LS 1988 PDF
LS 1988 PDF
LS 1988 PDF
Professors confronted by low test grades, unresponsive or hostile classes, poor attendance
and dropouts, know that something is wrong. The authors explain what has happened and how
to make it right.
Inductive learners need to see phenomena before they can understand underlying theory.
this one between the preferred input whenever possible. applications is an efficient and elegant
modality of most students and the pre- way to organize and present material
ferred presentation mode of most Inductive and Deductive that is already understood.
professors. Irrespective of the extent Learners Consequently, most engineering cur-
of the mismatch, presentations that use ricula are laid out along deductive
both visual and auditory modalities Induction is a reasoning progression lines, beginning with fundamentals
reinforce learning for all stu- that proceeds from particulars for sophomores and arriving at design
dents.4,14,19,20 The point is made by a (observations, measurements, data) to and operations by the senior year. A
study carried out by the Socony-Vac- generalities (governing rules, laws, similar progression is normally used to
uum Oil Company that concludes that theories). Deduction proceeds in the present material within individual
opposite direction. In induction one
students retain 10 percent of what they infers principles; in deduction one courses: principles first, applications
read, 26 percent of what they hear, 30 deduces consequences. later (if ever).
percent of what they see, 50 percent of Induction is the natural human Our informal surveys suggest that
what they see and hear, 70 percent of learning style. Babies do not come most engineering students view
what they say, and 90 percent of what into life with a set of general princi- themselves as inductive learners. We
they say as they do something.21 ples but rather observe the world also asked a group of engineering
How to teach both visual and au- around them and draw inferences: If I professors to identify their own
ditory learners: Few engineering in- throw my bottle and scream loudly, learning and teaching styles: half of
structors would have to modify what someone eventually shows up. Most the 46 professors identified them-
they usually do in order to present of what we learn on our own (as selves as inductive and half as de-
information auditorily: lectures opposed to in class) originates in a real ductive learners, but all agreed that
accomplish this task. What must situation or problem that needs to be their teaching was almost purely de-
generally be added to accommodate all addressed and solved, not in a general ductive. To the extent that these re-
students is visual materialpictures, principle; deduction may be part of the sults can be generalized, in the or-
diagrams, sketches. Process flow solution process but it is never the ganization of information along
charts, network diagrams, and logic or entire process. inductive/deductive linesas in the
information flow charts should be used On the other hand, deduction is the other dimensions discussed so fara
to illustrate complex processes or natural human teaching style, at least mismatch thus exists between the
algorithms; mathematical functions for technical subjects at the college learning styles of most engineering
should be illustrated by graphs; and level. Stating the governing prin- students and the teaching style to
films or live demonstrations of ciples and working down to the which they are almost invariably ex-
working processes should be presented posed.
678
One problem with deductive tive learner. There are indications that
presentation is that it gives a seriously Active learners do not learn engineers are more likely to be active
misleading impression. When students much in situations that require than reflective learners.20
see a perfectly ordered and concise them to be passive, and reflective Active learners do not learn much
exposition of a relatively complex learners do not learn much in in situations that require them to be
derivation they tend to think that the situations that provide no passive (such as most lectures), and
author/instructor originally came up opportunity to think about the reflective learners do not learn much
with the material in the same neat information being presented. in situations that provide no opportu-
fashion, which they (the students) nity to think about the information
could never have done. They may then with a statement of observable being presented (such as most lec-
conclude that the course and perhaps phenomena that the theory will tures). Active learners work well in
the curriculum and the profession are explain or of a physical problem the groups; reflective learners work better
beyond their abilities. They are correct theory will be used to solve; infers the by themselves or with at most one
in thinking that they could not have governing rules or principles that ex- other person. Active learners tend to
come up with that result in that plain the observed phenomena; and be experimentalists; reflective learners
manner; what they do not know is that deduces other implications and con- tend to be theoreticians.
neither could the professor nor the sequences of the inferred principles. At first glance there appears to be a
author the first time around. Un- Perhaps most important, some home- considerable overlap between active
fortunately, students never get to see work problems should be assigned that learners and sensors, both of whom
the real processthe false starts and present phenomena and ask for the are involved in the external world of
blind alleys, the extensive trial-and- underlying rules. Such problems play phenomena, and between reflective
error efforts that eventually lead to the to the inductive learners strength and learners and intuitors, both of whom
elegant presentation in the book or on they also help deductive learners favor the internal world of abstraction.
the board. An element of inductive develop facility with their less- The categories are independent,
teaching is necessary for the instructor preferred learning mode. Several such however. The sensor preferentially
to be able to diminish the students exercises have been suggested for selects information available in the
awe and increase their realistic different branches of engineering.29 external world but may process it
perceptions of problem-solving. either actively or reflectively, in the
Much research supports the notion Active and Reflective Learners latter case by postulating explanations
that the inductive teaching approach or interpretations, drawing analogies,
promotes effective learning. The The complex mental processes by or formulating models. Similarly, the
benefits claimed for this approach which perceived information is con- intuitor selects information generated
include increased academic achieve- verted into knowledge can be conve- internally but may process it
ment and enhanced abstract reasoning niently grouped into two categories: reflectively or actively, in the latter
skills;22 longer retention of in- active experimentation and reflective case by setting up an experiment to
formation;2324 improved ability to observation.3 Active experimentation test out the idea or trying it out on a
apply principles;25 confidence in involves doing something in the colleague.
external world with the information
problem-solving abilities;26 and in- In the list of teaching-style catego-
discussing it or explaining it or testing
creased capability for inventive it in some wayand reflective ries (table 1) the opposite of active is
thought.2728 observation involves examining and passive, not reflective, with both terms
Inductive learners need motivation manipulating the information in- referring to the nature of student
for learning. They do not feel trospectively. * An active learner is participation in class. Active
comfortable with the Trust methis someone who feels more comfortable signifies that students do something in
stuff will be useful to you some day with, or is better at, active ex- class beyond simply listening and
perimentation than reflective ob-
approach: like sensors, they need to watching, e.g., discussing, question-
servation, and conversely for a reflec-
see the phenomena before they can ing, arguing, brainstorming, or re-
understand and appreciate the flecting. Active student participation
underlying theory. * The active learner and the reflec- thus encompasses the learning pro-
How to teach both deductive and tive learner are closely related to the cesses of active experimentation and
inductive learners: An effective way extravert and introvert, respectively, of reflective observation. A class in
to reach both groups is to follow the the Jung-Myers-Briggs model.1 The which students are always passive is a
scientific method in classroom active learner also has much in class in which neither the active
presentations: first induction, then common with the kinesthetic learner experimenter nor the reflective ob-
deduction. The instructor precedes of the modality and neurolinguistic server can learn effectively. Unfortu-
presentations of theoretical material programming literature.14,15
679
nately, most engineering classes fall global learners. Since they do not learn
into this category. Global learners should be given in a steady or predictable manner they
As is true of all the other learning- tend to feel out-of-step with their
style dimensions, both active and re- the freedom to devise their own fellow students and incapable of
flective learners are needed as engi- methods of solving problems meeting the expectations of their
neers. The reflective observers are the rather than being forced to teachers. They may feel stupid when
theoreticians, the mathematical they are struggling to master material
modelers, the ones who can define the adopt the professors strategy, with which most of their
problems and propose possible and they should be exposed contemporaries seem to have little
solutions. The active experimenters are trouble. Some eventually become
periodically to advanced
the ones who evaluate the ideas, design discouraged with education and drop
and carry out the experiments, and find concepts before these concepts out. However, global learners are the
the solutions that workthe would normally be introduced. last students who should be lost to
organizers, the decision-makers. How higher education and society. They are
to teach both active and reflective the synthesizers, the multidisciplinary
learning dictated by the clock and
learners: Primarily, the instructor researchers, the systems thinkers, the
the calendar. When a body of material
should alternate lectures with ones who see the connections no one
has been covered the students are
occasional pauses for thought else sees. They can be truly
tested on their mastery and then move
(reflective) and brief discussion or outstanding engineersif they survive
to the next stage.
problem-solving activities (active), and the educational process.
Some students are comfortable with
should present material that How to teach global learners: Ev-
this system; they learn sequentially,
emphasizes both practical problem- erything required to meet the needs of
mastering the material more or less as
solving (active) and fundamental un- sequential learners is already being
it is presented. Others, however,
derstanding (reflective). An excep- done from first grade through graduate
cannot learn in this manner. They
tionally effective technique for school: curricula are sequential, course
learn in fits and starts: they may be
reaching active learners is to have syllabi are sequential, textbooks are
lost for days or weeks, unable to solve
students organize themselves at their sequential, and most teachers teach
even the simplest problems or show
seats in groups of three or four and sequentially. To reach the global
the most rudimentary understanding,
periodically come up with collective learners in a class, the instructor
until suddenly they get itthe light
answers to questions posed by the should provide the big picture or goal
bulb flashes, the jigsaw puzzle comes
instructor. The groups may be given of a lesson before presenting the steps,
together. They may then understand
from 30 seconds to five minutes to do doing as much as possible to establish
the material well enough to they apply
so, after which the answers are shared the context and relevance of the
it to problems that leave most of the
and discussed for as much or as little subject matter and to relate it to the
sequential learners baffled. These are
time as the instructor wishes to spend students experience. Applications and
the global learners.32
on the exercise. Besides forcing what ifs should be liberally
Sequential learners follow linear
thought about the course material, such furnished. The students should be
reasoning processes when solving
brainstorming exercises can indicate given the freedom to devise their own
problems; global learners make intu-
material that students dont methods of solving problems rather
itive leaps and may be unable to ex-
understand; provide a more congenial than being forced to adopt the
plain how they came up with solu-
classroom environment than can be professors strategy, and they should
tions. Sequential learners can work
achieved with a formal lecture; and be exposed periodically to advanced
with material when they understand it
involve even the most introverted concepts before these concepts would
partially or superficially, while global
students, who would never participate normally be introduced.
learners may have great difficulty
in a full class discussion. One such A particularly valuable way for in-
doing so. Sequential learners may be
exercise lasting no more than five structors to serve the global learners in
strong in convergent thinking and
minutes in the middle of a lecture their classes, as well as the sequential
analysis; global learners may be better
period can make the entire period a learners, is to assign creativity
at divergent thinking and synthesis.
stimulating and rewarding educational exercisesproblems that involve
Sequential learners learn best when
experience.31 generating alternative solutions and
material is presented in a steady
bringing in material from other
progression of complexity and
Sequential and Global Learners courses or disciplinesand to en-
difficulty; global learners sometimes
courage students who show promise in
do better by jumping directly to more
Most formal education involves the solving them.3133 Another way to
complex and difficult material. School
presentation of material in a logically support global learners is to explain
is often a difficult experience for
ordered progression, with the pace of
680
A class in which students are C.F. Yokomoto, L. Harrisberger, and tary School Children, U.S.O.E. Co-
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Improving Problem Solving Perfor- the Learning of Children, Studies in
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