words scoundrel that says sth about sb. Using this principle we should treat this word as a verb!
Nouns denote things, objects.
Verbs - action, state
Adjectives- qualities, properties
But! Words as 'action', 'flight' denote actions. Whiteness denotes quality.
So this principle alone is not reliable.
2. Formal approach. The form of a word. In this case the noun should be defined as a word which has a plural -s or in the possessive case 's. But then the
invariable parts of sp should be classed together in a strange group: must, for, sheep.
One of the famous classifications was worked out within this approach (H. Sweet). He was the 1st grammarian who represented the facts of English
beyond the framework of Latin grammar.
1) Declinable:
- noun-words: infinitives& gerunds, noun numerals, nouns proper, noun pronouns adjective-words: adjectives proper, adjective pronouns, adjective
numerals, participles
- verbs: verbs proper, verbals.
2) Indeclinable: adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections.
The principles of Sweet's classification are not unified. This happened because Sweet worked under the strong influence of the rules of classical grammar.
He starts from form, taking into consideration the ability of words to have inflexions. That's the origin of his division, but it's easy to notice that adverbs and
numerals are indeclinable and pronouns have few formal exponents. So Sweet declares his own basic principle.

4. Princpls of the part of speech classsification. Notional & funct-l Ws. proN, interject, statives.
POS lexico-grammatical word classes which are characterized by a general abstract lexical meaning as well as general abstract grammatical meaning
expressed by certain grammatical markers. Within one and the same class there are certain grammatical features common to all the words of this class. POS
present a mixed lex-l & Gr-l phenomena (words of one part of speech have the same grammatical features).
Principles of classification are very unspecified.
Different amounts of words represent this or that part of speech. The greatest amount nouns and verbs because in speech they become the subject and
predicate, and the structure of a sentence represents the peculiarity of human thinking.
The noun is subjected to inflections ( ; , ).
The verb is subjected to conjugation ().
In the sentence they seem to be opposed. The subject represents the known information; the verb introduses new information.
Functionally, all parts of speech fall onto two groups:
Notional (6) and Structural (Functional).
Notional parts of speech: 4 main:
Noun, verb, adj, adv 93 % of the Eng vocabulary.
They possess an independentvnotional meaning of their own.
+numarals, pronouns.
Structural (Functional) parts of speech:
Connections between the main ones. Syntagmatic. They dont have their own sense. They perform the function of linkage.
Prepositions (act within one clause), conjunctions (unite words, clauses, separate sentences).

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Express relations but never denote objects or notions.
Dividing parts of speech into notional and functional, we can say that notional words are characterized by distinct, clear cut lexical meaning. They can
perform different syntactic functions in sentences. Functional words have a less distinct lexical meaning, they dont perform any syntactic functions.They
only help express relations. Their use is someties obligatory. Functional words are not used in sentences independently. The number of functional words in
sentences is highly limited (150).
The ninths part of speech is injection. The injection falls out of the system of parts of speech. It represents a peculiar phenomenon because:
1) injections express emotions
2) the form of injections is unpredictable
3) some of injections are similar to word combinations (My God!)
4) phonetically, they are sounds of surprise etc. Some of them are pause-fillers
5) many injections draw from notional words which usually accuire a different meaning in the emotive function (well used to be a n adv.; my a
pronoun).
6) some injections are absolutely indistinct.
There are some debatable questions:
1) words of category of state (awake, ajar)
Semantically they express state, but some grammatitians argue that they should be grouped separately. Adj-s always express state.
2) some grammatitians suggest that we should treat modal words as a separate part of speech (certainly, possibly). In fact, they appear to be functionally and
structurally close to adverbs; though they have certain peculiar positional characteristis.
3) particles (only, merely).
By nature, they seem to be modifiers. If we analize their use in actual speech, we will see that they are a subclass of limiting adv-s.
4) articles (. )
Princilpes of classification of words into parts of speech remain unspecified. Many grammatitians try to present the system of parts of speech in which they
tried not to imitate the Greek classification. These attempts were productive with languages which were different from Greek. These attempts can be
distributed among known approaches of language description.
I. Semantic approach
The noun denotes objects. The verb denotes actions. It is not satisfactory. Jespreson: traditional grammar says that by means of the verb some thing is said
about sth or sb but :(You are a scounderl) it is the noun scoundrel that says sth about sb. scounderl verb. The noun denotes object.
Functional criterion.
Some grammatitians believe that the only criterion is functional. So words can only be devided into parts of speech depending on their ability to take
inflections.
Noun the word that takes the plural inflection -s, the inflaction s in the genitive case. Among words we will have to classify different invariable parts
of speech (than, for, etc).
One classification was worked out within this approach.
H.Sweet worked out a classification in which he tried to stick to the form of words. Besides, he tried to break from the traditions of classical grammar. He
claimed that he represented the facts the way they really existed. Declinable and indeclinable words.
Declinable words: ()
1) nouns n-pronouns, n-numerals, infinitives; gerunds, noun proper.
2) adjectives adj-proper, adj-pronouns, adj-numerals; participles
3) verbs finite forms; verbals.
Indeclinable words()
Adv., prepositions, conjunctions, interjections.
The principles were inconsistent. He started from form (the ability of a word to take inflection). But adj and numerals are indeclinable. Pronouns have few
formal exponents. So he violates his basic principles here. He made an attempt to show the double nature of verbals. By him, verbals get into different
groups depending on their syntactic features. With numerals and pronouns, he also considered their positions in word-combinations. So words get into
different morphological clases depending on their combinability. His classification presents a mixture of formal and meaningful features.
It is hardly possible to creat an idea of an independent word classification
II. Form, meaning, function
This idea found its way into grammar through a famous Danish grammatitian Otto Jespreson. It is necessary to study the morphological characteristics of
words as well as their syntactic position (abilities). He produced the third rank theory. It was based on mutual relations of words in sentences. When he
illustrated his theory, he used the following patterns:
1) an extremely hot weather
2) a furiously barking dog
Describing relations between the words that:
weather, dog should be called primary word
hot, barking secondary word
extremely, furiously tertiary word.
He considered the morphological features of Eng words under the general title of syntax. But this theory was new at that time, and it was widely employed
by the scholars of his school. This theory doesnt cover the relations of all the main word classes. This theory left out the most important part of speech the
verb. His idea that words should be used in sentences was so popular, that some grammatitians tried to work out a p.of sp. classification based on syntactic
criterion only representatives of American school of describing linguists (Charles Freeze).
To classify words it is not enough to rely on the description of elements in the sintagmatic chain. Meaning is to be taken into consideration. But his
understanding of meaning is not traditional.
Structural meaning
~The man gave the boy the money.
It conveys the following information: who preformed a certain action. How many men were involved in the action. The time of the action. See whether the
situation is presented as a fact or as sth desirable. Sth state, required, desired. All this information (mostly grammatical) doesnt coincide with the lexical
information; it makes the structural meaning of the sentence.
He states that no sentence can be acceptable if it lacks either structural or lexical meaning. Then he claims that grammar is a system of devices that signals
structural meanings. Formal devices that can be given to different word-groups. His starting point is purely formal. He aims at analyzing formal exponent
of grammar. He takes into account ordering of elements in syntagmatic chains. He declared that a part of speech is a functional pattern. To illustrate the
patterns he introduced the minimal free utterance test frames.
a) the concert was good (always)
b) the clerk remembered the tax (suddenly)
c) the team went there.

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Each word within the frames represents a particular slot (, ). All words that could fill the same slot as with no change of structural slot as with
no change of structural meaning class I words. In frames b) and c)
Class I words are identified by means of substitution. Clerk names of presons. He also introduced a so-called adjective frame for the plural form of the
noun.
~The concerts were good.
The idea of substantivation was further applied to the other word in the frames and thus he signaled out class II words (remembered).
Went + class III words there
Good + class IV words always.
He never provided any differences. He simply enumerated words belonging to this and that class. He never included other words in his frames. Instead of
describing these words, he introduced the term function words, and grouped them into 15 groups, and ascribed the leters to them.
Group A (= marker of class I words) included determiners which can have the position of the definite article in frame a) (no, both, few, Johns, most, one).
Viewed traditionally, determiners are represented by pronouns, adj, numerals, nouns in the possessive case.
Group B (= markers of class II words) is formed by the substitutes in the adjusted frame. ~The concert may be good. (must, should, come, got).
Group C (not)
Group D comprises words we can use instead of very.
~The concert was very good.
His grouping of functional words appeared as a result of using the semantic principle. Freeze claims that functional words must be learnt separately as
peculiar signs that signal particular structure means. Among finctional words there are modal verbs, auxiliary words, modal verbs are treated as separate
words viewed apart from class words. He also grouped modal verbs and auxiliary verbs in groups. If it is so, we cannot divide verb forms into synthetic,
analytical. Synthetic and analytical forms show different grammatical categiries (tense synthetic; aspect - analytical).
Freezes classification is inconsistent. It is claimed to be fomal but in many cases he relies on meaning. His classification is based on 2 principles:
1) He analyses functioning of words of the 4 major classes. He studies their meaning including them into functional words.
2) His classification never explains the grammatical difference between classes of forms, functional groups, notional goups.

5. The status of the Article in language str-re. The number of Articles. The meanings and functions.
The status
The ground is that the Article isn't inflected (e/g in German Article is a word).Some Grammarians speak of the morphemic character of the Eng Article. By
them, the Article is a structural element building morphemes. The article can change its position in reference to a Noun (e/g a dog; a black dog; a lovely
black dog) The A can be substituted by other Ws (the dog = this/ my dog) => such features aren't characteristic of the morphemes. Most linguists say that
Article is a separate word.
Several points of view: Place Article among other Ps of speech:
1. Classical Eng Grammar - Article = adj or more often a pronoun. It reminds of a pronoun b/c "the" has originated from the Old Eng. Pronoun "se"
2. The grammarian Kruisinga include indef A - indefinite pronoun, definite - demonstrative pronoun
3. Jesperson & Sweet Article = pronoun
4. Curme A = pronominal attribute
5. Structural Gr Article = function W (determiners)
6. Soviet Linguists A= functional P of Sp
The number of Articles
The older Grammatical Tradition spoke about 2 As. BUT: e.g Language is a means of communication, we use the term ZERO ARTICLE. The idea of a zero
article originates from the notion "zero morpheme".
Modem Eng = 3 Articles ( , )
The notion of a zero morpheme has been applied to the Article on the grounds that, when there's no Ab4 a noun- reminds of the absence of inflexion in such
forms as cat-cats. This point of view is opposed by some Grammarians. They argue that we can speak about a zero Art if we treat the A as a morpheme.
Meaningful absence of the Article - significant meaningful absence of the article. But the omition of the A but this term describes a different phenomenon
typical of newspapers, acts, etc. (winner gets prize)
Functions of the Article
Whether the Article has meanings or functions?
Barhudarov => The M of the A is highly abstract, it's more proper to speak about functions. Different spheres of Grammar - different functions
Morphologically - to serve as the formal indicator of a Noun. : to indicate substantivity. The presence of the A signals that what follows is a noun or
what has acquired some nominal characteristics. (e/g black - a black ( 1 ), the black ()
From the syntactic point of view - a) to separate the noun phrase from other members of the sentence. What stands btw the A and the noun is one and the
same member of the sentence( e/g I bought a think English book)
b) to connect different Sentences
e/g We saw a man. The man was approaching us.
Semantic role consists in relating a given utterance to a given speech situation. (=actualization). Ws denote many things, they have different meanings but
when speaking, people choose one aspect of the thing.
* Barmina, Verkhovskaya "The Eng Article": A has category of definiiteness / indefmiteness A = the determiner of the N or a noun-phrase. Determiners=
formal means of expressing this category. This category presents the object as known/unknown, general/individual, identifiable/ non-identifiable. In Eng
article is the main means of expressing this category, besides
possessive, demonstrative, indefinite pronouns, Ws denoting place,. numerals and some others.

5. The art (A), of A, def & indef A.

The noun is usually preceded by the A.
Problems:
~the number of As; ~the status of the A; ~meanings/functions
The status of the A in modern Eng. 2 aspect of the question:
1) Is the A a morpheme or is it a separate word?
If we compare Eng to Germanin German the A is a word, it has different forms, each form will find reflection of the categories of gender, number and
case. Every form of the A in German contains the root morpheme and the inflexion morpheme.
Some grammarians mentioned morphemic character of the Eng A. They term the Eng A a structural element of the noun. They say that the indefinite A with
the noun cat signals singularity (as the morpheme s[cats] signals pluraliry). The A can change its position in reference to the noun (a cat, a blafck cat, a
lovely black cat). A-s can be substituted by other words (the catthis cat, my cat). Such features are not characteristic of morphemes most Eng
grammarians treat the A as a separate word.
2) If the A is a separate word, is it a separate p.of sp. or is it not such? If not, the A is to be described among other p-s of sp.

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Class-cal Eng grammars treat the A is an Adj; or more often as a pronoun. The idea that the A is sort of a pronoun originates from the fact that in Old Eng,
the As were derived from pronouns. This is true only of the (sethe).
includes a among the indefinite pronouns and the among the demonstrative pronouns.
Jesperson and Sweet also treat As as pronouns.
Kerm a pronominal attribute.
Representatives of structural grammar (Freeze) treated the A among the structural words called the determiners.
Russian linguists treated the A as a functional p.of sp. because different A-s have specific meanings and functions.
The number of Eng A-s
The older grammatical tradition spoke of 2 A-s(the, a). But practical use of language showa that in speech nouns can be used in 3 different ways:
~(1)Language is a means of communication.
~(2)Everone ahould learn a foreign language.
~(3)She speaks English. Do you know the langage?
In the 3 cases the word language has different meanings:
(1) the zero A.
This term was introduced by and .
the, a, 0.
The idea of the zero article originates from the notion of the zero morpheme. Sometimes the absence of the grammatical marker is meaningful, and it doesnt
necessarily happen in the analytical language (, no case marker). We can speak about zero A-s if we accept the point of view that an A is a
morpheme. argues that we cant stick to this term for its essentially incorrect. We can prove it easily that an A is a word, and no word can be a zero.
He proposes to interprete the phenomenon of the absence of the A as meaningful, and he introduces another terminological interpretation significant
meaningful absence of the article. He also notes that such cases are very different from the cases when the A is omitted. Omition of the A is a stylistic
phenomenon found in newspapers, telegrams, advertisments, printing.
Functions of the article
The number of meanings and functions ascribed to the Eng A is great. Its next to impossible to enumerate all the existing points of view. We mention
only those that are widely accepted both in Rissian and foreign linguistics. Conserning the meanngs of the A, we can say that it is abstract and hard to define.
: the best term to describe it as identification. We identify whether the object is presented as definite or indefinite. We can also consider meanings
of the A form the point of view of morphology, syntacs, semantics: 1)morphologically, A-s serve as formal indicators of nouns;as puts it, A-s
indicate substantivity. The presense of an A shows that the W that follows it is a N or it accuires features of a noun ( black Adj, but a black = nigger). In
some lang-s the motphological role of the A is to show the gender, number; German gender, number, case 2) Syntactically, the role of the A is to separate a
N phrase from other members of the sentence. What stands between an A and a noun is one and the same member of the sentence.
~A book
~I bought a thick black book.
~I bought a thick book.
~I shall never forget the one fourth serious and three fourth comical astonishment.
The syntactic role of the A is also manifested in its use as a connecting element between 2 or more sentences.
~We saw a man. The man was approaching us.
3) Semantically, the role of the A is to relate a given utterance to a given speech situation. This approach is called actuialisation. Words are signs of
language. And potentially, they can denote a variety of things. When speaking, people consentrate on the meaning or one aspect of the notion described by
the chosen noun. Thus the object we speak about can be represented as an abstract notion (Language is a means of communication), as an object belonging
to a class of similar objects (Everyone should learn a foreign language), we can also treat the object in particular(3). Actualisation is achieved by using
proper A-s, though some other means are employed. The A-s or their absence have particular meanings. The main ones are as follows:
The :1) the individualizing, or particularizing meaning. We present a noun as individual, besides the use of the definite A, there exist other means of
individualization.
~The use of limiting attributes
~Previous mention of the object
~The uniqueness of the object
~and some others
2) the generic meaning
The object is described as having the common features of the qhole class. Thus this noun stands for all the genus.
~The rose is the queen of the flowers.
A: 1) the nominating function
~A gerl enters the room
2) the classifying function
~She is a student.
The object is presented as belonging to the whole class, as one of many. The noun accompanied by a iin the classifying function is used predicatively.
3) the generic function
~A cow is a domestic animal.
The object represents the whole class because it is like any othe object within the class.
4) the uneric function
It can be substituted by the numeral one.
~a thousand=one thousand
0: 1) the nominating function
What is presented by the object is viewed in its widest sense as a notion
(. . /)
(indefine definite reference look seminar 8 supplementary 1).

6 General characteristics of the noun as a part of speech. The problem of

gender. Means of expressing gender.
Noun is regarded as a part of speech by all grammarians. It is distinct semantically,
morphologically and syntactically.
1.The noun denotes substance
2.It is characterized by the categories of number and case.
3.It performs the function of the Subject
Object

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Attribute
Adverbial modifier
Predicative
Combinability of noun can be modified by adjectives, nouns, articles and other.
Nouns can be either preceded of followed by prepositions or other nouns.

The category of gender in English disappeared completely by the end of Middleenglish period. So only lexical and derivational means are used to express
gender:
E.g. boy - girl lion - lioness he-goat - she-goat
Cock - hen waiter - waitress
Bull-cow
And the same tendency can be seen in some Indo-European languages
E.g. -
Lehrer-Lehrerin
B, Strang, the author of the book "Modern English Structure", and some other grammarians consider that the category of gender exists in English as a noun
can be substituted by a pronoun that can express gender: he, she it. But this point of view is considered to be wrong as in this case we speak of the
substitution of a noun by another part of speech and thus we transfer the feature of another part of speech to the noun which doesn't have this feature. And
even in this case the meaning of gender of the pronoun is purely lexical but not grammatical.

6.General characteristics of the noun as a part of speech. The problem of gender. Means of expressing gender.
The N as part of speech is recognized by all libguists. A notional POS. Semantically, n-s have the m-ng of substance (express substantivity), names of
objects. Morphologically, the n has 2 grammatical categories: & case(common & genitive); possesses typical word-building suffixes (friendship,
freedom,, whiteness) Syntactically, Funct-ns: a) comb-ng with Ws to form phrases, with preceding & follow. Adj (large room; times immemorial), with a
preceding N in common & g-ve case (iron bar; boys map), with Vs (play games), Adv (the man there; the then president), prep (in a house, house of rest), is
preceded by art (the/a map). In a sent can be the subj or the pred-ve or an obj, an attr & adv. modif. It can also make part of each of thesePOS preceded by a
prep. Right-hand combinability: infinitives, a finite verb form (a n and a finite verb form build a clause when taken together).
Gender (G). In En is not richly developed, some say it doesnt exist. It is defined in terms of the proN substitute he, she, it, which may be used in
its place. G involves not only substit-n but also concord. G a set of syntactic subclasses of Ns controlling concordance. G is based on 2 oppos-ns: 1
functions in the whole set of Ns, dividingem into person/non-pers Ns; 2nd in the subdivision of pers Ns- masc & feminine Ns. 3 G-s: the neuter (non-
pers), the masc ( man, boy), femin ( woman, bride). Person Ns-boy , non-pers tree, love, cat, crowd). Pers Ns can have common G (person, friend, doctor).
En Ns can show sex of the referent either by means of being combined with certain notional Ws used as sex-indicators or by suffixal deriv-n ( boy-fr, washer-
man; he-bear, she-bear, actor, actress).

7. The category of number of nouns. The meaning of the singular and the plural number in Modern English.
The category of number is represented by the opposition of 2 forms: Sq vs PI.
They show whether the noun denotes one object or more. Formally the category of number is expressed by the opposition of 2 morphemes:
1) The morpheme of singularity = the zero morpheme
2) The morpheme of plurality => there are variants:
a) productive morphemes: the phonologically conditioned allomorphs
b) non-productive: oxen, children
THE MEANING OF Sg AND PI
The meaning of the category of number is often described as "oneness or
more than oneness". BUT:
Grammarians agree that the grammatical meaning of a plural form is more than oneness: boys, boys, boys.
But a singular form doesn't always denote oneness: Silence fell. He doesn 't like tea. The telephone was invented by me. -> Though the nouns are used in
the Sg they don't denote one object. They denote abstract notions/ materials which cannot be counted (= uncountable).
=> It is more logical to say that the gr. meaning of a noun in the Sg is not oneness, but it is opposite to plurality. => suggested
the term "non-plurality". Good for him.
So the meaning of non-plurality includes the following meanings:
1.oneness proper a boy, a man, a club
2.uncountability love, sex, profit
3.generalization The lion roars and eats lazy girls.
=> The meaning of the unmarked form in the category of number (Sg) is very broad and less definite than the meaning of the marked form (Pl).

7.The category of number of nouns. The meaning of the singular and the plural number in Modern English.
The cat of is presented by the opposition sing (grammatically unmarked) & pl (grammatically marked by the morphemes of plurality). The 2 opposed
forms denote whether the n denotes one object or more than 1 object. The forms show whether we deal with the grammatical meaning of oneness or more
than oneness.Formally, the category of number is expressed by 2 morphemes:
1) the zero morpheme (=the morpheme of singularity)
2) the morpheme of plurality
is represented by a number of variants. The preoductive allomorph here is the morpheme -s in its variants:[s], [z], [iz] and the non-productive morphemes
-en (oxen) and some other variants.
Regular formation of PL: base+-s [s], [z], [iz] (boy-s). irregular.form-n: -en (oxen); zero (deer, fish); alternates of the base (man-men); phonemic alteration of
the bs (wife-wives); borrowd alteratons: a/ae, on/a.
!!the variant [z] of the morpheme -s has the highest frequency of occurrence, as it is found after all phonemes except sibilants ( ) and voiceless
consonants.
The meaning of the category of number.
In many grammars it is defined as oneness more than oneness. However, not all grammarians find the definition convincive.
The meaning of the plural form is more than oneness. But a singular form not always denote one object.
~Silence fell in the room.
~He doesnt like tea.
~The phone was invented by Alexander Bel.
The nouns are used in the sg., but they dont have the m-ng of 1ness, as they dont convey the idea of 1 object. They denote abstract notions that cant be
counted. Thus they essentially are uncountable. m-ng opposite to pl-ty non-pl-ty ().

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: non-plurality as a categorical meaning includes several meanings:
1) oneness proper (I saw this film. Give me a pen.)
2) uncountability (see: silence, tea, telephone.)
3) generalization (the lion lives in Africa.)
The m-ng of the unmarked Sg form of the opp-n which represents the cat of is broader and less definite than the meaning of the marked form. By
, it is to be defined in negative terms as opposite to the m-ng of the markd form. There are some Ns standing apart from the point of view of
the category of , they have 1 f: sg/pl Ns of the Tantum group. The singularia tantum nouns (info, advice, hair), pl(clothes, scisors). Such nouns denote
notions which are outside the meaning of the c. of . They dont convey any idea of number as they cannot reflect any relations of objective reality.The
reference of different Ns to either group is oppotional. In various languages their equivalents can get into the opposite tantum group ( outskirts ,
advice). The reason for the existence of Tantum groups is one of the characteristic features of a language. The idea is that within a grammatical
category, any noun must have number and have a morpheme of number. Thus, even those nouns whose meaning contradicts the idea of countability is
referred to one of the form classes within the category. even if their m-ng contradicts the idea/m-ng of countability.

8. The category of case of nouns (Ns). The meanings of the common and the genitive case. Different points of view on the number of cases in Modern
English.
Case = the form of a N which shows the relations of this N to other Ws in a sentence. Case helps to define the syntactic function of a W in a sentence. In
English case is a morphological category, for it is represented by 2 different forms of a noun: 2 cases.
1) the common case (the form is unmarked)
2) the possessive case (genitive) (marked by s. In speech - phonologicaliy conditioned aliomorphs)
In plural nouns the case morpheme & the morpheme of number often coincide. The presence of the genitive case is shown by only (boys').
Common case (CC): the meaning is broad, shows that this or that N is not genitive; can be used in any syntactic f-n in a sentence. Frequent use of Ns in CC
(98% of ail Ns).
Genitive case (GC):
1. Mainly applied to Ns denoting animate objects. BUT: often used with Ns denoting measure/space {a year's absence)
2. Ns in GC are mainly used as attributes to other Ns. Can be used as subject {John's is a nice car).
NB Animate objects: can be called 'he/she' and referring to them we. can use 'who'. BUT: a car, a ship - can be replaced by 'he/she', but no 'who'.
Ns which can be substituted only by 'it', BUT can form GC {the committee's report). The meaning of GC is difficult to define. Several types
(transformational method):
meaning Example Analysis
1. possessive genitive John's car My friend's room key-W - 'to have' (John has a car). Most
frequent M
2. subjective genitive the doctor's advice Mary's beauty = the doctor advised Mary is beautiful

3. objective genitive John's surprise The man's release 1) John was surprised The man was released
2) sb surprised John sb released the man

4. adverbial genitive Two hours' work A month's absence Sb worked for 2 hours Sb was absent for a
month
5. equation genitive A mile's distance An arm's length Distance is a mile Length is an arm

6. genitive of destination Children's books Ladies' dresses Books are for children Dresses are for ladies

Other meanings of GC are difficult to define and may be individual in each case {yesterday's paper, father's generation, Beethoven's symphony).
The number of cases in modern English:
2or3?
3-case system: in Old English - a universal 3-case system for Ns and proNs
(nominative: boy, he: genitive: boy's, his; objective: boy, him)
BUT: the gr sys of English has changed a lot, if proNs retained their 3-case sys, not
necessarily Ns have it. The form 'his' can hardly be considered to be a case form of a
personal proN.
Curm: case = a form of a N which shows its syntactic function in the S. Includes here certain relations which are shown by prepositions/context/position
in the S. Various syntactic functions of a N. Uses old English: there syntactic functions were signalled by
inflections, now theyve disappeared not clear why the position of a N should be regarded as its case form. Confuses morphological and syntactic factors
as well as facts of modern and old English .
. ; non-traditional point of view on the number of cases of N - the
category of case doesn't exist; s - "a formant s" ().
Reasons:
1.the use of `s is not obligatory/ can be substituted by an of-prase. In Russian inflections are obligatory,
2.the formant `s can be added to a limited number of Ns, mainly denoting living beings. In Russian all Ns have case inflections.
3.is not added to plural Ns ending in -s
4. `s can be added to Ns and some adverbs (yesterday's paper), but adverbs in English are indeclinable
5.`s can be used with 'group possessives' (Peter and Paul's father)
All this makes `s different from real case inflections, reminds rather of a function W, very similar to preposition (expresses a certain type of gram relations)
but placed after the W and not before = postposition (). :
1. `s is mainly added to nouns => a case inflection
2. in group genitives words are so closely connected that they can be treated as compound Ns
3. `s can hardly be called a word at all, because it consists of 1 consonant. It can be assimilated in speech. Assimilation is typical of morphemes.
Analytical cases

6
Regular use of certain prepositions to express case relations:
To go to London
To arrive in London
To leave for London
BUT there are no analytical cases:
1) case is a morphological category and prepositional phrases belong to the sphere of syntax
2) the amount of meanings expressed by prepositions and the meanings of cases do not coincide completely
3) combinations of nouns and various prepositions are too numerous to be interpreted as case forms, so the number of cases becomes practically unlimited.

8.The category of case of nouns. The meanings of the common and the genitive case. Different points of view on the number of cases in Modern
English.
C the form of a N which shows the rel-n of that N to other Ws in the s-ce, helps to define its syntactical funct-n in the s-ce. C morphology-l cat-ry as its
represented by diff f-s of 1 & the same W. The terms for the Cs r: common(CC) & genitive (GC) opp-n betw them. The form of the GC is marked. The
formal markers m-me s which has the corresponding phonological var. The form of the CC is unmarkd zero m-me. In pl form of the GC & the CC the
of m-mes coincide (boys-boys) The m-ng of the CCs broad. It shows that the N is non-G. The use of the N in CCs very extensive. The use of the N in
GCs restricted: 1) GCs mainly pos with N which denote animate obj. (we can substitute the W with 1 of the proN he, she, who man, girl, dog. Yet GCs
used with Ns denoting measure & space (a years absence) 2) N in GC can only be used as attr to other N in the CC & they r alw placed in prep-n (B ills
room)There r Ns which can be subst-d by such proN as he, she but not by who (sheep, sun, car). We can use them in the GC but cant say theyr strictly
animate. On the oth hand there r N which can be replaced by it & they have m-ng of animate (the committees report, partys conference). If we can analyze
the means of the GC through transormat-l analysis. I) Possesive G (jacks car, the birds nest). These W-cob-s r transfermed into s-ce with the V to have (Jon
has the car, The bird has a nest). II) Subjective G. (the Drs advice, the husbands arrival// the Dr advised, the husband arrived) III) Obj-ve G (Jons
surprise, the mans release 1st stage: J was surprised; 2nd: Sb surprised J. IV) Adverbal G (a months absence The absences a month. Sb was absent 4 a
month (how long). V) G of destination (ladies dresses (dresses 4 ladies) VI) G of authorship (Dickens book= by Dick) The of Cs in En. In OEn there
was 1 sys of Cs for N & proN ( N: Nom boy, Gen boys, Obj boy. proN: Nom he, G his, Obj him). Those who object: 1) If personal proN have 3
Cs that doesnt mean N also have 3 Cs Poss-ve proN Adj proN: he, his, him r not f of one. He is a N proN & his - adj.proN. states that the
criter of C doesnt exist cause by her s is not a C inflex-n but the formant s. 1) the use of the infl-n s is not obligatory, we can substitute its use by an of-phr
(the mans ? the ? of the man) 2) the infl s can be added to a limited of N, theyre to denote living beings (the boys leg, but the leg of the table). It isnt
added to the N in the pl, we have only the . 3) s can be add to N as well as to Adv (yesterdays paper). In all European l-ges adj r indeclinabl. 4)s is used to
form group poss-ve (the king of Englands daughter) C is not real, its a funct W similar to a prep &it performs the same funct-s of exrp-n gr rel-s in a s-ce
but not placed in prep, it alw follows should be calle postposit-n. Analytical Cs. The notion of AC is connect with the regular use of some prep to expr C
rel-ns. The prep of is very typ of GC, it expr the idea of posses-n. Many say AC not exist: 1) the amount of m-ng expr-ed by the prep & the m-ng of C infl-n
do not complete by coincide 2) Comb-n of diff prep & Ns r too numerous to be interpreted as forms of cat of case the of Cs can become unlimited 3) C is
a morphol-l cat-ry & comb-n of prep & Ns belong to the sphere of syntax.

9. The general characteristics of the verb as a part of speech. The categories of person and number
Usually a verb is defined as a part of speech that denotes an action,
In modern English the verb is the only part of speech which has a developed system of categories:
- tense voice
- mood
- aspect
- number
- person
- phase
It's the only part of speech that has analytical forms, plus it has some specific forms (verbals or non-fmites) which don't share all the features of this part of
speech as a whole - the infinitive, the gerund, the participle.
The verb combines with nouns, adverbs, prepositions in prepositional noun phrases.

The categories of person and number are closely connected with each other. In the English language the categories of person and number are expressed
very poorly ( )
In Modern English there are only a few forms indicating person and number in the synthetic forms of the verb:
1.In the present tense the expression of the category of person is divided into three peculiar subsystems:
- the first subsystem includes modal verbs that have no personal inflexions: can, may, must, shall, will, ought, need, dare. So, in the formal sense, the
category of person is left unexpressed.
- The second subsystem is made up by the verb be. It has suppletive forms for different persons (singular and plural)
I- am, was
He - is, was
They, you, we - are, were
- The third subsystem presents the regular expression of person. The personal mark is confined here to the third person singular -(e)s [-z, -s, -iz], the other
two persons (the first and the second) remain unmarked, e.g. comes come, blows blow, chooses choose
2. The Future Simple -1 shall They will ( )
The grammatical expression of number is hardly featured at all. We usually derive it from a personal pronoun.

9.General characteristics of the verb as a part of speech. The categories of person and number.
POS expr process(action and state). V has synthetic and analit-l forms and special non-finite forms Morphol-ly V has several Gr categ-s(tense aspect voice
phase mood number person) and non-f forms have categ-s of voice aspect and time correlation. the V is charact-ed by the of inflxnz. It has cert W-buil
aff-s (-ize, -te, -en, -ify, re-, un-, mis-, dis-, out-, over-, under). Syntact-ly the finite Vs can play func of predicate, the non-finite can perform all the poss
func-s but not simp verbl predicate. V can also have a cert combinability (can be modified by adv, take direct/in~ obj, combine with N-phr, with proN ( I go
to the country). V is a POS which has a developed mprpholog-l sys which comprises both synthetic & analit-l f-s. Cat of per & r in close conn-n (a m-me
expr p also expr The cat of p: 1st person (represents the speaker or a group in which the sp-r makes a part),2 -d( the p spoken to),3 rd (the p whichs neith 1
nor 2). = the quantity of the subj-s (1,more than 1). 1,2,3 rd p sg& pl (look above). BUT this sys isnt good for the Modern En V: 1) no distinction of p in
the pl (live in pl can be of any p)2) no dist-n of s on the 1& 2nd p (live may refer both to 1 & to > than 1 subj) 3rd p sg lives, all the rest live. 1st item
of the opp-ns marked both in m-ng (3rd p sg) & in f (-s) & the 2nd is unmarked both in m-ng (everyth exept 3rd p sg) & in f (zero-inflxn). + -s-inflxn in Vs
conveys 4 m-ngs 1) 3rd p sg, 2)sg 3)Pres T 4)indicative mood.// Some Vs dont fit this sys (can, may, shall, be). Can takes no s-inflxn doesnt have the
cat of p & at all. Be has a sys of its own..
7
10. The Category of Voice. The number of voices in Eng. Types of passive constructions. Reasons for the frequent occurrence of the Passive Voice.
Voice is the category which characterizes the relations btw the doer of the action and the object of the action expressed by the form of the predicate verb
1. Sometimes the subject of the active construction can't be regarded as the doer of the action due to the lexical character : e/g He lost his father in the war.
There's a disagreement btw the grammatical form of the predicate verb and the lex meaning.
The meaning is passive. The subj of the sentence isn't the doer but the sufferer. Yet, such examples are treated among the active voice b/c of the form of the
verb.
2. The verb in the Active Voice denotes an action/process that is going on in the subject itself middle passive.
e.g The concert began The door opened The book sells well
3. The Subject denotes the doer and the object of the action (they are the SAME) - reflexive passive
e.g The boy washed John shaved
4. The subject is plural and the doer and the abject are DIFFERENT persons - reciprocal passive ()
e/g They kissed
John and Nelly met in the street
We can see that the classification is based on the MEANING. BUT! The Soviet Linguists put forward their own arguments against this theory:
A Gr cat a unity of form and meaning. In all the cases the form is active. Gr-ly the subject is represented as the doer
Such examples aren't numerous. In majority of the sentences w/an active Voice form, the subject denotes the doer proper .
Barhudarov suggested to define the M of the Active Voice as NON-PASSIVE!
PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS:
Passive Voice is a form of the verb which shows that the subj is the obj of the action expr-ed by the predicate verbs.
1. Direct Passive - the subj corresponds to the direct object of the predicate verb. e/g Coal is used for making fire.
Several restrictions:
Passive isn't used when the obj denotes the same person as the subj in an active sentence.
e.g He hurt himself
The Passive isn't used either if the obj in an active sentence is modified by the possessive
pronoun referring to the same person as the subj
e/g He cut his finger
Passive isn't used when the obj is part of the set expression
e/g to take courage; to keep one's word
But still some set expr-s build Passive : to take care, to pay attention, to take measures
Passive can't be built with intransitive verbs
2.Indirect Passive we employ the Indirect object. e/g He was told an interesting story.
In such Ss we keep the direct obj and this obj is specially termed "a retained object".
It's freely used w/the verb "to tell" only. Often w/ "to give" when it's part of the set expression
"to give a chance/choice/orders". Sometimes it's used with "to offer, to show, to prompt"

3. Prepositional Passive - the prepositional obj can also become the subj.
It can be built w/ any verb taking a prep obj. BUT: it's found w/a few Vs of everyday use: to
speak, to talk, to laugh, to set for...
The use has one restriction:
=> It's not used with verbs taking 2 objs: direct and prepositional.
The only passive costruction w/ "explain" is e/g The rule was explained to us
4.Adverbial Passive - when an Adv modifier becomes a subj of a Pass Sentence. However the number of such Ss is limited in Eng.
2 of them:
e/g The house wasn 't lived in
The bed wasn't slept in
The Reasons for frequent use of Passive Voice
Main - it makes possible to change word order in a sentence.
It's been discovered that the end position is connected w/new info, end position is the most strongly stressed in a Sentence: e/g The boy wrote a letter
A litter was written by the boy
1st Sent: the center of communication is a letter, the info is new
2nd Sent: centre is "by the boy"
These Ss are parallel, can be used in different communicative situation.
In majority of Eng passive Ss the doer of the action isn't mentioned. It happens b/c the doer isn't known or can't be easily stated.
e/g The house was broken into and a few things were stolen. Sometimes the doer isn't mentioned cuz it's self-evident e/g He was elected an MP
When the "by-phrase" is absent, the listener's attention is shifted to other parts of the Sentence. e.g Roger was invited to dinner.
Other reasons:
There are several passive constructions in Eng
Many Vs in Ene take a direct obj and the direct Constr is widely used.

13. The category of tense. The number of tenses in Modern English. The
meaning of the present and the past tense. The problem of the future tense and
the future-in-the-past tense in Modern English.
Time vs Tense
Time = a form of the existence of matter
Tense = gram. category which indicates the time of an action by means of the form of a
verb.
Main divisions of time: present, past, future. Tense divisions in different Ls are different.
Number of tenses?
In English: 2 tenses/3 tenses
The present tense
Actions that take place at the moment of speaking or occupy a prolonged period of time or timeless actions.
/ hear a noise, I'm speaking English, We live in Moscow, The Volga flows into the Caspian sea
By means of Present tense we can describe:
8
- Past=> historical/dramatic present: / enter the room and who do you think I see?!
- Future=>I'm leaving next week
Structurally dependent use: clauses of time, condition and concession; in certain object clauses present instead of future (Ill do what you say)
=> meaning of the present tense is hard to define; it's better understood from the opposition with past (some grammarians prefer ''non-past' to 'present').
The past tense
: denotes an action prior to the moment of speaking and not correlated to this moment.
The form is marked (marked member = phonologically conditioned allomorphs in regular forms: - ed => [t],[d],[id] and morphologically conditioned in
irregular: sing- sang)
The future tense
Traditional grammar: 3-fold division of tenses => the future tense is an analytical form which is made up of the auxiliary verbs shall/will + the stem of the
infinitive (, )
Arguments:
1. an analytical form is always some auxiliary verb (grammatical meaning) + main part (lexical meaning of the form).
2. shall&will originated from modal verbs but lost their modal meaning (prove: 'will' is freely used with the 1 st person sg & pl without modal colouring).
Modal meanings -in some sentences (Will you join us? - !; Who shall answer the phone -> duty).
3. shall/will still have some shade of modality; describing the form shall/will + infinitive'sometimes speak about the modality of uncertainty => we can
never be sure about the future, so uncertainty is always present in prospective utterances (shall/will + infinitive can have the modalitv of futurity).

Jespersen, Allen, Qwerk&, => 2 tenses.

: shall/will + infinitive is not a tense form:
1. formal point of view: shall/will + infinitive = may/might + infinitive
modal verbs create free word-combinations + we can come across different forms of
infinitive:
can/may be working/have worked/have been working, etc
2. The modal meaning of shall/will + mf is always present in the utterance (a future action is always treated as necessary, possible or desirable)
3.shall/will + 'mf- no discontinuous morpheme => doesn't answer requirements for an analytical form.
4. shall/will + inf= not the only form to express a future action; there are
- certain verbs which refer to future (e.g. intend)
- several word-combinations (to be going to, to be about to)
- some verbs in their modal meaning
- present tenses
Purely analytical forms are usually the only means of the language to convey a certain grammatical meaning (. past)
5.shall/will like other modal verbs have their special past forms (should/would)
the combination should/would +inf can express both future and past (future-in-the-past), which hardly makes any sense in terms of a grammatical category
(the principle of identification of any grammatical category demands that the forms of the category in normal use should be mutually exclusive. The category
is constituted by the opposition of its forms, not by their co-position).
believes that shall/will + inf belongs to a new specific temporal category -the category of prospective time. This category is built on the opposition of
forms with s/)3///w///-marker and forms without this marker. As to the difference in meaning the forms with sha/l/witl-marker express an AFTER-ACTION
whereas the forms without this marker express NON-AFTER-ACTION.
The prospective time is relative - the future action is relative to the present or the past time. If they are relative to the present time we speak of the form of
the FUTURE. If they are relative to the past time we speak of the FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST.

13.The category of tense. The number of tenses in Modern English. The meaning of the present and the past tense. The problem of the future tense
and the future-in-the past tense in Modern English.
E=English; Ts=tenses; Mg=meaning
Speaking about TIME we can define it as a form of existence of matter, it is the way we think about the progression of existence.
Tense- is a grammatical category that indicates the time of the action expressed by the form of the verb.
The main divisions of the objective time are relatively clear: there exist the past, the present and the future.
Concerning the E Ts we know that there are different opinions on the number of Ts. The 2 most wide-spread points of view about the English tense-system:
some linguists think that it is a 2-tense system and some that its a 3-tense system.
Within a 2-t. sys we differentiate between past and present tenses.
Within a 3-t. sys we differentiate between present, past and future.
The problem of the Future Tense: traditional grammar suggests the 3-fold division of Ts, which reflects the philosophical concept of time of the period.
Linguists who belong to this field (, ) believe that the Future T. is an analytical form of the verb - this means that shall\will are
auxiliary Vs & an infinitive makes the lexical part of this analytical form.
By these linguists, an analytical form is traditionally understood as a combination of an auxiliary verb which is devoid of the lexical Mg and a lexical
part which is limited in function, so it carries the lexical Mg of the form only and is devoid of any Gr. Mg.
The Gr. Features of an analytical forms are concentrated in the auxiliary part. The combination of shall\will+inf . meets these requirements and thats
why it may be called an analytical form.
The Vs shall and will originate from modal Vs but theyve lost their modal Mg (Its easily shown be the fact that ~will~ nowadays is freely used for the
1-st person sing.) The modal colourings of these 2 Vs can be traced now only in a few constructions: ~ Will you join us?~(expressing of a request)
~Who shall answer the phone?~ (obligation)
The other group of linguists (Jespersen, Quirk, Leech) thinks that there is a 2-fold T sys in E. They believe that the category of T is expressed through
the opposition of past and non-past forms (live-lived) They insist there is no Future T in E.
Here are their arguments:
1.Formally the combinations shall\will +inf. are in no way different from the comb. can+inf. or any other comb-s of modal V +inf.
(will come\ can come; will be reading\ can be reading; will be invited\can be invited ) As to the Mg of the comb. shall\ will+inf.- their modal colouring
is always retained though it may be weakened. (In particular, says a future action is never real- it`s always possible, planed and so on)
2.The comb-s shall\ will+inf. Are not the only constr-s in E which are used to express future actions. We can also employ other: to be going to do smth.,
to be about to do smth. Also we have special Vs to express future actions (to intend). Also- special tense forms which may express future actions (Im
leaving tomorrow)
3.The Vs shall\will like other modal Vs have corresponding past forms: should\would which can combine with diff. infinitives.
The above given arguments lead to the conclusion that the E lang. has no special form for the Future T. It has no form standing on the same
grammatical level as the forms of the past and present Ts.

9
 If to stick to the 3-fold division of Ts, we should take into consideration that these 3 Ts may appear in the common and in the continuous
aspect- thus we get 6 tense-aspect forms.
Besides these six, however, there are 2 more, namely: the future-in-the-past and the future-continuos-in-the-past . These forms are used chiefly in
subordinate clauses, but can be found in independent clauses as well.
The F-in-the-past &the F-Cont.-in-the-past do not easily fit into a system of Ts represented by a straight line running out of the past into the future.
They are a deviation from this straight line: their starting point isnt the present from which the past and the future are reckoned, but the past itself.
The Present tense(PT):
PT denotes a wide scope of actions:
1.They can be: taking place at the very moment of speaking (I hear a noise )
2.Occupying a prolonged period of time (I live in Moscow )
3.Timeless action (The Earth moves round the Sun)
4.Past actions (dramatic narrative use - to make the description more vivid) I entered the room and who do you think I see? Your cousin!)
5.Future actions (I`m leaving tomorrow)
6.to denote future actions in object clauses when 2 future actions are regarded as simultaneous (I`ll do what you say)
So, we can conclude that the Mg of PT can be characterized as vague.
insists that it`s easier to understand the PT comparing it with the past. He puts forward the term non-past. . Very distinctly defines the
Mg of the Past T. By him, the Past T. denotes an action which is prior to the moment of speaking & which is not correlated with this moment. Past T. is
the marked number of the tense oppositions. The formal marker of the Past T. is the morpheme -ed in regular Vs (in speech it is represented by
allomorphs -e, d, it).

14. Objective and subjective modality. Means of expressing modality. Mood and modality
! Modality is a semantic category that expresses the relations between the utterance and objective reality from the point of view of the speaker.
The speaker can establish different types of relations between the action expressed in the utterance and reality. We can regard the action as real/unreal,
likely/unlikely, possible/impossible, necessary/unnecessary, etc.
The representation of a contents of a sentence as real/unreal is called objective modality, since the contents of a sentence are correlated with objective
reality.
#: The girl is clever. The father is angry. Here the speaker states facts.
Objective modality expressed in these sentences is modality of reality. But as to subjective modality, these sentences are neutral.
#: I doubt if the girl is clever. Unfortunately father is angry. Here the speaker expresses not only objective, but also subjective modality. Subjective modality
expresses the attitude of the speaker towards the contents of a sentence, the evaluation of contents of the sentence or part of the sentence. The speaker can
express doubt, agreement, disagreement, etc.
! Modality is expressed by:
- mood
- modal verbs
- modal words (possibly, probably, fortunately, certainly, indeed, maybe, etc)
Mood is a grammatical category which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality.
There are many points of view on how many moods there are in English, but if we take traditional classification:
- the indicative mood
- the imperative mood
- the subjunctive mood

- The indicative mood shows that the action or state expressed by the verb is presented as a fact: We went home early in the evening.
It is also used to express a real condition, that is a condition the realization of which is considered possible: If it rains, I will stay at home.
- The imperative mood expresses a command or request: Put the papers on my table.
- The subjunctive mood shows that the action or state expressed by the verb is presented as non-fact, as something imaginary or desired. It's also used to
express an emotional attitude of the speaker to real facts (emotional should)

14.Objective and subjective modality. Means of expressing modality. Mood and modality.
Modality (Mod)- is a linguistic term which denotes the relation of the contents of speech to reality as viewed by the speaker.
In the case of Objective Mod. We must introduce a V into a sentence and it will show the connection with reality.
In the case of Subjective Mod. We can choose some additional means to express our attitude.

Means of expressing Mod: modal words express the speakers evaluation of the relation between the made in the sentence and reality. They stand
outside phrases; their syntactical function - parenthesis. Semantically can denote: 1) certainty (certainly, of course, no doubt, surely)
2) supposition (may be, perhaps) 3) desirability (luckily, happily).
Modal Vs do not denote actions or states but show the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the infinitive. Thus the action is viewed
as possible, obligatory, requested etc.
So, modal Vs- is lexico-grammatical Mod. Mood- is the Gr. Category of the V reflecting the relation of the action denoted by the V to reality from the
speakers point of view.

15. The cat of MOOD. Different points of view on the number of moods in modern Eng. Forms used to express unreality in Eng.
The category of mood expresses the character of connection between the process denoted, by the verb and the actual reality, either presenting the process as a
fact that really happened, happens or will happen, or treating it as an imaginary phenomenon # the subject of a hypothesis, speculation, desire.
Forms used to express unreality:
The Subjunctive mood is used in conditional Ss to express an unreal condition (=subordinate
clause) and an unreal consequence (=principal clause).
1.Unreal condition referring to the present or future the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is in the subordinate clause, in the principal clause we find
analytical subjunctive (would, should + Infinitive) [would/should], (were...)
#:The world would be healthier if every chemist's shop in England were demolished.

10
Unreal condition referring to the future can also be expressed by the Past Subj of the verb to be+ infinitive of the notional verb or the analytical subj with
the mood auxiliary should for all persons.
#:If I were to offer my home, they were probably be accepted.
If you should send me to a difficult spot with this man alone, I'd feel secure.
If there's should in the subordinate clause, we often find the Indicative or Imperative Mood in the principal clause.
#:If any of your family should come to my house, I shall be delighted to welcome them.
2. Unreal condition referring to the past the Past Perfect of the Indicative mood is used in the subordinate clause, in the principal clause we find
should/would + Perfect Infinitive ( have done) [Past Perfect], (should/would have done)
#:If I had consulted my own interests, I should have come here.
3.Unreal Condition is often used with might/could. They fully retain their modal meaning and they don't form analytical subjunctive, (modal verb+Infinitive)
#:If she were still waiting, she might be restless.

15. The cat of MOOD. Different points of view on the number of moods in modern Eng. Forms used to express unreality in Eng.
The category of mood expresses the character of connection between the process denoted by the verb and the actual reality, either presenting the process as a
fact that really happened, happens or will happen, or treating it as an imaginary phenomenon # the subject of a hypothesis, speculation, desire.
Traditionally there are 3 Moods: 1) Indicative 2) Imperative 3) Subjunctive. But Some Grammarians think there are from 10 to 16 Moods to no moods at all.
But Barhundarov thinks that there are only 2 :Indicative and Imperative, and the rest is a shift of tenses, modal Ws or whatever.
1. #: I suggest that u do smth = a special form of Imperative Mood he says
Reasons to this:
Morphologically "he go/be" coincides with the forms of the Imperative Mood
This form is used after the verbs of volition and order and in direct commands.
2. #: If he knew, he would go...
If he had known, he would have gone...
Originally it belongs to the Subj Mood. In Modern Eng they should be regarded as forms of the Indicative Mood. The unreality is expressed NOT by a Mood
form but by the use of the Past Tense with the reference to the Present. It's just shift of tenses, he says. Forms used to express unreality:
The Subjunctive mood is used in conditional Ss to express an unreal condition (=subordinate clause) and an unreal consequence (=principal clause).
1. Unreal condition referring to the present or future the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is in the subordinate clause, in the principal clause we find
analytical subjunctive (would, should + Infinitive) [would/should], (were...)
# :The world would be healthier if every chemist's shop in England were demolished.
Unreal condition referring to the future can also be expressed by the Past Subj of the verb to be+ infinitive of the notional verb or the analytical subj with
the mood auxiliary should for all persons.
#: If I were to offer my home, they were probably be accepted.
If you should send me to a difficult spot with this man alone, I'd feel secure.
If there's should in the subordinate clause, we often find the Indicative or Imperative Mood in the principal clause.
#: If any of your family should come to my house, I shall be delighted to welcome them.
2: Unreal condition referring to the past the Past Perfect of the Indicative mood is used in the subordinate clause, in the principal clause we find
should/would + Perfect Infinitive( have done) [Past Perfect], ( should/would have done)
# If I had consulted my own interests, I should have come here.
3. Unreal Condition is often used with might/could. They fully retain their modal meaning and they don't form analytical subjunctive, (modal
verb+Infmitive)
#: If she were still waiting, she might be restless.
10 FORMS TO EXPRESS UNREALITY:
1. "he go/he be"
#: I insist that he come in time
2. "were" for all persons
I wish I were 10 yrs younger
3. #:1 wish I knew it
4.had known/had gone
#:As if he had known it
5.should/would + Inf
#: If I could, I would go
6. should/ would + Perf Inf
#:he would have gone...
7. should+Inf
#: I insist that he should go i
8. May/might + Inf
9. Would + Inf
#:If he would do smth...
10. can/could+ Inf

15.The category of Mood. Different points of view on the number of Moods in Modern English. Forms used to express unreality in English.
M= mood
There is no unity of opinion concerning the cat. Of M in E. Owing to the difference of approach to Ms (mutual relation between Mg and form) grammarians
single out:
: 6 Ms in E: Indicat., Imperat., Subj. I, Subj. II ( conditional and suppositional).
, , : 3 Ms: Indic., Imper.,Subj. The latter, according to , appears in 2 forms- the conditional and subjunctive.
distinguish only 2 Ms- Indic. m and Subjunctive. The latter is subdivided into Subj. I and Subj. II. The Imperat. and the Conjunctive are treated
as forms outside the cat. of M.
In general the number of Ms in diff. Theories varies from 2 to 17. In modern E there are 3 Ms: The Indicative M. (IM), The Imperative M (IMP.M), The
Subjunctive M (SM)
IM is the basic M of the V. Morphologically it is the most developed system including all the cat-es of the V. It serves to present an action as a fact of
reality. It conveys minimum personal attitude to the fact. The speakers attitude is neutral.(We went home.)
IM is also used to express a real condition (condition the realization of which is considered possible). (If it rains, I shall stay home.)
IMP.M in E is represented by one form only. Without any suffix or ending. It differs from other Ms in several important points:

11
1.it has no person, number, tense or aspect distinctions
2.it is limited in its use to one type of sentence only- imperative sent.
IMP.M expresses a command or a request.
Most usually a verb in the IMP.M has no pronoun acting as subject. However, the pronoun may be used in emotional speech, as in the following
example: But, Tessie- he pleaded, going towards her. You leave me alone!- she cried out loudly.
These are essential peculiarities distinguishing the IMP.M and they have given rise to doubts as to whether the imperative can be numbered among the
Ms at all. A serious difficulty connected with the IMP. Is the absence of any specific morphological characteristics: with all Vs including the V be, it
also coincides with the infinitive, and in all Vs, except be, it also coincides with the Pres. Indic apart from the 3d person Sing. Even the absence of a
subject pronoun you which would be its syntactical characteristic, is not reliable feature at all, as sentences You sit here! occur often enough.
Mg alone may not seem sufficient ground for establishing a grammatical category.
The SM. (also the Conditional M)
Probably the only thing linguists are unanimous about with the SM is that it represents an action as a non-fact, as something imaginary, desirable,
problematic, contrary to reality. In all other respects opinions differ.
In modern E the SM has synthetic and analytical forms.
Synthetic(or simple forms)- are those the formal elements of which are to be found within 1 word from which they are inseparable. These are the present
and the past Ind. Affirmative (sing, sings, sang); the non-perfect common aspect forms of the inf, partic.I, the gerund, part. II (sing, singing, sung); the
IMP.M (sing!)
Analytical (or compound form) consists of at least 2 verbal elements- an auxiliary V and a notional V. the latter is presented be partic.I, II, or the infin.
An auxiliary V is devoid of its lexical Mg, its role is purely structural. It may be finite or non-finite, thus showing whether the whole V form is finite or non-
finite as in:
Means of expressing unreality:
Unreal actions are expressed by:
plain stem of the V for all persons (I insist that he be present)
were for all persons ( I wish I were 10 years younger)
the form of the Past Indef. (He looked as if he knew about it)
the form of the Past Perfect (He looked as if he had seen a ghost)
should for the 1st person Sing or Pl or would (for the other persons)+inf. (If I had a garden I should grow tulips there)
should \would +Perf. Inf (If it hadnt rain I should have gone for a walk)
should( for all persons)+inf. (I insist that he should do it)
would (for all per.) +inf (I wish he wouldn`t interrupt me)
may\ might +inf. (I told u that so that you might write to ur parents)
can\ could +inf. (I told u that so that u could)
were to (for all persons)+ inf. (If he were to discover the truth he would never speak to me)
An unreal action can be represented by these means as hypothetical (the realization is doubtful: (He insisted that the plan be discussed) and contradicting
reality (the action cant be realized) (I wish I can see the parade)
Other means: modal Vs (He must have gone)
Modal Ws (probably, perhaps)

16 Agreement in number between the subject and the predicate in Modem English.
Agreement is one of the principal means (together with word order) to show the relation between the subject and the predicate.
Agreement in English may be formal and notional. In the majority of cases agreement is formal: the subject and the predicate agree in form - in number and
sometimes in person.

The predicate agrees with the first component of the subject expressed by a phrase:
1. When the sentence begins with the formal subject there
E.g. There is a table and several chairs in the room.
There are several chairs and a table in the room.
2. In questions beginning with where
E.g. Where is my hat and my gloves?
Where are my gloves and my hat?
3. When the components are joined by with or as well as
E.g. A woman with children was there.
The teacher as well as the students was there.
The predicate agrees with the last component of the subject expressed by a word group if the components, are joined by either... or, neither... nor, not only...
but also. E. g. Either you or I am to do it.

In some cases however the agreement is notional and varies with the same word in accordance with the notion it expresses (one object - more than one
object)
E.g. Bread and butter are important foodstuffs.
The bread and butter is on the plate.
The red and the white blanket are very good.
The red and white blankets are very good.
The red and white blanket is very good.

Who is he?
Who are they?

A number (a variety) of books for home reading were suggested to them.

The number (the variety) of books suggested to them was great.

The family is small (the collective)

The family are small and blond (members of the family)

"The Caramazov Brothers" was written by Dostoyevsky (the title of the play)

12
Five pounds is too much for it.
Two miles is a long way.
Tow and two is four.

16.Agreement (in number) between the subject and the predicate in Modern English.
The category of number in E is represented by the oppositions of 2 forms: singular and plural.
The cat. of N shows whether a Noun has the Gr Mg of oneness or more than oneness.
The Subject (S) is the principal part of a 2-member sentence which is grammatically independent of the other parts of the sentence and on which the 2d
principal part (the predicate) is grammatically dependent.
The Predicate (P) is the second principal part of the sentence which expresses an action, state, or quality of the person or thing denoted by the subject.
As a rule the P contains a finite V which may express tense, mood, voice, aspect and sometimes person and number.
In E the P agrees with the S in person and number. Agreement implies that the use of one form necessitates the use of the other, for example: a Sing S
requires a P in the Sing, a plural S- a P in the Pl.
But there is often a conflict between (b\n) form and Mg- in these cases the P does not agree with the S.
~ The Brown family were at breakfast, father, mother and seven children. ~
Agreement in E may be FORMAL or NOTIONAL. In the majority of cases agreement is formal: the S and the P agree in form-in number and
sometimes in person. In some cases- notional: varies with the same word in accordance with the notion it expresses (one object- more than one object)
The following rules of agreement of the P with the S shud be observed:
The P is used in the Pl when there are 2 or more homogeneous Ss connected by the conjunction AND or asyndetically:
~ Her father and motherwere obviously haunted and harassed. ~
If 2 or more homog. Ss are expressed by infin-s the P is in the Sing:
~ To labour in peace, and devote her labour and her life to her poor son, was all the widow sought. ~
When the P-verb precedes a number of Ss it is often in the Sing., especially if the sent. Begins with HERE or THERE:
~ And here was a man, was experience and culture. ~
If the Ss are of different number the P agrees with the S that stands FIRST:
~ There was much traffic at night and many mules on the roads ~
When 2 homog. Ss in the Sing are connected by the conj-s not onlybut (also), neithernor, eitheror, or, nor, the P is usually in the Sing.
~ There was neither heroic swift defeat nor heroic swift victory ~
If the Ss are of different person or number, the P agrees with the one NEXT to it:
~ Neither your sister nor you are to blame. ~
When 2 Ss in the Sing are connected by the conjunction as well the P is in the Sing.
~ Activity as well as cell structure is an essential condition of life ~
If the Ss are of different person or number, the P agrees with the S that stands first:
~ The Volga as well as its affluents is very picturesque. ~
If a S expressed by a noun is modified by 2 or more attributes connected by AND, the P is in the Sing when one person, thing or idea is meant.
~ The complete and beautiful quiet was almost the quiet from beyond the grave. ~
If 2 or more persons, things or ideas are meant the P is in the Pl:
~ Classical and light music have both their admirers. ~
6)If the S is expressed by a defining, indefinite, or negative pronoun (each, either, everybody, everyone ,everything, somebody, someone, something,
nobody, no one, nothing, neither etc) the P is in the Sing.
~ Everybody was glad to see him back. ~
~ There was nothing to attract attention or excite alarm in this. ~
7)If the S is expressed by an interrogative pronoun (who, what) the P is usually in the Sing.
~ Who is to apply to her for permission? - I asked. ~
If the question refers to more than one person the P may be used in the Pl.
~ Who were to be the subjects of their piracies was a matter that did not occur to him. ~
8) If the S is expressed by a relative pronoun ( who, which, that) the P agrees with its antecedent.
~ She looked at his handsome face, which was turned to hers~
9) If the S is expressed by the emphatic it the P is in the Sing no matter what follows.
~ Foreigners say that it is only English girls who can thus be trusted to travel alone ~
10) If the S is expressed by a noun in the Plur which is the title of a book, or the name of a newspaper or magazine, the P is usually in the Sing.
~ ``The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club`` was written when Dickens was 24. ~
11)If the S is expressed by a noun in the Pl denoting time, measure, or distance, the P is in the Sing when the noun represents the amount or mass as a
whole.
~ Twenty-one years is a longish time, lad, but memory is longer ~
If the S is expressed by a collective noun denoting a group or collection of similar individuals taken as a whole (mankind, humanity) the P-verb is in the
Sing.
~ He consoled himself with the idea that perhaps humanity was better than he thought. ~
If the S is expressed by a noun of multitude, i.e. a collective noun denoting the individuals of the group taken separately (people- , infantry,
gentry, police, cattle, jury) the P-verb is as a rule in the Pl.
~ The weather was warm and the people were sitting at their doors. ~
With collective nouns (family, crew, board, government, team, band) as S the P is either in the Sing or in the Pl; this depends on what is uppermost in
the mind, the idea of oneness or plurality.
~ The band was beginning to play
~ the band had arrived and were standing in the hall ~

The P agrees in number with the S expressed by a syntactic word-group (w-g- is a combination of Ws forming one part of the sentence) ), consisting of
two nouns connected by the conjunction and.

Here we find agreement according to the Mg expressed in the w-group.

(a) If the w-gr. Consists of 2 Ns denoting different persons, things, or notions, the P-verb is in the Pl.
~ Andreis and I were alone ~

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 NB! Syntactic w-groups forming one part of the sentence shud not be confused with homog. Parts of the sentence. A sent. With 2 homog. Ss can be
divided into 2 sentences with each S taken separately.
But if we have a sentence with the S expressed by a synt. w-gr. Its elements cannot be used separately without destroying the Mg of the sentence;
only the whole w-gr.
The P-verb is in the Sing when the S is expressed by several Ns which represent one person or thing, or 2 persons or things forming a close unit
often corresponding to one notion.
~ The wife and mother WAS asked with deference before the plan was made. ~
2) If the S is expressed by a w-gr. Consisting of 2 Ns connected by the preposition WITH, or the expression TOGETHER WITH, the P-verb is in the Sing.
(These w-grs. are rarely used in E.)
~ A woman with a child on the 3d floor is screaming ~
3) If the S is expressed by a synt. w-gr. The 1st element of which denotes an indef. Number or amount, such as a number of, a variety of, the majority of, a
lot of, plenty of, a mass of the P may be in the Sing or in the Pl.
~ There is a lot of truth in that ~
~ There are a lot of things for you to believe ~
NB! The Ns number & variety may retain their concrete Mg (, ) and serve as S of the sentence. In this case they are used with the
definite article; the of-phrase that follows them is a separate part of the sent- an attribute to the S. The P is naturally in the Sing as it agrees with the S the
number, the variety.
~ They tell me that the number of teachers in town has not increased in years ~
4) If the S is expressed by a group of Ws denoting arithmetic calculations ( addition, subraction, division) the P is usually Sing; multiplication presents an
exception as the V may be in the Sing or in the Pl.
~ Two and two is four ~
~ Twice two is (are) four ~

17. Non-finite forms of the verb: double nature. The grammatical categories of verbals. Different points of view on the number of non-finite forms
in Modern English.
Non-finite forms of the verb: the infinitive (to fuck), the gerund (fucking),participle I (fucking), participleII (fucked).
Non-finite forms have a double nature, nominal and verbal. The participle combines the characteristics of a verb with those of an adjective/ adverb. The
gerund and the infinitive combine the characteristics of a verb with those of a
noun.
The verbals, unlike the finite forms of the verb, do not express person, number, tense or mood.
Non-finites possess the verb categories of phase, voice and aspect.
And now DETAILS.....
THE INFINITIVE
the nominal character the verbal character
is manifested in its syntactic functions. The infinitive can 1. the infinitive of transitive verbs can take a direct object
be used as: => He began to feel some curiosity.
1. the subject => To kiss you is pleasant. 2. it can be modified by an adverb => I like to do it slowly.
2. a predicative => My plan is to pass the exam. 3. - phase distinctions - aspect distinctions - voice (inf. of
3. an object => I've never learned to drink vodka. transitive verbs)

PHASE ASPECT ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

non-perfect common to go to be taken
to take

non-perfect continuous to be going -

to be taking

perfect common to have gone to have been taken

to have taken

perfect continuous to have been going to have -

been taking

THE GERUND
the nominal character the verbal character
1. can perform the function of subject, 1. the gerund of transitive verbs can
object, predicative => take a direct object => I made
Drinking leads to joy. progress in understanding the
Everybody likes making love. Bushmen language. =)

14
My duty is fighting for peace. 2. can be modified by an adverb => She
2. can be preceded by a preposition => burst out crying bitterly.
Iam tired of typing. 3. - phase
3. can be modified by a noun in the - voice (the gerund of transitive
possessive case or by a possessive
pronoun => I wonder at Marina's/ your
doing this.
PHASE ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
non-perfect running kissing being kissed
perfect having run having kissed having been kissed

THE PARTICIPLE (I, II)

the adjectival/ adverbial character the verbal character
is manifested in their syntactic functions: attribute and 1. participle I of a transitive verb can take a direct object
adverbial modifier => => Opening the door, he went out.
I -> I saw the girl sitting by the window. 2. Participle I and II can be modified by an adverb =>
Having done it, I went to bed. Looking at him gently, she began crying. Deeply affected,
II -> I saw your name written on the wall. he killed her.
When left alone, she masturbated. 3. participle I: - phase
voice (p I of transitive verbs)

PHASE ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

non-perfect going kissing being kissed

perfect having gone having kissed having been kissed

Participle II of transitive verbs, when it is not part of a perfect form, is always passive in meaning.

DIFFERENT POINTS OF VIEW..........

Some grammarians do not distinguish between the gerund and participleI. BUT look at my tables and you'll see that these are two different non-finite forms,
BECAUSE:
1) The participle combines the characteristics of a verb with those of an adjective/ adverb. While the gerund combines the characteristics of a verb with those
of a noun.
2) They have absolutely different syntactic functions.
3) The gerund can be preceded by a preposition and modified by a noun in the possessive case or by a possessive pronoun. The participle cannot.
AT THE SAME TIME their verbal characteristics fully coincide! (probably that i< th hnsie ooint of the above-mentioned grammarians)

17.Non-Finite forms of the verb: double nature. The grammatical categories of verbals. Different points of view on the number of non-finite forms
in Modern English.
Non-Finite= N-F ;Verbals= Vls; Finite=F
The V has finite and N-F forms (also called Vls)
The Vls, unlike the F forms of the V, do not express person, number or mood. Therefore they cannot be used as the predicate of a sentence.
Like the F forms- the Vls have Tense and Voice distinctions, but their tense dist. Differ greatly from those of the F V.
There are 3 Vls: the participle (I or II) (Part), the gerund (Ger), the infinitive (Inf)
The characteristic traits of the Vls are as follows:
They have a double nature-1. nominal &2. verbal.
1)The Part. Combines the characteristics of V with those of an adjective; the Ger. And the Inf.- of a V with those of N.
2)The tense distinctions of the Vls are not absolute, but relative!
The form of a Vl does not show whether the action it denotes refers to the present, past or future; it shows only whether the action
expressed by the Vl is simultaneous with the action expressed by the F V or prior to it.
All the Vls can form predicative constructions (p.con), i.e constr. Consisting of 2 elements- a nominal (N or Pronoun) and a verbal (Part, Ger, Inf); the
verbal element stands in predicate relation to the nominal element, i.e in a relation similar to that between the S and the P of the sentence. In most cases
p.con. form syntactic units, serving as one part of the sentence.
The Vls have the Gr. Cat-es of ORDER and VOICE. The Inf. Has also a sd Gr. Cat-y- ASPECT.
Order. (Correlation)
The cat. of Order is built up by 2 forms: perfect & non-perfect.
Non-perfect Perfect
Inf to ask, to give to have asked, to have given
Ger asking, giving having asked, having given
15
 Part asking, giving having asked, having given
The perfect form is used to present the event as prior to another event (generally prior to the event expressed by the predicate V)
The non-perfect form will be generally used to present the event as non-prior to another event (simultaneous, posterior or referring to no particular time).
Voice.
Active Passive
Inf to ask, to give to be asked, to be given
Ger asking, giving being asked, being given
Part I asking, giving being asked, being given
The active form of the Vl will indicate that the doer of the action is denoted by the S of the sentence, the passive- that the doer is not denoted by the S of the
sentence:I wanted to ask him that question; I wanted to be asked that question.
NB! In certain cases the Vl (the Inf or the Ger) though active in form may be passive in Mg. The Inf may indicate it when used as predicative in some
traditional contexts: They were not to blame.; The house is to let.
The Ger. will be passive in Mg when used after the Vs want, need, require and the adjective worth: The woodwork needed painting.; He has got one
friend worth having.
Aspect.
The cat. of A is built up by 2 aspect forms: continuous and common.
Only one Vl, as was said above. Has the cat. of A- it is the Inf.
Common Continuous
To write, to read to be writing, to be reading
The Cont. form of the Inf. Will generally indicate that the event is presented as temporary, as being in progress at the time of another event or at a
definite moment (period).
The Common- will be often used just to name the event without specifying its character or time.
Part. II as was said above has one unalterable form. Consequently, it has no morphological Gr. Cat-es.
When formed from transitive terminative Vs it is generally passive and perfective in Mg.
The answer given by him did not explain his attitude.
When asked he did not know what to say.
When formed from non-terminative transitive Vs it is generally passive but non-perfective.
She is a pleasant girl called Mary.
NB! When formed from non-trans. Vs such as fall, vanish, return, grow (in the Mg of grow up) and a few others Part. II is ACTIVE in Mg.: He is a
retired soldier .

18. Word-groups and sentences: basic differences. Classification of word-qroups based on syntactical relations between the members of the word-
group:
coordinate, subordinate, pfedicative> cumulative.
Syntax deals with both sentences and word-groups.
: the analysis of sentences ma in problem of syntax, analysis word-groups=secondary, because joining of words into word-groups is only a step,
toward making a sentence.
Word-groups Sentences
* not complete (structurally-and semantically) * units of speech (can function as independent utterances)
* can't be used as units of communication
Fundamental feature that distinguishes a sentence from a word-group=INTONATION
*noun+verb word-group * normally contain a verb in-afinite form
(noun+verb=subject&predicate)
Word-group - logical and grammatical combination of 2 or more words which don't form a sentence.
Sentence - basic unit of communication, grammatically organized and expressing a complete thought.

Traditional grammar => 2 types of syntactic relations between words: coordination, subordination
Coordination: grammatical' equality of words joined together; is realized by coordinating conjunctions or by word-order: John and Mary; John, Mary or
Marinka
When connection is realized by word order -> asyndetic coordination () + only homogenious members of the sentence can be joined by
coordination

Subordination: implies Inequality in the grammatical status of words in the sentence -one of the words becomes the head of the phrase & the other =the
modifier subordinated to the head. John's room/ his- book
Can be expressed by agreement () and government ().
AGREEMENT
Kind of relation in which the subordinated word takes a form similar to that of the head-word's
- : only 2 cases of agreement -> demonstrative pronouns "this/that", "these/those" (agree in number).
- Some grammarians: "agreement" can be applied to word-groups in which words belong to different grammatical classes
When everybody has given his, opinion... (agrees in number with everybody; colloquial - ...has given their opinion )
- between the subject and the object She's making a cake for herself
He injured himself in the bottom.
the form of The subordinated word
is determined by the head-word but
isn't similar to it.
GOVERNMENT
-the form of the subordinated waod is detemined by the head-word but isnt similar to it
- extremely limited: the predicate verb governs the form of the object expressed by a personal pronoun, because the personal proN is to be used in the
objective case: He gave him/her/me a book.

Modern English: analytical means to reveal subordination, most important - word order prepositions.

Predicative relations ( ; = interdependence)

Relations between the subject and the predicate:

16
- subject determines the gram, form of the predicate (person&number) I am, he reads
- predicate ascribes to the subject some action, state or quality He went, he is old, he is married
Cumulation ()
subordinated
His new coatnew coat
Subordinated his new; some old = > somehow connected with each other
Easy to prove: can't change their word order,
Subordinated the relations between them are not very distinct;
Subordinated lectors can't be identified, only against the background of
Subordinated the head-word in the word-group

Also cumulation between nouns in:

To write John a letter
There's some strange relation between John and
a letter (can't change their position, we are to
introduce a preposition to)

18.Word groups and sentences: basic differences. Classification of word-groups based on syntactical relations between the members of the word-
group: coordinate, subordinate, predicative, cumulative.
Syntax deals with analysis of the structure of a sentence. The first step to build a sentence- word-group (not an independent utterance).
Basic English sentence must contain a verb in the Finite Form .Sentences without verbs convey only fragments of information (not full info). -
- , , , . When a
noun and a verb in the F.F. follow each other they become the subject and the pred.icate the main parts of the basic English sentence, they may be
accompanied by other words in a sentence, but that doesnt change their functional status, thats why many ling-s exclude them from the domain of word
groups.. Some foreign ling-s suggest that we should use a special term to denote relations between them clause. Word group a logical and gram.
combination of 2 or more words, which dont form a sentence. Cood word group brings together items of equal rank #Boys and Girls. Subordinate word
group in which one word is the head and the other are subordinates Sentence a unit of communication, grammatically organized and expressing a
complete thought ( Bloomfield).The sent. is char. by predication, that establishes or indicates relations b\n the utter-s and reality, its expressed through the
F.F of a verb, which expresses Tense, Mood, Person, Number, traditionally. Its said that the most universal means of expressing pred. is intonation.

20. SYNTACTIC RELATIONS btw Ws: coordination, subordination, interdependence, cumulation, apposition. Means of expressing Syn relations:
agreement, government, word order, function words, parenthesis.
Coordination - relation of equality. We find this relation between homogeneous (-) members of the S.
# Peter and Mary went there (subjects to the same predicate)
Peter went there alone and returned late (predicates to the same subj)
We heard their merry happy laughter (attributes to the same noun)
Subordination - relation of inequality btw the components. In this case we have one head-word and modifiers to it. Attributes, objects and adv modifiers
stand in subordinate relation to the other components of the S.
# I heard her happy laughter (laughter is the head word)
She was laughing happily (head word - was laughing)
She looked at me attentively (head word - looked)
Cumulation -
# His new coat; Some old letters
his and new (some and old) are subordinated to coat (letters). At the same time "his and new" are related with each other in a certain way. Their position is
fixed and can't be changed.
# To give smb smth
To give smth to sb
Apposition -
# Queen Mary
Both Ws are heads and both are also attributes. But the Ws in the apposition are identical in reference. They have the same referent. Usually 2 Nouns have
different designations for the same thing or person.
# Mr. Smth the doctor
English is an analytical L. There are several means to form the Gr Str-re of the S:
Agreement is one of the principal means (together with word order) to show the relation between the subject and the predicate. In Eng agreement can be
formal or notional. In the majority of cases, it's formal: the subj and the predicate agree in form - in number and sometimes in person.
# I am here
There ARE several CHAIRS
A WOMAN with children WAS there
In some cases, however, the agreement is notional and varies with the same word in accordance with the notion it expresses (one object - more than one
object).
# Bread and butter are important foodstuffs
The bread and butter is on the plate.
Function Ws - serve as connectors btw the main ones. These dependent Ws are prepositions and conjunctions. Prepositions act within one clause,
conjunctions may connect Ws, clauses, separate Ss. Thus, prepositions and conjunctions express relations but they never denote objects and notions.
However, the relations they denote are not purely formal b/c each preposition and conjunction has a definite lexical meaning.
They are characterized by an indistinct meaning : both lex and grammatical.
# The boy saw it in a book.
They don't perform any syntactical function, they express relations btw. Ws in a S.
Their use is sometimes obligatory
# depend on

They are never used alone in Ss without notional Ws

# Mary came home last night.

17
Coordination uses conjunctions and cumulation makes use of few Function Ws.
Parenthesis - either shows the speaker's attitude towards the thought expressed in the S or connects a given S with another one, or summarizes that which is
said in the S. It is connected with the rest of the S rather semantically or grammatically. No question can be put to it. Very often it's detached from the rest of
the S and consequently it's often separated from it by commas or dashes. Can be expressed by: modal words (indeed, certainly, in fact, truly, surely, actually),
adverbs which serve as connectives (firstly, secondly, thus, finally, consequently, then, anyway, yet, still), prepositional phrases (in a word, in truth, in my
opinion, in short, on the hand), infinitive and participial phrases{ to be sure, to tell the truth, to begin with, generally speaking, strictly speaking).
# Evidently, he was not a man, he must be some other kind of animal.
Besides, I want to get back as soon as possible.
To tell the truth, I don't want to call him.
Word order - as Eng Ws have hardly any inflexions and their relation to each other is shown by their place in the S and not by their form, Word-order in eng
is fixed. We can't change the position of different parts of the S at will, esp. that of the subject and the object.

20. Syntactical relations between words in a sentence: coordination, subordination, interdependence, cumulation, apposition. Means of expressing
syntactic relations: agreement, government, word order, function words, parenthesis.
Grammatically words are combined into sentences on the basis of their semantics. Sometimes lexical connection between words is decisive for identifying
grammatical structure of the sentence. l) Her elder sister is teaching English.-by lexical meaning of the words we understand that 'is teaching' is Present
Continuous. 2) Her hobby is teaching English.-we understand that is-a link-verb, 'teaching' is a gerund in the function of a predicative, though both look
similar. Traditional Grammar recognized 2 types of relations: coordination and subordination. Coordination implies grammatical equality of words joined
together by coordinating conjunctions #Jane &Bob. Only homogeneous members of the sentence can be combined.
Subordination implies inequality in the grammatical status of words, joined together. The main is the head word (~his book).
Agreement-the subordinate word takes a form similar to that of the word to which it is subordinate. Agreement is found only in the demonstrative pronouns
'this &that', which agree in number with the word they modify. But other linguists (Gorrel, Laird):' Agreement can be used in reference to words which
belong to different word-groups. 'His' agrees with everybody' in When everybody has given his opinion, the committee can decide, (though in the colloq.
speech there is a tendency to use 'their'). Quirk, Greenbaum: E.g. He injured himself in the leg--agreement in number, person and gender. The relations
between the subject and the predicate are a controversial problem. Quirk, Palmer and others do interpret these relations as agreement. Others assume that
agreement belongs to the level of word-groups which form parts of the sentence while a n+a finite v forms a sentence and can't be regarded as a word-group.
Sweet, Kruisinga and others call a n+a finite v' a clause to distinguish it from a word-group. Smirnickij and Barkhudarov call these syntactical relations as
'predicative relations'. The 2nd opinion is better.
Government is a kind of relation in which the form of the subordinate word is determined by the head-word, but is different from the head-word. In Modern
English the sphere of government is very limited. The predicate verb governs the object expressed by a personal pronoun since the form of the objective case
is used here (me, him, etc.) The notion of government can also be applied to use of the genitive case.
Modern English relies on analytical means to reveal subordination within sentences--word order & functional words of which prepositions are the most
important. In phrases word order refers to the certain place of a head word and a subordinate one; in sentences the order of the parts of the sentences is
important. Conjunctions play a great role, for instance, copulative conjunctions ( and, neithernor, etc) are used to enumerate events; disjunctive
conjunctions ( or, otherwise, eitheror, etc.) are used to indicate choice between words or events; and adversative conjunctions ( but, yet, still, nevertheless,
however etc.) are used to indicate opposition or contradiction.
Not all relations can be called coordination or subordination. Between the subject and the predicate -- reciprocal relations: the subject dominates the
predicate determining the person (I am. He reads), at the same time the predicate dominates the subject ascribing to it some action (He went), or state (He is
married), or quality (He's clever).The Danish linguist Hjelmslev introduced the term 'interdependence' to indicate this shit.
Another type of syntactical relations is cumulation. E.g. 1) this new coat, 2) some old letters. In 1) his &new are subordinate to coat (they are attributes to
noun).In 2) the same. At the same time his &new, or some &old are related with each other: their position is fixed (can't say new his coat). We also find
cumulation relations between nouns in 'to write John a letter'-the fact that there is some syntactical relation between 'John' and 'a letter' becomes clear if we
change their positioning with the help of the preposition (to writer a letter to John).
Lately linguists single out apposition as a special type of relations between components of a word-group. Ch. Hockett: e.g. Queen Mary-both words are
heads& both are attributes. Thus it's not subordination. In coordination the constituent have different referents, while words in apposition are identical in
reference: usually 2 nouns give different designations to the same thing or person (Mr. Smith, a doctor title, profession, social position etc.).
Parenthesis words &phrases which have no syntactical ties with the sentence, and express the speaker's attitude towards what he says, a general
assessment of the statement, or an indication of its sources, or connection with other statements, or with a wider context ( ~ Perhaps he is ill. As we have
already mentioned...)

21 Classification of sentences based on their structure. The simple

sentence. The composite sentence.
According to the structure sentences may be simple and composite.
The semantic and structural relations between simple sentences within a composite one are closer than those between simple sentences of the same text. The
semantic relations between the elements of the composite sentence are those of coordination, subordination and predication. The means of adj ointment of
the elementary sentences within the composite one are either syndetical - with the help of different connections - or asyndetical. Composite sentences are
generally subdivided into compound and complex.
Compound sentences consist of 2 or more coordinated simple sentences - clauses. The relations between the clauses are those of equality and relative
independence.
Complex sentences consist of 2 or more clauses joined by subordination (adverbial, object or attributive clauses) or by predication (subject and predicative
clauses). Complex sentences consist of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses which are kind of modifiers to the principle clause.
The main components of the simple sentence are the subject, the predicate, the object, the attribute, the adverbial modifier. The sentence containing both the
subject and the predicate is called a two-member sentence. In the majority of cases the English sentence is a two-member sentence. A one-member sentence
contains only one principle member. It is complete. No other element of it is implied or felt as missing or necessary. The principle member of the one-
member sentence is generally expressed by a noun or a noun-phrase. This type of sentence is rarely used except in written literary English texts. E.g. Silence.
Not a word.
The sentence containing besides the principle parts also attributes, objects, adverbial modifiers is called an extended sentence. The sentence having no
secondary parts is called an unextended sentence.
A sentence may contain homogeneous members:
- homogeneous subjects - Nick an I are good friends
- homogeneous predicates - He came in, grabbed her hand and kissed her.
- homogeneous objects - He had force, brains and intelligence
-homogeneous attributes -1 found a safe and comfortable place for her.
- homogeneous adverbial modifiers - He spoke slowly - almost reluctantly.

18
Simple sentence
Two-member One-member
Extended unextended extended unextended
Elliptical non -elliptical Elliptical non -elliptical

21. Classification of sentences based on their structure. The simple sentence. The composite sentence.
Structurally sentences are divided into:1) simple (contains only 1 subject-predicate unit) or composite (more than one), 2) complete or incomplete (elliptical)-
distinguished by the presence or absence of word-forms in the principal positions of 2-member sentences, 3) t wo-member (two principal parts-the subject
and the predicate) or one- member (1 principal part which is either subject, or the predicate). These 3 classifications are based on different approaches to the
structural organization of sentence & reflect its different aspects.
The simple sentence. 1) Two-member sentences. The basic pattern is one subject-predicate unit. Thus it has 2 main positions: those of the subject and the
predicate. There are several variations of this pattern-depend on the kind of the verb occupying the predicate position. This verb may be transitive, in~,
ditransitive or a link verb. Sentences may be unextended (John is clever) and extended (John learned French). A sentence may be extended, not only by
obligatory elements but also by optional ones (attributes, certain kinds of prepositional objects, adverbial modifiers) ~John ran quickly to me.
2) One-member sentences: a) nominal b) verbal. Nominal-the principal part is expressed by a noun, they state the existence of the things. They are typical of
descriptions and may be unextended (Silence. Midnight) &extended (English spring flowers!). Verbal-the principal part expressed by a non-finite form of the
verb, infinitive or gerund. Mostly used to describe different emotional perceptions of reality. (To think of that! Living at the mercy of a woman!).
The composite sentence is a sentence consisting of 2 or more clauses. In its structure a clause is similar to a simple sentence, but unlike a simple sentence it
forms part of a bigger syntactical unit. Clauses may be joined by means of coordination (a compound sentence- The door opened & 2 men came in) or
subordination (a complex sentence ~ I have come to u, because I know that u can help me). Coordination is a way of linking grammatical elements to make
them equal in rank. Subordination makes one of them dependent upon the other. A compound sentence may contain coordination, clauses extended by
subordinate clauses - a compound-complex sentence. (Pooh was very proud when he heard this and Piglet noticed it at once). A complex sentence may
contain subordinate clauses joined by means of coordination - a complex sentence with homogeneous subordinate clauses ( I know that he has come and that
he is out of money).

22. Classification of sentences based on the communicative purpose of the utterance (declarative, interrogative, imperative).
singled out 3 types of sentences: declarative, interrogative, imperative sentences.
DECLARATIVE SENTENCES
semanticaily structurally

express statements they are unmarked type, i.e. display direct word-order: I
love you. Sometimes inversion is used => more emphatic
sentences.

Inversion:
1.Full inversion: Down the river came the boat with a
2. Partial inversion: In he came.
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES

Semanticaily they express questions => we expect a respond.

type of question example structure intonation answer

General Are you rich? are marked by rising provoke yes/ no

questions partial intonation answer
inversion

**Confirmative Your name is no inversion are marked by provoke

questions Lera. intonation alone positive

(rising) answers (you
expect
confirmation)
Special When will he are marked by usually a falling require a full
questions kiss me? a question-word tone (though an answer
(wh-wards) intonation
placed initially pattern may be
+ partial different)
inversion

**questions to Who broke no inversion the same the same

the subject or your heart?

some port of it

19
MIXED TYPES:
1. Alternative Are you a girl a combination rising tone + require a full
questions or a boy? (= of 2 general falling tone answer
Are you a girl questions, that ( ...)
or are you a are usually
boy?) contracted into
one
2. Tag- You love me, A declarative the intonation yes/ no + tag
questions don't you? sentence + a of a tag is
tag (G = a falling if the
pronoun speaker is
corresponding positive, rising
to the subject - if he doubts
and + an
auxiliary verb
corresponding
to the
predicate)

3. Echo- - He loves nearly repeat rising yes/ no

questions fucking. the previous intonation

- He loves statement
fucking?

**special type - John gave me are generated rising a full answer

of echo- a hug. when the intonation

questions - Who did hearer misses
what? some part of
the statement
IMPERATIVE SENTENCES
semantically structurally
Express commands. The notion of commands includes Are marked => they contain a special form of the verb =
everything from polite requests to orders. They expect The imperative form (the base of the infinitive). They lack
action response. Fuck off. the subject and require a special intonation pattern.

EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES (some grammarians)

Are introduced by What/ How. Have no inversion.
What a noise they are making! - They are obviously enjoying themselves... This type in fact causes debate. Because the notion of exclamation rather refers to
the intonation pattern implied.

22. Classification of sentences based on the communicative purpose of utterance (declarative, interrogative, imperative (and exclamatory)).
Simple sentences are divided into 4 syntactical classes, their use correlates with certain communicative functions.
1.) Declarative sentences-statements (+) or (-). This type is unmarked, follows the basic rules of building the sentence, according to the notion of fixed word
order the first word-subject, the second -predicate. The marked form of declarative sentences is when inversion is employed. Inversion either full (Down the
river came the skiers) or partial (In he came). If inversion is a stylistic device it shows that this sentence belongs to a literary style. If grammatical device --
to stress some part of info.
2.) Interrogative sentences a) General questions presuppose the '-'or '+' answer (yes or no-questions). They are marked (we invert grammatical inversion)
and have a particular intonation pattern (arising tone). b) Special questions. They are marked by inversion. At the beginning of special question there is an
interrogative pronoun or adverb (wh-questions).
Presupposes full answer. The intonation is fall. C) Alternative questions - a compression of 2 general questions. They presuppose full answers. d) Disjunctive
questions. A tag-question is a unit of 2 elements: a declarative sentence & a short general question. They have a special intonation pattern. These are
stylistically coloured when both parts are '+' or -. Swan: You are getting married after all, are you? a sign of personal involvement & genuine interest. If
both parts are '-': U don't like my cooking, don't u?-an obvious sign of irritation. In fact, tag-question is not a question, but structurally it is.
3) Imperative sentences are marked by the absence of subject. (Speak louder!). Sometimes the subject is introduced but never in the first person (You speak
louder!). Also marked by a peculiar form of the verb - the imperative of the verb which coincides with the stem of the verb.
!!!4) Exclamatory sentences are characterized by emphatic intonation, an exclamatory mark in writing and convey the speakers feelings. But there is one
difficulty. Not all these sentences are purely exclamatory, they can belong either to declarative, or interrogative, or imperative ones ( ~ But he cant do
anything to you! What can he possibly do to you! Scarlet spare me! ), thats why we should take into account that many linguists do not distinguish
exclamatory sentences into a separate point of a classification.
20
23. Compound and complex sentences. Types of subordinate clauses.
composite sentences: compound (clauses have equal rights,they are coordinated); complex (clauses are subordinated)
Compound sentences
Coordination can be expressed either syndeticaliy or asyndetically.
Main semantic relations between clauses:
- copulative
- adversative
- disjunctive
- causal
- consequential
- resultative
The same relations can be found between sentences in a text => some grammarians think that compound sentences don't exist (it is "a sequence semantically
related independent sentences not separated by full stops in writing"). Their arguments:
1). the possibility of a falling, finalizing tone between the coordinated predicative units
2). The existence in written speech of independently presented sentences introduced by the same conjunctions as the "coordinate clauses"
3) the "coordinate clauses" can be separated by a full stop while the semantic relations between them will be preserved
There is a semantico-syntactic difference between the compound sentence and the corresponding textual sequence of independent sentences: -By means of
different distributions of predicative units, different distributions of expressed ideas are achieved ( , "coordinative syntactic function in
action")
- by means of combining or non-combining predicative units into a coordinative sentence we show the closeness or looseness of connections between the
reflected events
Eg: N adored that actor. M could not stand the sight of him. Each was convinced of the
infallibility of one's artistic judgment That aroused prolonged arguments.
We can arrange it a bit different:
N adored that actor, but M could not stand the sight of him. Each was convinced of
the infallibility of one's artistic judgment, and that aroused prolonged arguments.
If the "negative" theory of the compound sentence is correct, any coordinative rearrangements of the sentence must be indifferent to the sense of the
sentence.
N adored that actor. But M could not stand the sight of him, each was convinced of the infallibility of one's artistic judgment, and that aroused prolonged
arguments.
(PS some subordinate clauses of a complex sentence can also be separated in
the text, thus becoming independent sentences => but no one denies the existence of complex sentence)
Complex sentences
The problem of classifying subordinate clauses is one of the vexed questions of the syntactic theory.
There can be different principles of classification: we can classify clauses according to
their meaning and syntactical function.
By "meaning" we may bring either such notions as "statement/question" or a notion like "explanatory".
By "function" -> either the position of a clause within a complex sentence, defined on the same principles as the position of a sentence part within a simple
sentence; or on the
analogy between a clause and a part of speech performing the same function in a simple
sentence.
What classification should be accepted as the most rational?
1. the one which draws a parallel between subordinate clauses and parts of speech is inconsistent (clauses and parts of speech resemble each other only in so
far as both of them can perform certain functions in the sentence).
2. the one according to which declarative and interrogative clauses (subordinate statements and subordinate questions) are given as types isn't too good
either: not every clause will fit into either of these categories {If he had been destitute and she had had money she would have given him all he wanted - is
the clause declarative or interrogative?)
3. the classification based on the similarity of the functions of subordinate clauses with parts of the sentence
According to this classification the clauses are:
- subject (a complex which performs within a complex sentence the same function that the subject performs within a simple sentence)
- predicative
- object (hard to define; the easiest case=in which the subordinate clause can be replaced by a noun which would then be an object in a simple sentence)
- attributive (its function in the complex sentence is analogous to that of an attribute in a simple sentence; characterizes the thing denoted by its head word
through some other action or situation in which that thing is involved)
- adverbial:
a) clauses of place
b) of time (=temporal clauses)
c) causal clauses
d) conditional clauses
e) of result
f) of purpose
g)of concession
h) of manner and comparison
- appositional (always modify a noun, usually an abstract one)
- parenthetical (same function as that of a parenthesis in a simple sentence)

23. Compound and complex sentences. Types of subordinate clauses.

The compound sentence is a composite sentence built on the principle of coordination, expressed either syndetically (by means of coordinative connectors)
or asyndetically. The usual classification into compound and complex sentences should be applied to syndetic composite sentences. The basic difference: in
compound sentences none of the clauses of which they consist is below the other in rank, they are coordinated. In complex sentences the clauses are not on
an equal footing (the main and subordinate clauses). The base sentences joined into 1 compound sentence lose their independent status and become
coordinate. The first clause is leading, the successive clauses are sequential.

21
The coordinators are divided into conjunctions, proper and semi-functional clausal connectors of adverbial character. The main conjunctions are and, but, or,
for, yet, so, either or, neither nor, etc. The main adverbial coordinators are then, yet, so, thus, however, etc. Unlike conjunctions they can shift their position
in a sentence. The semantic relations between the clauses making up the compound sentence depend partly on the lexical meaning of the conjunction uniting
them and partly on the meanings of the words making up the clauses themselves. The coordinating conjunctions differ in definiteness of meaning (E.g. but'
has a clear adversative meaning, 'and has different shades of meanings: The old lady read the letter and her eyes filled with horror-a meaning of cause. The
bazaar had taken place Monday and today was only Thursday-an adversative shade of meaning). The number of clauses in a compound sentence may be
greater than two, and in that case the conjunctions may be different.(Gerald was disappointed, for he wanted a son, but he nevertheless was pleased over his
small daughter).
The complex sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination. It's derived from 2 or more base sentences, one of which
performs the role of a matrix in relation to the insert sentences. Various types of subordinate clauses affect the principal clause from the point of view of its
completeness. (Your statement was just what you were expected to say.). The principal clause dominates the subordinate positionally, but it doesn't
necessarily express the central informative part of the communication. In a neutral context the rhematic part of the sentence tends to be placed in the end, so
the clause-order is very important (E.g. The boy was friendly with me because I allowed him to keep the fishing line). Intonation plays also a crucial role, and
also lexical and constructional theme-forming elements such as emphatic particles, patterns of logical accents of different kinds.
Types of subordinate clauses. The main classification of subordinate clauses is based on the similarity of their functions with those of parts of the sentence:
Subjective clause is a clause which performs within a complex sentence the same fund that the subject performs within a simple sentence. (What surprised
me most was his kindness). Predicative clause (E.g. This was what she expected him to say). If it's dropped, the sentence will be unfinished- a link v without
a predicative. Objective clause - if the subordinate clause could be replaced by a noun, which would then be an object in a simple sentence ( He bought what
he wanted-he bought a book). Attributive clauses can be limiting and descriptive (contain some additional info-Magnus, who was writing an article for The
Sun, looked up and said...).
Adverbial clauses (subordinate clauses denoting a secondary part of speech, not an adverb):
a) Clauses of place-expressed by relative adverb where (Then go where u usually sleep at night) b) Clauses of time-many conjunctions (She made a little
curtsy as he bowed). c) Causal clauses (As this car is very expensive it's a matter of prestige to buy it). D) Conditional clauses (introduced by if, unless,
provided, in case-If we have some money we shall buy it). Peculiarity-the use of verbals. E) Clauses of result (introduced by that, so that-She was so charmed
with his eyes, that she didn't notice his drawbacks). f) Clauses of purpose (that, in order that, so that-He crossed the street so that Mary could see him) g)
Clauses of concession (though, although-She smiled though she was trembling) h) Clauses of manner (You must explain it as best as u can) and comparison
(His eyes met those of his mother's as though swords have been crossed). Appositional clauses modify a noun, usually abstract (fact, idea, question, plan)-
He suffered from the idea that Alex could win.
Parenthetical clauses-introduced by 'it seems, as was said (mentioned, stressed) above, as you will see later, as you see', etc, -As you see, he is guilty).

24. Elliptical sentences. Types of ellipsis

According to structural aspect, the sentences can be complete and incomplete (elliptical)
Elliptical sentences exist in any languages. They are incomplete and reflect changes in our flow of thought. They are usually not discussed in grammas.
Incomplete sentences are structures in which one of the main parts or both are omitted. They are treated as secondary forms to regular complete sentences.
There are 2 types:
1. Sentences that are dependent on what has gone before
John. - It can be a reply to questions Who did it? Or Who do you see?
They are contextually conditioned their complete structure can be restored from the previous sentences . This kind of ellipsis is called contextual or
syntagmatic.
2. Want to go to the movies?
Impossible to hear you.
Such sentencesdo not depend on what has gone before. They are not contextually conditioned. Their structure can be restored from the paradigm of
analogous complete sentences.

Want to go to the movie? = Do you want...

This incompleteness is purely grammatical. Such s-s are termed grammatical or paradigmatic.
There are 2 subtypes:
- structures which can be completed only in one way with the help of one paradigm only:
Want to go
- structures which can be restored employing one or two paradigm
Cigarette?-Doyou want a...
Would you like a ...
Such elliptical sentences dont depend on previous s-s but they depend on speech situation.
Some grammarians consider elliptical s-s of the second subtype as an independent structural group. They argue that they should be treated as s-s wit thei own
right, as they belong to a particular sphere of speech (informal)

24. Elliptical sentences. Types of ellipsis.

In any language(lng)we can come across incomplte s-s,which appear due to interruptions or changes of mind on the part of the speaker. I was only....-
incomplete sentense(sent.)
The s-s can`t be regarded as an object of analysis, since there`re incomplete and are easily recognised as such. If we use the word incomplete as a
gram.term, we shall focus on the so called elliptical s-s.
By them most grammarians understand structures in which one of the main parts or both main parts are omitted(ellipted). El.s-s are treated as secondary
forms in regard to complete s-s,where both main patrs are present.
El.s-s s-s with 1 or more of their parts left out,which can be unambiguously (,) inferred( ) from the
context
El.s-s can be of 2 types:
1)dependent on what has gone before F.e. John may be an answer to a question(?) Who did it?Who did you see? These s-s are contextually
conditioned,so their full structure can be restored from a previous sent.
This type of ellipsis is called contextual or syntagmatic
2)El.s-s such as Want to go to the movie? Can`t hear you do not depend on the previous context,their full structure can be restored from the paradigm of
the analogous complete s-s( ). Such incompleteness is purely grammatical,because ir`s not conrextually dependent. That`s why we call them
grammatical or paradigmatic.They are further subdivided into 2 groups: 1. there are structures which can be completed in 1 way only with the help of 1
paradygm only 2. there exist structures which can be completed in several ways: F.e. Cigarette?= Would u like a cigarette?Can I offer u a cigarette?Do u

22
care for a cigarette? The meaning of such El.s-s doesn`t depend on the previous context either but on the speech situation. Some linguists prefer to term
them situational El.s-s
El.s-s are to be found in oral or pseudo-oral speech. Depending on the presence of the secondary parts of the sent.,El.s-s can be exrended and unextended.

25. Principal Parts of the Sent. The subject. Types of subjects. The problem of anticipatory IT.
Sentence - the basic unit of communication grammatically organized and expressing a complete thought.
Members of the Sentence:
2 groups:
Prime members (subject, predicate)
Secondary members
Subject - what is being discussed in a sentence. The theme of the S.
It's gr-ly independent and it determines the Sg/Pl form of the predicate, it can also determine theperson.
Structurally it can be expressed by Words, Word groups, a predicative construction, a clause.
Morphologically by a noun, pronoun, a non-finite form.
Ss where the subj is expressed by a notional verb are called personal. But very often the subj can be expressed by "it", sometimes it's impersonal and has no
lex meaning of its own.
Sentences with IT:
1.Denote climatic predications: e/g It's warm/ cold/ chilling/ fucking cold. ...whatsoever!
2.Denote time: e/g it's late, it's 5 o'clock, it's time to wrap up the exam! =))
3. Distance: e/g It's 10 miles to the town
4. Qualities of situations: e/g it's noisy here
5. Attitude to the situation: e/g it's impossible to bear it
Ss where IT serves as a formal element: e/g It was announced that. It's no use...
Many grammarians say that "IT" in such Ss is a replacement of a notional subject.
Anticipatory object ( IT):
The subj proper is expressed by a verbal or a clause. In such Ss the notional Subj is the postponed subj ().
These Grammarians argue that Ss with "anticipatory" IT can be transferred into Ss with the regular w-order: e/g It's no use going there Going there is no
use.
Other Gr-s don't share this point of view
1. There's no reason why a S should have 2 heterogeneous subjects.
2. In some cases "structures beginning with IT" aren't interchangeable. : e/g it's time to begin
Theoretically speaking the change in the form is possible but the resultant Ss don't sound
natural.
Gr-s find it difficult to define the status of "it" in the Sentence.
e/g Smirnitsky thinks that it's a subj while the rest of the Sent forms a predicate
Krylova, Gordon - the verbals used in Ss beginning with IT are objects. And if we deal w/a clause, it's an object clause.

25. The principal parts of the s-ce. The subj.Types of subj-s in E.The problem of the anticipatory IT.
The subj. is one of the two main parts of the sent. (1)meaning(relation of the subj. to the thought expressed in the sent.)It denotes the thing(here the term
includes human beings,abstract notins,etc.) whose action or characteristic is expressed by the predicate. (2)syntactical relations in the sent. It`s not dependent
on any other part of the sent. (3)its morphological realization May be expressed by different parts of speech,the most frequentones being:a noun in the
common case,a personal pronoun in the nominative case,a demonstrative pronoun occasionally,a substantivized adj,a numeral,an infinitive, a gerund.,also
may be expressed by a phrase
Subj. conveys the theme of the sent. or what is being described in the sent. It influences the form of the predicate & the type of the relations b\n the sub. &
the pred.
Subj-s can be notional - refers to a living being,a thing,a material or an abstract notion Peter saw him in the street.The house was large.The snow was
rather deep.The idea seemed good- The sent.containing a notional subj. is called a personal sentence(p.sent). A specific instance of p.sent. wiil be an
indefinite personalsent.The meaning of the subj. In such instances is rather vague,indefinte.The pronouns we,youone,they will be used here ( One
could never make too many friends in a strange place)
and formal it or therebeing used as such,and when used as a formal subj.they have no lexical meaning and are used as purely structural elements to
make the sent.comply with the normal 2-member English sent.-pattern ( -)
It as subj.of an impersonal sent. can denote natural phenomena(it`s raining); time(It was very late) and distances (It`s four miles to the sea.)
It may also be used as a formal subj.when the notional subj.is expressed by an inf. or a gerund used absolutely or as part of a phrase or syntactic
complex(It was pleasant to go there. It was pleasant for him to go there)
Note1: Don`t mix up: It was pleasant to go there.He knew he was expected(=To go there was pleasant) It formal subj.,to go notional subj.
The task was rather complicated,but it was pleasant to do(The task was pleasant to do) It notional subj., to do object to the
predicate was pleasant
Note2 : It may be used as a formal subj.also in emphatic constructions of the type : It was he who went there (emphatic it)
( 309)Grammarians say that IT in such sentences replace the notional sub., the anticipatory it. The notional sub. is
expressed here either by inf., gerund, clause, it`s placed at the end of the sent and is called postponed sub. It`s possible to employ some transformations to
these sentences: It`s necessary to do it To do it is necessary. But some linguists ( ) don`t share this point of view. The say:1. It`s not reasonable for an E.
sent. to have two sub-s. 2. with some sentences transformations are impossible (It`s time to go there). The further problem is that they don`t define the
status of formal IT in these sent-s.: The inf. Phrase or the gerundial phrase here is an element of a compound predicate. -: treat
inf-s and ger-s as objects and if we have a clause, it`s an object clause.

The word there is used as a formal subj.generally when the notional subj.is expressed by a noun(a noun phrase) and also sometimes when the notional
subj.is expressed by a gerund(ger.phrase/complex) (There was a table in the corner.There`s no use complicating things for you)

26. Principal parts of the sentence. The predicate. Different classifications of the predicate.
Predicate is what being said about the theme. It's sth new - the rheme. The form of the P. depends on the subject. The predicate can also influence the subject
ascribing to it certain actions or qualities and placing the activity of the subject into certain periods of time or regarding the activity of the subject from a
certain angle.
E.g. The boy went to-school.
The boy is 5.

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The boy can go to school this ear.
The predicate is more important than the subject as in communication it expresses predication.
Predicates can be of several types:
1. P. can consist of 1 finite verb in a synthetic or analytical form. Such predicates are called simple predicates.
E.g. I talked to him yesterday I was talking to him yesterday. ,
2. Compound predicates consist of 2 groups
- compound nominal predicate
- compound verbal predicate
CNP comprises a link verb and a nominal part. Nominal part of the predicate is called a predicative.
The most frequent link verb is to be. But there are others:
To feel
To grow
To become
To get
To mean
Locative constructions
E.g. They are in Moscow.
They are here.
A model for these sentences - to be + adverb(or a prepositional phrase)
Traditional point of view - an adverb or a prepositional phrase in such sentences function as predicatives and is considered together with to be CNP. To be is
the only possible link here.

Other grammarians disagree. : the verb to be is not always devoid of lexical meaning. The lexical meaning of to be depends on its syntactic
environment.
E.g. He is here => the meaning of the verb to be is very close to the meaning of the verb to stay.
The meeting is tonight => the meaning of to be is to take place.
To be + adverb = a special kind of predicate = an adverbial predicate

26. The principal parts of the s-ce.The predicate.Diff-t classifications of the predicate.
The pred. Is one of the two main parts of the sent. (1)meaning It denotes the action or property of the thing expressed by the subj. (2)syntactical relations in
the sent. It is not dependent on any other part of the sent. (this statement requires some comment- sometimes it`s claimed that pred.agrees in number with
subj.-subj.singular,pred.singular;subj.plural,pred.plural - but it`s doubtful in sent. like My family were sitting in the kitchen )
(3)its morphological realization Ways of expressing the pred. are varied and their structure will better be considered when discussing types of predicate
Usually pred. is a rheme of the sentence, it conveys new info about the subject, it is what is being discussed in the sentence. Indicates whether the subj is or
is not viewed as the doer of the action denoted by the predicate(through its active oe passive form) Is the principle means of expressing predication,
establishes relations b\n reality.
Categories of predication: tense, mood, person, number.
Pred.may be classified in 2 ways,one-based on their structure(simple&compound)
A Simple Pred.1)Verbal,2)Nominal B Compound Pred.1)Verbal,2)Nominal
the other- based on their morphological characteristics(verbal&nominal)
A Verbal Pred.1)Simple2)Compound B Nominal Pred1)Simple2)Compound
The ultimate result is of course the same in both cases
A simple pred is generally expressed by one word- a verb in its finite form The boy went there alone(synthetic verb form), We shall see him
tomorrow(analytical verb form)
A special kind of simple verbal pred.in English are those formed by multi-word verbs (to catch sight of=to see, to have a look = to look,to have adinner= to
dine,to make use = to use,etc.)
The compound predicate is expressed by a group a interrelated components.In accordance with their principle component predicates may be subdivided into
compound verbal&compound nominal.
Compound verbal predicate = modal/aspective verb +main part(expr.by a notional verd in the form of hte inf/gerund occasionally) He can go home He
began working
Also may be compound modal aspective Why will you continue to write about this? We have to keep on hoping
Compound nominal predicate(CNP) = link verb(link verbs of being-to be,to continue,to feel,etc;of becoming- to become,to grow,to turn,to get; of
seeming(appearing to seem,to look,to tasre,etc)+predicative(a single word He was happy, a phrase-He seemed quite happy, a syntactic complex
That is for me to decide )
A special kind of CNP will be double predicate,a CNP where insted of the link verb ther`s a notional verb-it preserves its original lex.meaning&at the
same time performs the function of a link He stood quiet near the window=He stood near the window.He was quiet. The term double pred. was originally
introduced and discussed by . Note:a special type of double when nothional verb is followed by an object ant the predicative part
follows the object& refers to it semantically-all this is called compound nominal with an objective predicative They elected him president for a second
term
Note: CNP may also be modal/aspective.In this case the link verb will be preceded by a modal or an aspective verb Beginning to be smug already,are you
,Ian? He must be at least 20years younger than she is! Occasionally we come across compound nominal aspective modal predicates(!!!) He must
begin feeling better now
The majority of predicates are used both in written and oral,double pred.and modal aspective mainly in written English
(.- , - )
: has its own classification of predicates. The existing class-n of pred-s disregards the meaning of the predicate. Pred-s should be cass-d into: 1.
pred-s, denoting processes( He arrived). 2. qualifying the sub. (He is old\ a doctor). 3. objective predicates ( The book consists of five chapters. He has many
friends. He resembles his father) has\consist\resemble serve to express relations b\n the sub. and the obj. here. Their lex. Meaning is weakened. Besides
chapters\ father\friends don`t qualify the sub. They`re objects with different reference. Such sent-s shouldn`t be mixed up with: He sings songs. He reads
books. here the words possess their lex. M-g to the full extend. 4. adverbial pred-s ( He is here in Moscow).

27. Difficulties in analyzing secondary parts of sentence. Means of their expression.

This is the universal division for many European Ls: 1. attribute 2. object 3.adverbial modifier. But it is being criticized: such treatment doesn't allow to
single out individual features of a L BUT it is natural for it reflects the
relations of the objective reality.

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The theory of secondary parts is not complete. Not everything is defined. It is difficult to find objective criteria to determine the function of a secondary part
of sentence.
=> Several main CONTRADICTIONS:
An object is usually defined as a person/ thing that takes part in the process denoted by the predicate verb.
1. He drinks vodka -> a direct object
2. He offered me vodka. => an indirect object
3. He thinks about more vodka. -> a prepositional object
4. He doesn 't like to drink diluted vodka. -> infinitive as a n object*
* 4 is disputed. once said: the main feature of the object is to denote a thing () => infinitive cannot be regarded as art
object... - similar views => treat the infinitive as part of a complex verbal predicate.
Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between the attribute and the adverbial
modifier.
example dilemma
The man next door suggested we get married. an attribute OR an adverbial modifier of place?
Tired and disappointed, she refused to smoke opium. attribute OR adv. modifier of reason?
The weather that winter was cold for going naked. attribute OR adv. modifier of time?

Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between objects and adverbial modifiers.

example dilemma
I kissed him in the lips. a prepositional object OR an adv. modifier of place?
He was glad to disappoint her. object OR adv. mod, of reason OR (some grammarians)
part of the predicate

Predicative constructions are treated differently.

example dilemma
I saw him come/ coming a Complex object OR object + objective predicative
She was seen to humiliate men/ humiliating men. a Complex subject OR subject + subjective Predicative

Because of all these contradictions:

amer. Freeze: notions of subject structure and object structure; but he regards the rest of the secondary parts as modifiers,
Zandboort and Harris: a term "adjunct" to denote any secondary part.
MEANS OF EXPRESSING SECONDARY PARTS OF SENTENCE
ATTRIBUTE
1. Adjectives (a) or adjectival phrases (b) which characterize the person or non-person qualities or express the speaker's attitude.
a) We sat on the soft sofa and... well, just sat there.
b) We sat there, unable to move or say a word.
2. Pronouns or pronominal phrases, which help to identify or define a person/ non-person.
Can you see those children of mine anywhere?
3. Numerals (ordinal or cardinal), which state the number or order, or serve to identify persons/ things.
He was my first man.
It is part two of the book.
4. Nouns in the common case singular (a) or prepositional nominal phrases (b)=> quality or locative/ temporal/ etc features of a person/ thing.
a)We did it at the garden wall. It was rough.
b)He was a man of strange habits
5. Nouns or pronouns in genitive case.
His girlfriend's bottom is his pride, joy and personal source of enjoyment.
6. Statives (though rarely)
No man alive would eat your cooking.
7. Participle I (a), II (b) and participial phrases (c) -> characterise a person/thing through an action/ process/ reaction.
a) He laughed at the crying girl. Bastard.
b) I couldn 't help laughing when I saw his shaved face.
c) I glanced at the man knitting by the window.
8.Gerunds (a), gerundial phrases (b), gerundial complexes (c) => usually characterize things from the point of view of their function/ purpose.
a) Her walking shoes were elegant and the singing teacher envied her desperately.
b) He showed no sign of having ever known me. Jerk.
c) There is no chance of our seeing him again. He left for Leipzig.
9 Infinitives (a), infinitive phrases (b), infinitive complexes (c) => characterize through a real/ unreal action.
a) You are the one to blame.
b) He is not a man to experiment with sex.
c)This is a problem for you to solve
10.Adverbs (a), adverbial phrases (b),
a) The then president sucked,
b) If you live in an out of the way place -I'm sorry.
11. Sentences used as a whole (so called "quotation nouns).
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She looked at him with a kind of don't-touch-me or- Ill-slap you air and he risked.
12. Attribute clauses
I loved the boy who loved boys.
OBJECT
1. Nouns, substantivized adjectives or participles.
I kissed the girt. She helped the poor/ the wounded. (But that was not t reason why I kissed her.)
2. Numerals, phrases with numerals.
I found three of them behind the door of my bathroom.
3.Gerunds, gerundial phrases.
He insists on coming (who doesn 't)). I hate being looked after.
4. Pronouns,
I don't want anybody here. But they don't understand that.
5.Infinitives, infinitive phraser.
I am glad to see you. I have to learn how to strip men of money.
6.Different predicative complexes.
I felt him trembling all over. He wanted it done quickly. Everything depended on his, working properly with his hands.
7. Object clauses.
I thought of what he had done and wanted more.
ADVERBIAL MODIFIER
1. Adverbs.
You sing beautifully. And I often lie.
2. Adverbial phrases.
It happened three months ago and lasted for three minutes.
3. A noun/ pronoun/ numeral preceded by a preposition.
Behind him stood a horse. It happened in 2004. There: was her lover unde,
4. A noun or this/ that/every/last/next* a noun Wait a minute! Come this way, please.
5.Non-finite forms:
Gerund: I eat before going to bed.
Infinitive: I come here to make love to you.
Participle: Walking in the garden, we found a very comfortable wall.
6.Predicative complexes:
Gerundial constructions: Are you angry because of my being late? Absolute constructions: The meal over, we began drinking. (non-prepositional ) You
mustn't do it with children watching, (prepositional)
7. A conjunction + adjective: I do it if necessary.
noun: As a little girl she went to the forest.
participle: When argued with, I get irritated. While doing it I got tired.
infinitive: As if to calm him down, she gave him some pills.
8. Clauses
Won 't you stay forever or at least till the rain stops? I stayed with him because he asked me. I'm very kind.

27. Difficulties in analyzing secondary parts of the s-ce.Means of their expression.

The usual classification of these parts into Objects(Ob),attributes(At),and adverbal modifiers(AdMo) is familiar to everyone,no mayyet whay gis mothe
tongue may be and what foreign lng he is studying.Yet it has many weak points.The characteristic feature of each of the three types are not clearly
defined,and is a mayyer of personal opinion.
The Ob a sec.part of the sent,referring to a part of the sent. expressed by a verb,a noun,a substantival pronoun,an adj,a numeral,ao an adverb, and denoting
a thing to which the action passes on,which is the result of the action,in reference to which an action is commited or a property is manifested,or denoting an
action as object of another action. The first item of the definition means that Ob can refer to any part of speech.The second item enumerates certain semantic
poinrs in the relation between the thing denoted by the object and the action with wcich it is connected,but it`s incomplete as it doesn`t include an object
denoting the doer of the action with the predicative verb in the passive voice.(so,+one more meaning-the thing(or person) which is the origin of the
action(with the predicate verb in the Pass.Voice),And still this addition will not make the 2 nd item of the definition satisfactory.The essential ? remains
unanswered: what is the meaning ofthe Ob.,or,what is that which unites all those meanings into 1 category,called the Ob?
The At a sec.part of the sent modifying a part of the sent expressed by a noun,a substatival pronoun,a cardinal numeral,any substantivuzed word,and
characterizing the thing named by these words as to its quality or property.
Differences:1)the At,distinct from the Ob. cannot modify a verb,an adj.or an adverb2)the At espresses a property while the Ob expresses a thing
Commom:they both can modify a noun,a pronoun and a numeral
The AdMo - a sec.part of the sent modifying a part of the sent expressed by a verb,a verbal noun,an adj,oer an adverb,and serving to characterizi an action
or a property as to its quality or intensity,or to indicate the way an action is done,the time,place,cause,purpose,condition,with which the action or
manifestetion of the quality is connected.
Common with the Ob: both expressed by a verb,a verbal noun,an adj,an adverb
Common with the At: both can be expressed by a verbal noun
Summing up the comparisons, the 1st item of the the definitions leaves room for ambiguity 1)if the part of the sent which is modifyed is expressed by a
noun,its modifier may be either an Ob or an At2)if it is expressed by a verbal noun,the modifier may be either anOb,an At,or AdMo3)if it`s expr.by an
Adj,the modifier may be either an Ob or AdMo4)if it`s expr.by a cardinal numeral,the modifier an Ob or At5)if it`s expr.by the verb,the modifier- an Ob or
AdMo6)if it`s expr. by an adverb the modifier- either an Obor an AdMo
When speaking ab.the 2nd item of the definitions,we should say that at first we check the 1 st item,then if the modifier can be either an Ob or an At,our choice
depends on our opinion and is subjective.If the choice is very difficult to make,then maybe it is easier just to say that it is a sec.part of speech,not specifying
which one=)))

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