3

Separation of Carbon Dioxide from Flue Gas

Using Adsorption on Porous Solids
Tirzh L. P. Dantas1, Alrio E. Rodrigues2
and Regina F. P. M. Moreira3
1FederalUniversity of Paran, Department of Chemical Engineering
2University of Porto, Faculty of Engineering
3Federal University of de Santa Catarina, Department of Chemical and Food Engineering
1,3Brazil
2Portugal

1. Introduction
The generation of CO2 is inherent in the combustion of fossil fuels, and the efficient capture
of CO2 from industrial operations is regarded as an important strategy through which to
achieve a significant reduction in atmospheric CO2 levels. There are three basic CO2 capture
routes: (1) pre-combustion capture (via oxygen-blown gasification); (2) oxy-fuel combustion,
i.e. removing nitrogen before combustion; and (3) post-combustion capture.
Adopting the post-combustion capture route avoids the potentially long time periods
required to develop cost-effective coal-derived syngas separation technologies, hydrogen
turbine technology, and fuel-cell technology, etc. It can also provide a means of CO2 capture
in the near-term for new and existing stationary fossil fuel-fired power plants.
Concentrations of CO2 in power station flue gases range from around 4% by volume for
natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) plants to 14% for pulverized fuel-fired plants. In the
carbon capture and storage chain (capture, transport and storage) different requirements
have been set for the composition of the gas stream mainly containing CO2, which can vary
within the range of 95-97% CO2 with less than 4% N2.
There are several post-combustion gas separation and capture technologies currently being
investigated, namely: (a) absorption, (b) cryogenic separation, (c) membrane separation, (d)
micro-algal bio-fixation, and (e) adsorption.
Current absorption technologies which propose the capture of CO2 from flue gas are costly
and energy intensive. Membrane technology is an attractive CO2 capture option because of
advantages such as energy-efficient passive operation, no use of hazardous chemicals, and
tolerance to acid gases and oxygen. However, an important challenge associated with
membrane technology is how to create the driving force efficiently, because the feed flue gas
is at ambient pressure and contains a relatively low CO2 content.
Solid sorbents are another promising capture technology. These sorbents can either react
with the CO2 or it can be adsorbed onto the surface. Chemical sorbents that react with the

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58 Greenhouse Gases Capturing, Utilization and Reduction

CO2 in the flue gas can be comprised of a support, usually of high surface area, with an
immobilized amine or other reactant on the surface. Physical adsorbents can separate the
CO2 from the other flue gas constituents, but do not react with it. Instead, they use their
cage-like structure to act as molecular sieves. These sorbents can be regenerated using a
pressure swing or a temperature swing, although the costs associated with a pressure swing
may be prohibitively high. Physisorbents such as activated carbon and zeolites will be safe
for the local environment, and are generally relatively inexpensive to manufacture.
Conventionally, activated carbon materials have been widely applied in industry for gas
separation, and also have been investigated for CO2 capture. Carbon dioxide emissions are
frequently associated with large amounts of nitrogen gas, and thus an adsorbent selective to
one of these compounds is required. These adsorbents should also be selective even at high
temperatures, i.e., temperatures typical of carbon dioxide emission sources. Activated
carbon is a suitable adsorbent and its CO2 adsorption characteristics are dependent on its
surface area and chemical surface characteristics. The surface chemistry of activated carbon
is determined by the amount and type of heteroatom, for example oxygen, nitrogen, etc.
Therefore, the adsorption capacity of activated carbon for carbon dioxide is a function of its
pore structure and the properties of the surface chemistry.
Strategies like PSA (pressure swing adsorption), TSA (temperature swing adsorption) and
ESA (electric swing adsorption) processes have been proposed and investigated for
adsorption in a cyclic process (Cavenati et al., 2006; Grande & Rodrigues, 2008; Zhang et al.,
2008). PSA is a cyclical process of adsorption/desorption that occurs through pressure
changes and can be very suitable for carbon dioxide separation from exhaust gases due to its
easy application in a large temperature range. The most studies presents the CO2/N2
separation using PSA process at room temperature, but it has been reported that is possible
to obtain high purity CO2 (~90%) at high temperature (Ko et al., 2005). Recently, Grande and
Rodrigues (2008) reported that it is possible to recover around 89% of the CO2 from a
CO2/N2 mixture using honeycomb monoliths of activated carbon through ESA. However,
the temperature of the CO2/N2 mixture in a typical exhaust gas can exceed 100oC and at
such temperatures the recovery and purity of CO2 can be significantly modified.

2. Experimental section
2.1 Selection and preparation of adsorbents
The commercial activated carbon used was Norit R2030 (Norit, Netherlands) which was
selected due to its high adsorption capacity for CO2. The nitrogen-enriched activated carbon,
denoted as CPHCL, was prepared in a way similar way to that as previously reported (Gray
et al., 2004), mixing 10 g of activated carbon with 500mL of 10-1M 3-chloropropylamine
hydrochloride solution. The mixture was kept under constant stirring, at ambient
temperature for 5 hours. The CPHCL adsorbent was then left to dry for 12 hours in an oven
at 105C.

2.2 Characterization of the adsorbents

The content of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen was determined by elemental analysis using
CHNS EA1100 equipment (CE Instruments, Italy).

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Separation of Carbon Dioxide from Flue Gas Using Adsorption on Porous Solids 59

Thermogravimetric experiments were carried out with a TGA-50 thermogravimetric

analyzer (Shimadzu, Japan) in the temperature range of 30C 900C, at a heating rate of
10C /min under nitrogen flow.
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used to qualitatively identify the
chemical functionality of activated carbon. To obtain the observable adsorption spectra, the
solids were grounded to an average diameter of ca. 0.5 mm. The transmission spectra of the
samples were recorded using KBr pellets containing 0.1% of carbon. The pellets were
12.7mm in diameter and ca. 1mm thick and were prepared in a manual hydraulic press set
at 10 ton. The spectra were measured from 4000 to 400 cm_1 and recorded on a 16PC FTIR
spectrometer (Perkin Elmer, USA).
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurements were carried out with a VG
Microtech ESCA3000 MULTILAB spectrometer using monochromatic Al Ka X-rays. The
pass energy of the analyzer was 58.7 eV for high-resolution scans. Relative elemental
concentrations on the surface of the sorbents were calculated by measuring peak areas in the
high-resolution spectra and then converting to atomic concentrations using sensitivity
factors provided by the instrument manufacturer.

2.3 Adsorption equilibrium isotherms

The equilibrium of CO2 and N2 adsorption on activated carbon was measured at different
temperatures of 30C, 50C, 100C, and 150C using the static method in a Rubotherm
magnetic suspension microbalance (Bochum, Germany) up to approximately 5 bar.
The equilibrium of CO2 adsorption on CPHCL was measured at different temperatures of
30C, 50C, 100C, and 150C by the volumetric method, in an automatic sorptometer,
Autosorb 1C (Quantachome, USA), up to approximately 1 bar.
Before the adsorption measurements, the solid samples were pre-treated for 12 hours at
150C under vacuum. This temperature ensures that the amine is homogeneously tethered
to the solid surface without devolatilize or decompose it.

2.4 Breakthrough curves: Fixed-bed CO2 adsorption and CO2/N2 mixture adsorption
All the experimental breakthrough curves were obtained by passing the appropriate gas
mixture through the packed column with the adsorbent: activated carbon or CPHCL. The
solid adsorbent was pre-treated by passing helium at a flow rate of 30 mL.min-1 n and at
150C for 2 hours. These breakthrough curves were obtained 30C, 50C, 100C, and 150C.
The dynamic of adsorption of CO2 in a fixed bed was studied using CO2 diluted in helium
(CO2/He = 20%/80% v/v) in order to obtain the breakthrough curves. For the fixed-bed
CO2/N2 separation dynamics, the breakthrough curves were obtained by passing the
standard gas mixture 20% CO2/ 80%N2 v/v.
The total gas flow rate was maintained at 30 mL.min-1 which was controlled by a mass flow
unit (Matheson, USA). The column was located inside a furnace with controlled
temperature. A gas chromatographic model CG35 (CG Instrumentos Cientficos, Brazil)
equipped with a Porapak-N packed column (Cromacon, Brazil) and with a thermal

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60 Greenhouse Gases Capturing, Utilization and Reduction

conductivity detector (TCD) was used to monitor the carbon dioxide or nitrogen
concentration at the bed exit, using helium as the reference gas. The experimental system
column and furnace was considered adiabatic because it was isolated with a layer of 0.10m
of fiber glass and with a refractory material. The characteristics of the fixed bed and the
column are presented in Table 1

CO2 and CO2/N2 adsorption PSA experiments b

in a fixed bed a
Bed length, L 0.171 m 0.83 m
Bed diameter, dint 0.022 m 0.021 m
Bed weight, W 0.0352 kg 0.158 kg
Bed voidage fraction, 0.52 0.52
Column wall thickness, l 0.0015m 0.0041m
Column wall specific heat, C p , w 440 J kg-1K-1 500 J kg-1K-1
Column wall conductivity, k w 1.4 W m-1K-1

Wall density, w 7280 kg m-3 8238 kg m-3

Table 1. Characteristics of the fixed bed and the column used in the experiments [a Dantas et
al., 2010; b Dantas et al., 2011].

2.5 Pressure swing adsorption

The PSA experimental setup consisted of one fixed-bed adsorption that simulated the
operation of a unit with several fixed-beds, for which more details are given elsewhere (Da
Silva & Rodrigues, 2001). The solid adsorbent used was the commercial activated carbon
which was pre-treated by passing helium at a flow rate of 1.0 L.min-1 and at 150C for 12
hours. The PSA experiments were performed premixed CO2 to N2 forming a mixture - 0.15
v/v. The flow rate of each gas was controlled by mass controllers (Teledyne Brown
Engineering, USA).
A gas chromatographic model CP9001 (Chrompack 9001, Netherlands) equipped with a
Poraplot Q capillary column (Varian, Netherlands), with a thermal conductivity detector
(TCD), and with a flame ionization detector (FID) was used to monitor the carbon dioxide or
nitrogen concentration at the bed exit, using helium as the reference gas. The experimental
system column and furnace was considered adiabatic because it was isolated with a layer
of 0.10m of fiber glass and with a refractory material. The temperature inside the column
was continuously monitored using a K-thermocouple placed at 0.17 m and 0.43 m from the
bottom of the column. The column was located inside a convective furnace and thus the
system was considered to be non-adiabatic. The characteristics of the fixed bed and the
column are presented in Table 1.
The cycles were of the Sharstrom-cycle type and divided by pressurization with pure
nitrogen at a flow rate of 3.0 L.min-1, feeding at constant pressure of 1.3 bar and total flow
rate of 3.0 L.min-1, countercurrent blowdown decreasing the pressure to 0.1bar and

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Separation of Carbon Dioxide from Flue Gas Using Adsorption on Porous Solids 61

countercurrent purge with pure nitrogen at constant pressure and a flow rate of 0.5 L.min-1.
All experiments were performed with 20 seconds of pressurization and 70 seconds of
depressurization. However, different feed and purge times were used. Table 2 summarizes
the PSA experimental conditions used in this study.

Run T, C Feed Time, s Purge time, s

1 50 100 70
2 50 120 50
3 100 120 50
4 100 200 50
Table 2. PSA experimental conditions.

2.5.1 Performance criteria of the PSA process

The definition of the performance criteria provides a common basis for comparing the
different experiments. These are; Eq (1) to (3):

t purge

FCO2 dt
Purity of CO 2
tblowdown

(1)
ncomp tpurge
Fi dt
i 1 tblowdown

t purge

FN 2 dt
Purity of N 2
tblowdown

ncomp t purge
(2)
Fi dt
i 1 tblowdown

t purge

FCO2 dt
Recovery of CO 2
tblowdown

t purge (3)
FCO2 dt
0

where Fi is the molar flow rate of component i carbon dioxide or nitrogen.

3. Mathematical modelling
3.1 Model description
The model used to describe the fixed-bed experiments is derived from the mass, energy and
momentum balances. The flow pattern is described with the axially dispersed plug flow
model and the mass transfer rate is represented by a Linear Driving Force model LDF. It
was assumed that the gas phase behaves as an ideal gas and the radial concentration and

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62 Greenhouse Gases Capturing, Utilization and Reduction

temperature gradients are negligible. The fixed-bed model is described by the equations
given below.
The mass balance for each component is given by Eq. (4); (Ruthven, 1984):

C i (uC i ) 2C q
DL 2 i (1 ) p i
t z z t
(4)

where is the bed void fraction, C i is the gas phase concentration of component i, qi is the

the superficial velocity, and p is the particle density.

average amount of component i adsorbed, DL is the axial mass dispersion coefficient, u is

The rate of mass transfer to the particle for each component is given by Eq. (5):

qi
K L ,i (qi* qi )
t
(5)

where K L is the overall mass transfer coefficient of component i and qi* is the amount
adsorbed at equilibrium, i.e., qi* f (C i , Tg ) given by the adsorption isotherm, and qi is the
average amount adsorbed.
The concentration Ci is given by Eq (6):

Ci
yi P
(6)
RTg

where yi is the molar fraction of each gas in the gas phase, P is the total pressure, Tg is the
gas temperature and R is the universal gas constant.
The Ergun equation considers the terms for the pressure drop and velocity changes; Eq. (7):

P g (1 )2 (1 )
150 u 1.75 3 g u2
z 3 dp 2 dp
(7)

where g is the gas viscosity, g is the gas density, and dp is the particle diameter.
The energy balance is; Eq. (8):

Tg ( uTg ) 2Tg
CC v , g CC p , g L
t z z 2

(1 ) p H i i w (Tg Tw )
Ts q 4h
(8)
(1 ) pC s
t i t dint

specific heat at constant pressure for the gas phase, L is the axial heat dispersion
where C v , g is the molar specific heat at constant volume for the gas phase, C p , g is the molar

coefficient, C s is the solid specific heat, H i is the heat of adsorption for component i at
zero coverage, hw is coefficient for the internal convective heat transfer between the gas and
the column wall, dint is the bed diameter, and Tw is the wall temperature.

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Separation of Carbon Dioxide from Flue Gas Using Adsorption on Porous Solids 63

The solid phase energy balance is expressed by Eq. (9):

(Tg Ts ) p H i i
Ts 6 h f q
pC s
t t
(9)
dp i

where h f is the coefficient for film heat transfer between the gas and the adsorbent.
For the column wall, the energy balance can be expressed by Eq. (10) to (12):

Tw
wC p , w w hw (Tg Tw ) wlU (Tw T )
t
(10)

with

w
l dint l
dint
(11)

and

wl
dint
d l
dint l ln int
(12)

dint

where w is the column wall density, C p , w is the column wall specific heat, w is the ratio
of the internal surface area to the volume of the column wall, wl is the ratio of the
logarithmic mean surface area of the column shell to the volume of the column (Cavenati et
al., 2006), U is the external overall heat transfer coefficient, and T is the furnace external air
temperature. For an adiabatic system, the last term of this equation must not been
considered.

3.2 Boundary and initial conditions

The mathematical model was solved using the commercial software gPROMS (Process
System Enterprise Limited, UK) which uses the method of orthogonal collocation on finite
elements for resolution. The boundary and initial conditions were the show bellow.

3.2.1 For the breakthrough curves

The initial conditions for the adiabatic system are:

Tw Tg Ts Ti ; P P0 and C i ( z ,0) qi ( z ,0) 0 (13)

The boundary conditions are described by the equations given below (Eq.14-18).
1. Bed inlet: (z=0)

C i
DL . u(C i Ci
z z z
) (14)
z

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64 Greenhouse Gases Capturing, Utilization and Reduction

Tg
L . uCC p , g (Tg Tg
z z z
) (15)
z

uC z uC z (16)

2. Bed outlet: (z=L)

C i
0
z
(17)
z

Tg
0
z
(18)
z

3.2.2 For PSA experiments

The initial conditions, only considered for the unused bed, are:

Tw Tg Ts T0 ; P P0 and C i ( z ,0) qi ( z ,0) 0 (19)

The initial condition of each new cycle corresponds to the final condition of the previous
cycle. The boundary conditions for the mass and energy balances are described by the
equations given below (Eq.20-27).
1. Bed inlet: pressurization step (z=0), feed step (z=0) and countercurrent purge step
(z=L).

C i
DL u(C i Ci
z z z
) (20)
z

Tg
L . uC p , g (Tg Tg
z
(21)
z z
)
z

2. Bed outlet: pressurization step (z=L), feed step (z=L), countercurrent purge step (z=0),
and bed inlet and outlet for countercurrent blowdown step (z=L and z=0, respectively).

C i
0
z
(22)
z

Tg
0
z
(23)
z

The boundary conditions for the momentum balance are the following:
1. Bed inlet: pressurization step (z=0).

Pz Pfeed (24)

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Separation of Carbon Dioxide from Flue Gas Using Adsorption on Porous Solids 65

2. Bed outlet for pressurization step (z=L), and bed inlet for countercurrent blowdown
step (z=L).

u z 0 (25)

3. Bed inlet: feed step (z=0), and countercurrent purge step (z=L).

u z u z (26)

4. Bed outlet: countercurrent blowdown step (z=0), and countercurrent purge step (z=0).

P z Ppurge (27)

3.3 LDF global mass transfer coefficient and correlations used to estimation of model
parameters
Table 3 summarizes the experimental conditions of temperatures and Reynolds numbers in
Runs 1 - 4.
Table 4 shows the LDF global mass transfer coefficient, the axial dispersion coefficient, and
the film mass transfer coefficient, should be evaluated using different correlations due
different Reynolds numbers in Runs 1 -4 under adiabatic or non-adiabatic systems.
For the all experiments performed at adiabatic system low Reynols number, the value of
the LDF global mass transfer coefficient was estimated using the expression proposed by
Farooq and Ruthven (1990) which considers all of the resistances to the mass transfer, i.e.,
intra- and extraparticle resistances; Eq. (28):

c
rpq o rp 2 qo r2
K L 3 k f C o 15 p DeC o 15Dc
1
(28)

where rp is the particle radius, kf the external mass transfer coefficient, qo the value of q at

expressed in suitable units), P the particle porosity, rc the radius of activated carbon crystal
equilibrium with Co (adsorbate concentration in the feed at feed temperature To and

and DC is the micropore diffusivity. The micropore diffusivity values were those reported by
Cavenati and coworkers (2006) since the micropore distribution of the adsorbents are similar
to those of carbon molecular sieves (Cavenati et al., 2006; Vinu & Hartmann, 2005).
For the all experiments performed at non-adiabatic system high Reynols number, the
value of the LDF global mass transfer coefficient was estimated that intraparticke resistance
is only controlled by molecular diffusion.
All others correlations used to evaluate the mass and heat transport parameters are
summarized in Table 4. The gas phase viscosity was estimated using Wilkess equation (Bird et
al., 2007). The axial mass dispersion coefficient (DL), for the adiabatic system, was evaluated by
Leito & Rodrigues (1995); for the non-adiabatic system, according to Wakao and coworkers
(1978). The film mass transfer coefficient (kf), for the adiabatic system, was evaluated by Seguin

heat dispersion coefficient (L) and the film heat transfer coefficient (hf) were evaluated by
et al. (1995); for the non-adiabatic system, according to Wakao and Funazkri (1978). The axial

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66 Greenhouse Gases Capturing, Utilization and Reduction

Wakao and coworkers (1978); the convective heat transfer coefficient between the gas phase
and the column wall (hw) was evaluated according to De Wash & Froment (1972).

Run T, C Re
1 28 0.12
Adiabatic

CO2 /He
System
2 50 0.10
3 100 0.08
4 150 0.06
1 28 0.36
Adiabatic

CO2 /N2
System

2 50 0.32
3 100 0.25
4 150 0.20
1 50 41.64
adiabatic
System
Non-

2 50 41.64
PSA

3 100 32.31
4 100 32.31
Table 3. Experimental conditions of temperature and Reynolds number.

Coefficient Adiabatic system Non-adiabatic system

Pe 0.508Re 0.020 20 0.5Sc Re

L DL
Axial Mass Dispersion
dp Dm
Film mass transfer Sh 1.09 Re0.27 Sc 1/3 Sh 2 1.1Re 0.27 Sc 1/3
L
Axial Heat Dispersion 10 0.5Pr Re
kg
Film heat transfer Nu 2.0 1.1Re 0.6 Pr 1/3

12.5 0.048Re
hw dint
Internal convective heat transfer
kg

U
1
1 dint dext dint 1
ln
Global heat transfer
hw kw dint dext hext

0.68
hext L 0.67 Ra1/4
0.492 9/12

4/9

kext

External convective heat transfer

Pr
1

g udp g Cp,gg
Pe ; Re ; Sc ; Sh ; Pr ; Nu
k f dp h f dp
g g Dm
uL
;
kg kg
Tw T L3
DL Dm

Ra g

Table 4. Correlations used for estimation of mass and heat parameters [Dantas et al., 2011].

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Separation of Carbon Dioxide from Flue Gas Using Adsorption on Porous Solids 67

The effective diffusivities were calculated by Bosanquet equation and the molecular
diffusivities were calculated with the Chapman-Enskong equation (Bird et al., 2007). A
tortuosity of 2.2 and 1.8 was admitted to the activated carbon particle and CPHCL,
respectively.

4. Results and discussion

4.1 Characterization of adsorbents
Textural properties of activated carbon and CPHCL were previously described (Dantas et
al., 2010). The adsorbents are microporous and the BET surface areas are shown in Table 5.
Modifications with nitrogen-containing species may also result in changes in the porous
structure (Arenilas et al., 2005). The CPHCL had a lower BET area when compared to the
commercial activated carbon. The micropores volume of the CPHCL decreases considerably
compared with the commercial activated carbon, suggesting that the nitrogen incorporation
partially blocks the access of N2 to the small pores.
The chemical characteristics of the adsorbents are given in Table 6. As expected, the
adsorbent CPHCL has the greater nitrogen content and an N/C atomic ratio which is twice
that of the commercial activated carbon.
The FTIR spectra of commercial activated carbon and CPHCL are shown in Figure 1. All
spectra show the contribution from ambient water (at about 3600 cm1) and carbon dioxide
(doublet at 2360 cm1 and sharp spike at 667 cm1) present in the optical bench. The band of
O-H stretching vibrations (3600 - 3100 cm1) was due to surface hydroxyl groups and
chemisorbed water. The band at 2844 and 2925 cm1 is frequently ascribed to the CH
stretching. The asymmetry of the band at 3600 3100 cm-1 indicates the presence of strong
hydrogen bonds.

Commercial activated
CPHCL
carbon
SBET, m2/g 1053.0 664.6
Smicro, m2/g 1343.0 753.0
Vmicro, cm3/g 0.0972 0.0388
Mean pore radius ro , nm 1.23 1.54
Particle porosity P 0.47 0.37
N2 Micropore Capacity, kg/kg 300 155
N2 Total Capacity, kg/kg 370 260
Particle density p .103, kg/m3 1.14
Particle diameter dp 103, m 3.8

Table 5. Textural properties of the adsorbents studied [Dantas et al., 2010].

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68 Greenhouse Gases Capturing, Utilization and Reduction

Activated carbon CPHCL

C 86.2 70.2
H 1.3 2.0
N 0.9 1.4
N/C. 102 1 2

Table 6. Chemical characterization of the adsorbents studied. [Dantas et al., 2010].

It has been suggested that primary amine can react with the activated carbon surface,
forming surface complexes with the presence of NH2 surface groups (Gray et al., 2004).
Bands were presence at 3365 and 1607 cm-1, ascribed to asymmetric stretching (NH2) and
NH2 deformation, respectively, and at 3303 cm-1. However, the CPHCL spectrum shows that
these bands may be overlapped by the OH stretching band (3600-3100 cm-1) and by the
aromatic ring bands and double bond (C=C) vibrations (1650-1500 cm-1) (Fanning &
Vannice, 1993). The same pattern is observed for CPHCL after CO2 adsorption at 28C and
150C, indicating that there is no difference in the adsorption behavior.

Fig. 1. FTIR spectra of (a) commercial activated carbon; (b) CPHCL; (c) CPHCL after pre-
treatment and CO2 adsorption at 28C and (d) CPHCL after pre-treatment and CO2
adsorption at 150C [Dantas et al., 2010].

4.2 Adsorption equilibrium isotherms

The adsorption equilibrium of CO2 and N2 adsorption on activated carbon was previously
(Dantas et al., 2010) described using the Toth model (Toth, 1971); Eq. (29):

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Separation of Carbon Dioxide from Flue Gas Using Adsorption on Porous Solids 69

q
qmK eq P
1 ( KP )n
(29)

1/n

where qm is the maximum adsorbed concentration, i.e., the monolayer capacity; Keq is the
equilibrium adsorption constant and n is the heterogeneity parameter.
The temperature dependence of the equilibrium was described according to the Vant Hoff
equation; Eq. (30):

H i

K eq K o .e R.T
(30)

where Ko is the adsorption constant at infinite dilution.

Table 7 gives the parameters used for Toth model isotherms of each gas. It should be noted
that activated carbon has a high CO2 adsorption capacity in comparison with the N2
adsorption capacity. It is worth mentioning that the commercial activated carbon used in
this studied has a high CO2 adsorption capacity in comparison with other adsorbents
reported in literature (Grande & Rodrigues, 2008; Glover et al., 2008).
The CO2 adsorption equilibrium isotherms for CPHCL, at low partial pressure, were
described according a linear isotherm (Dantas et al., 2010); (Eq.31):

q KpP (31)

where Kp is the Henrys Law constant for the adsorption equilibrium which the temperature
dependence was also described according to the Vant Hoff equation.

Gas qm, 10-3mol/g n Ko,bar-1 -Hi, kJ/mol

CO2 10.05 0.68 7.62 10-5 21.84
N2 9.74 0.52 6.91 10-5 16.31

Table 7. Parameters used for fitting of the Toth model for carbon dioxide and nitrogen
adsorption o activated carbon.

Table 8 gives the Henrys Law constants for the adsorption equilibrium on CPHCL, at the
different temperatures studied, the pre-exponencial factor and heat of adsorption. Table 8
also shows the Henrys constants for the adsorption equilibrium on commercial activated
carbon that was fitted at low pressure.
It should be noted, however, that the commercial activated carbon has higher Henrys Law
constant indicating that this solid has a greater carbon dioxide adsorption capacity.
The nature of the N functionality is very important because it can affect the basicity of the
solid surface (Vlasov & Oskina, 2002); comparing a primary amine with a secondary amine
of the same carbon number, the basic character increases due to the increase in the inductive
effect caused by the alkyl groups.

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70 Greenhouse Gases Capturing, Utilization and Reduction

Some authors have reported that although there is a reduction in the BET superficial area
which is caused for the partial blockage of the lesser pores, as also observed in this paper,
the enrichment of the carbonaceous materials with nitrogen tends to increase the adsorption
capacity for CO2 (Arenillas et al., 2005). However, there is no consensus about this issue
because sorbents with the high amounts of nitrogen do not have the high CO2 adsorption
capacity reported in recent publications by Arenillas and coworkers (2005) and Pevida et al.
(2008). In the present study, we show a decrease in the CO2 adsorption capacity of CPHCL
in comparison with non-functionalized activated carbon. The decrease in the CO2
adsorption capacity is not related to the destruction of basic sites in the CPHCL, as shown in
the FTIR studies (Figure 2). In fact, Drage et al. (2007) have reported that only an activation
temperature higher than 600C can destroy basic sites in the adsorbents.

Activated carbon CPHCL

T, C Kp, moles/kg. bar-1 Kp, moles/kg. bar -1 -Hi, kJ/mol
28-25 2.89 2.16
50 1.86 1.55
20.25
100 0.62 0.32
150 0.29 0.11

Table 8. Henrys Law constants for the adsorption equilibrium on commercial activated
carbon and CPHCL at different temperatures (Dantas et al., 2010).

4.3 Fixed-Bed CO2 adsorption: experimental data and modeling

As previously mentioned, a set of experiments was performed changing the temperature of
the carbon dioxide to determine the breakthrough curves of carbon dioxide adsorption on
activated carbon and CPHCL.
The Peclet number and the LDF global mass transfer coefficient for the adsorption of carbon
dioxide on activated carbon and CPHCL are shown in Table 9.

Activated Carbon CPHCL

Run T, C Pe K L , s-1 K L , s-1
1 28 21.91 0.0027 0.0041
2 50 21.85 0.0043 0.0063
3 100 21.75 0.0125 0.0259
4 150 21.65 0.0259 0.0719

Table 9. Experimental Conditions and LDF global mass transfer coefficient for CO2 adsorption
on the commercial activated carbon and CPHCL (Adapted from Dantas et al., 2010).

Figures 2(a) e 2(b) shows a comparison between the experimental and theoretical curves
obtained for the CO2 adsorption on commercial activated carbon and CPHCL, respectively.

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Separation of Carbon Dioxide from Flue Gas Using Adsorption on Porous Solids 71

It is observed that, in the case of the mass balance, the model reproduces the experimental
data for the different feed concentration and temperatures reasonably well.

1.0 1.0

0.8 0.8

Run 1
0.6 Run 2 0.6 Run 1
C/Co

Run 3 Run 2

C/Co
Run 4 Run 3
0.4 LDF Model 0.4 Run 4
LDF Model

0.2 0.2

(a) (b)
0.0 0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 40 80 120 160 200
time, min time, min
Fig. 2. Breakthrough curves for the CO2 adsorption (a) on activated carbon and (b) on
CPHCL. Symbols: experimental data; Lines: LDF model (Dantas et al., 2010).

The global mass transfer coefficient for CO2 adsorption on CPHCL in the fixed bed is higher
than that for the adsorption on activated carbon (Table 9) which was to be expected because
the CPHCL is an adsorbent with less micropores and smaller CO2 adsorption capacity than
the commercial activated carbon. This makes the importance of the external to the internal
mass transfer resistance (Eq. (28)) greater in the case of CPHCL than commercial activated
carbon.
Figures 3(a) e 3(b) shows the gas simulated temperature profile, at the end of the bed, for the
carbon dioxide adsorption at 28C on activated carbon and CPHCL, respectively.

36 34

34
Temperature, C
Temperature, C

32

32

30
30
(a) (b)
28 28
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200
time, minutes time, minutes
Fig. 3. Gas simulated temperature profile, at the end of the bed, for the carbon dioxide
adsorption at 28C (a) on activated carbon and (b) on CPHCL.

The temperature peaks is about 8C and 4C, for activated carbon and CPHCL, respectively.
Although as the commercial activated carbon and the CPHCL have about the same heat of

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72 Greenhouse Gases Capturing, Utilization and Reduction

adsorption, but distinct adsorptive capacities, it is also possible to conclude that a higher
adsorption capacity leads to a higher temperature peak, since the adsorption is an
exothermic phenomenon.

4.4 Fixed-Bed CO2/N2 mixture adsorption: Experimental data and modeling

The basic information required to describe the fixed-bed dynamics of the adsorption of
carbon dioxide-nitrogen mixtures on activated carbon is the adsorption equilibrium
behavior of the single components. The adsorbed equilibrium concentration of carbon
dioxide and nitrogen on activated carbon was estimated as a function of the feed
concentration from a mass balance in the fixed bed. For each experimental breakthrough
curve, the adsorbed concentration is given by:

1 C FiQF t st C
qi Fi
p V V 1
(32)

where CFi is the feed concentration of component i, V is the bed volume, QF is the feed
volumetric flow rate and tst is the stoichiometric time (Ruthven, 1984).
The resulting adsorbed concentrations are given in Table 10. It can be observed that the
activated carbon adsorption capacity for CO2 and N2 in the CO2/N2 mixtures is the same as
that predicted by the single component Toth isotherm using the previously reported
adjusted. This is to be expected if the active sites for N2 and CO2 are independent, since the
amount of CO2 and/or N2 adsorbed on the solid at each partial pressure from a CO2/N2
mixture is the same as that measured for the pure gases at the same partial pressure, as
shown in Table 10. This assumption is in agreement with Siriwardane and coworkers (2001)
who observed the same behavior for the adsorption of CO2/N2 mixtures on 13X zeolite,
although Delgado and coworkers (2006) observed that the nitrogen adsorption can be
neglected when it is mixed with carbon dioxide. As the presence of nitrogen in the mixture
does not interfere at the CO2 adsorption on activated carbon, thus the pure component
equilibrium isotherms predict very well the equilibrium of each component in the CO2/N2
mixture.

Run T, C Adsorbate q, mol kg-1(a) q, mol kg-1(b)

N2 0.272 0.294
1 28
CO2 0.734 0.743
N2 0.178 0.173
2 50
CO2 0.450 0.466
N2 0.097 0.096
3 100
CO2 0.163 0.170
N2 0.054 0.059
4 150
CO2 0.072 0.071
Table 10. Experimental conditions and adsorbed concentrations predicted by the Toth model
for pure components and from the mass balance of breakthrough experiments on activated
carbon. (a) Values calculated from the experimental data; (b) Values calculated using Toth
model for single component adsorption.

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Separation of Carbon Dioxide from Flue Gas Using Adsorption on Porous Solids 73

As previously mentioned, a set of experiments was performed changing the temperature of

the carbon dioxide/nitrogen mixture to determine the breakthrough curves of carbon
dioxide adsorption and nitrogen adsorption on activated carbon.The axial mass dispersion
coefficient and the LDF global mass transfer coefficient for CO2 and N2 adsorption on
activated carbon are shown in Table 11.

CO2 N2
Run T, C DL , cm2 s-1
K L , s-1
1 28 0.10 0.0025 0.004
2 50 0.10 0.0042 0.011
3 100 0.10 0.0138 0.042
4 150 0.10 0.0323 0.128
Table 11. Axial mass dispersion coefficient and the LDF global mass transfer coefficient for
CO2 and N2 adsorption on activated carbon (Adapted from Dantas et al., 2011).

Figure 4 shows a comparison between the experimental and theoretical curves obtained for
the N2 and CO2 adsorption on activated carbon. The model describes quite well the roll-up
effect that is caused by the displacement of N2 by CO2 (Dabrowski, 1999). The roll-up is a
common phenomenon happening in multicomponent adsorption processes when the
concentration of one component at outlet of the adsorber exceed it inlet level (Li et al., 2011).
It can be observed that, when the temperature is increased, the carbon dioxide and nitrogen
breakthrough times are shorter due the exothermic character of adsorption.
The nitrogen breakthrough times are very similar at 28C and 150C. This finding can be
explained by the decrease in the amount of nitrogen adsorbed on activated carbon which
can be compensated by its faster diffusion at high temperature as observed by Cavenati and
coworkers (2006) for nitrogen adsorption on CMS 3K (as mentioned above, this molecular
sieve has a similar pore size distribution to that used for the activated carbon in this study).
The model reproduces very well the breakthrough curves for the different feed
concentrations, including the experimental breakthrough curves obtained for nitrogen. Also,
from the breakthrough curves we can note that the adsorbent is very selective towards
carbon dioxide.

4.5 PSA: Experimental data and modeling

Figure 5 shows the pressure change as a function of the process time for the experimental
conditions of Run 1 (see Table 2). A function was not found to describe with more accuracy
the pressure drop during the blowdown step and therefore the model cannot predict very
well this process variable.
Figure 6 shows the experimental and simulated changes for CO2 molar flow rate during the
PSA separation. The solid line represents the first cycle and the dashed line the steady-state
cycle (CCS).
Figure 7 shows the experimental and simulated N2 molar flow rate as a function of process
time, under the experimental conditions of run 2. The assumption that nitrogen adsorption
does not affect the CO2 adsorption is well represented by the simulation, since the flow rate
of nitrogen is not modified during each step.

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74 Greenhouse Gases Capturing, Utilization and Reduction

1.4 1.4
1.2 1.2
1.0 1.0
0.8 N2
N2 0.8
CO2
C/Co

C/Co
0.6 CO2 0.6 LDF model
0.4 LDF model
0.4
0.2 0.2
(a) (b)
0.0 0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
time, minutes time, minutes

1.4 1.4
1.2 1.2
1.0 1.0
N2 N2
0.8 0.8
CO2 CO2
C/Co

C/Co

0.6 LDF model 0.6 LDF model

0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
(c) (d)
0.0 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
time, minutes time, minutes
Fig. 4. Breakthrough curves for the N2 and CO2 adsorption on commercial activated carbon.
Symbols: experimental data; N2 and CO2. Lines: LDF model. Conditions: (a) run 1; (b)
run 2; (c) run 3; and (d) run 4.

1.4
0 0
1 Cycle 2 Cycle
1.2
1.0
0.8
P, bar

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 80 160 240 320 400 480 560
time, minutes
Fig. 5. Pressure change as a function of process time. Experimental conditions: run 1.

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Separation of Carbon Dioxide from Flue Gas Using Adsorption on Porous Solids 75

1.0 o
(b)
1.0 o (a)
1 Cycle
1 Cycle o
9 Cycle
o
10 Cycle 0.8 o
21 Cycle
0.8 18 Cycle
o
o
36 Cycle

Purge
o
FCO , 10 mol/s

Blowdown
32 Cycle o

FCO , 10 mol/s

Pressurization
46 Cycle
o 0.6
0.6 46 Cycle o
60 Cycle

Purge
Blowdown
Pressurization
-3

-3
0.4 0.4
2

2
0.2 0.2

Feed
Feed

0.0 0.0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280
cycle time, minutes cycle time, minutes

1.2 1.2 o
1 Cycle (d)
o
1 Cycle (c)
o
o 9 Cycle
10 Cycle 1.0
1.0 o 18 Cycle
o

24 Cycle o
o 26 Cycle
39 Cycle 0.8
FCO , 10 mol/s
0.8
FCO , 10 mol/s

Pressurization

o
38 Cycle

Pressurization
o
51 Cycle o
47 Cycle
0.6 0.6
-3
-3

Blowdown

Purge
Blowdown

2
2

0.4 0.4
Purge

0.2 0.2
Feed
Feed

0.0 0.0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 0 60 120 180 240 300 360
cycle time, minutes cycle time, minutes
Fig. 6. Carbon dioxide molar flow rate as a function of cycle time. Experimental conditions:
(a) run 1; (b) run 2; (c) run 3; and (d) run 4. Solid line: first cycle simulation. Dashed line:
CCS simulation.

1.6
Feed

1.2
FN , 10 mol/s

Pressurization
-3

0.8
o
1 Ciclo
Blowdown

Purge
2

o
9 Ciclo
o
21 Ciclo
0.4 o
36 Ciclo
o
46 Ciclo
o
60 Ciclo
0.0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280
cycle time, minutes
Fig. 7. Nitrogen molar flow rate as a function of cycle time. Experimental conditions: run 2.
Solid line: first cycle simulation. Dashed line: CCS simulation.

Figures 8(a) and 8(b) shows the experimental and simulated temperature profile inside the
column, at 0.17 m and 0.43 m from the bottom of the column, under the experimental

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76 Greenhouse Gases Capturing, Utilization and Reduction

conditions of run 3. The temperature peak is high due to the exothermic adsorption of CO2
on activated carbon in a high amount. Therefore heat effects cannot be neglected during
adsorption, especially when there is a strong adsorbent-adsorbate interaction.

110 110 (b)

(a)
Temperature, C

Temperature, C
o

o
105 105

100 100

95 95
0 600 1200 1800 2400 0 600 1200 1800 2400
time, minutes time, minutes

Fig. 8. Temperature profile of the gas phase: (a) at 0.17 m and (b) at 0.43 m from the bottom
of the column. Experimental conditions: run 3.

Table 12 shows the performance of the PSA process: carbon dioxide recovery, nitrogen
recovery, and carbon dioxide purity obtained for all experimental conditions studied. It is
possible note that there is an increase in the carbon dioxide purity with increasing feed time
(runs 1 and 2). This indicates that the separation is strongly controlled by the equilibrium. It
can be also noted that there is an increase in the carbon dioxide purity with increasing
temperature and this is due to the high selectivity of activated carbon. We observed that
when the temperature of the CO2/N2 mixture was 100oC, a superior CO2 purity is obtained
due to the high selective toward CO2. This is a good result since it indicates that the cooling
of the exhaustion gas before CO2 separation is not necessary.

Run Feed time, s CO2 purity, % N2 purity, % CO2 recovery, %

1 100 25.7 87.1 93.1
2 120 31.3 87.5 85.4
3 120 32.3 87.1 73.7
4 200 49.7 78.9 66.8
Table 12. PSA Performance.

As proposed by Grande and Rodrigues (2008) for CO2 adsorption, adsorbents with a greater
adsorption capacity and higher heat of adsorption than the activated carbon honeycomb
monolith should be used to achieve a product purity of greater than 16%. Although the CO2
purity is lower than that is required to transport, the PSA cycle could be optimized in order
to increase the CO2 purity and recovery (Ko et al., 2005). Transport considerations limit the
CO2 purity > 95.5% to ensure a reasonable input of CO2 compression power (Vinay &
Handal, 2010).

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Separation of Carbon Dioxide from Flue Gas Using Adsorption on Porous Solids 77

5. Conclusion
There are many factors that influence CO2 capture, some of them are physical and some
chemical. Textural properties are important for any adsorption processes but, in the case of
CO2 capture, the surface chemistry is a particularly important factor. The enrichment of
activated carbon with nitrogen using amine 3-chloropropylamine hydrochloride blocked
some pores of the activated carbon. The increase in the surface basicity was not sufficient to
counteract the decrease in the BET superficial area since a reduction in the CO2 adsorption
was observed.
Carbon dioxide adsorption on commercial activated carbon and on a nitrogen-enriched
activated carbon, named CPHCL, packed in a fixed bed was studied. The adsorption
equilibrium data for carbon dioxide on the commercial activated carbon were fitted well
using the Toth model equation, whereas for carbon dioxide adsorption on the CPHCL a
linear isotherm was considered. A model using the LDF approximation for the mass
transfer, taking into account the energy balance, described the breakthrough curves of
carbon dioxide adequately. The LDF global mass transfer coefficient for the adsorption of
CO2 on activated carbon is smaller than that for the CPHCL. Since part of the micropores of
the activated carbon are blocked by the incorporation of the amine, probably only the largest
pores would be filled by the CO2, causing a decrease on the capacity of the adsorption and
an increase on the adsorption rate.
The fixed-bed adsorption of CO2/N2 mixtures on activated carbon was also studied. The
adsorption dynamics was investigated at several temperatures and considering the effects
caused by N2 adsorption. It was demonstrated that the solid sorbent adsorbed carbon
dioxide and nitrogen to its total capacity, leading to the conclusion that the equilibrium of
CO2 and N2 adsorption from CO2/N2 mixtures could be very well described through the
adsorption equilibrium behavior of the single components. The activated carbon used in this
study has high selectivity for CO2 and is suitable for CO2/N2 separation processes. The
model proposed herein can be used to design a PSA cycle to separate the components of
CO2/N2 mixtures, where the pressure drop and thermal effects are very important.
The carbon dioxidenitrogen separation applying PSA process showed that the increase in
the inlet temperature of the mixture CO2/N2 increases the CO2 purity due to the great
difference between the adsorption capacities of N2 and CO2.

6. Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to CAPES Comisso de Aperfeioamento de Pessoal de Nvel
Superior (Brazil) and to CAPES/GRICES for the International Cooperation Project
(Brazil/Portugal)

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80 Greenhouse Gases Capturing, Utilization and Reduction

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 Greenhouse Gases - Capturing, Utilization and Reduction
Edited by Dr Guoxiang Liu

ISBN 978-953-51-0192-5
Hard cover, 338 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 09, March, 2012
Published in print edition March, 2012

Understanding greenhouse gas capture, utilization, reduction, and storage is essential for solving issues such
as global warming and climate change that result from greenhouse gas. Taking advantage of the authors'
experience in greenhouse gases, this book discusses an overview of recently developed techniques, methods,
and strategies: - Novel techniques and methods on greenhouse gas capture by physical adsorption and
separation, chemical structural reconstruction, and biological utilization. - Systemic discussions on greenhouse
gas reduction by policy conduction, mitigation strategies, and alternative energy sources. - A comprehensive
review of geological storage monitoring technologies.

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