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Journal of Educational Psychology
Creativity and Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis
Aleksandra Gajda, Maciej Karwowski, and Ronald A. Beghetto
Online First Publication, August 18, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/edu0000133
CITATION
Gajda, A., Karwowski, M., & Beghetto, R. A. (2016, August 18). Creativity and Academic
Achievement: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology. Advance online publication.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/edu0000133
Journal of Educational Psychology 2016 American Psychological Association
2016, Vol. 108, No. 4, 000 0022-0663/16/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/edu0000133
Creativity and Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis
Aleksandra Gajda and Maciej Karwowski Ronald A. Beghetto

The Maria Grzegorzewska University University of Connecticut
This article reports on a meta-analysis of 120 studies (total N 52,578; 782 effects) examining the
relationship between creativity and academic achievement in research conducted since the 1960s.
Average correlation between creativity and academic achievement was r .22, 95% CI [.19, .24]. An
analysis of moderators revealed that this relationship was constant across time but stronger when
creativity was measured using creativity tests compared to self-report measures and when academic
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
achievement was measured using standardized tests rather than grade point average. Moreover, verbal
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
tests of creativity yielded significantly stronger relationships with academic achievement than figural
tests. Theoretical and practical consequences are discussed.
Keywords: creativity, school grades, academic achievement, meta-analysis
Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/edu0000133.supp
Is there a relationship between creativity and academic achieve- sents relatively stable changes in understanding and behavior
ment? This is a longstanding and largely unresolved question. For (Alexander, Schallert, & Reynolds, 2009). Moreover, both
more than half a century, educators and psychologists have at- learning and creativity can be viewed as processes and products
tempted to address this issue (Cline, Richards, & Abe, 1962; (e.g., Alexander et al., 2009; Beghetto, 2016a; Donovan &
Mednick, 1963). At a conceptual level, scholars have asserted that Bransford, 2005; Mumford, Medeiros, & Partlow, 2012; Wal-
creativity and learning represent interrelated phenomena (e.g., las, 1926). It is therefore possible to say that a creative act [as
Beghetto, 2016a; Guilford, 1967; Piaget, 1962, 1981; Sawyer, a product] is an instance of learning [as a process], for it
2012; Vygotsky, 1967/2004). Some of the earliest and most prom- represents a change in behavior (Guilford, 1950, p. 446).
inent theorists in the field have noted this link. Guilford (1967), for Along these same lines, it is also possible to say learning (as a
instance, asserted that creativity and learning are essentially the product) is a creative process, because it results from new and
same phenomenon. Vygotsky (1967/2004) similarly argued that personally meaningful changes in ones prior understanding
the creative imagination is a completely essential condition for (Beghetto, 2016a). Given the theoretical links between creativ-
almost all human mental activity (p. 17). Another example is ity and learning, it seems reasonable to assume that there would
Piagets theory of genetic epistemology. Indeed, creativity is cen- be a positive relationship between creativity and measures of
tral to Piagets theory of learning. As Gruber (in Bringuier, 1980) academic achievement. The empirical work that has examined
has explained in reference to Piagets theory, The child does not this link, however, has yielded a more equivocal picture. Some
learn simply what the adult tells him, he reinvents. Its a kind of researchers have, for instance, reported positive associations
creativity (p. 67). ranging from .10 .56 (Cicirelli, 1967; Getzels & Jackson, 1962;
Regardless of the theoretical stance one takes on learning Niaz, Nez, & Pineda, 2000; Ohnmacht, 1966). Others have
be it behavioral, cognitive, constructivist, situated, sociomate- reported little or no association (e.g., Edwards & Tyler, 1965;
rial, or some other theoretical orientation creativity and learn- Grigorenko et al., 2009). Still others have reported negative
ing share fundamental similarities. Indeed, both creativity and associations (e.g., Anderson, White, & Stevens, 1969). In fact,
learning involve change. More specifically, creativity refers to some researches have noted all three patterns within the same
new and meaningful changes in thoughts, products, and actions
study (e.g., Gralewski & Karwowski, 2012). Consequently, the
(Beghetto, 2016a; Sternberg, 1999). Similarly, learning repre-
best that can be said about whether there is a link between
creativity and academic achievement is this: It depends.
Why might this be the case? The present meta-analysis endeav-
ors to address this question. More specifically, we have two
Aleksandra Gajda and Maciej Karwowski, Department of Educational primary aims for our study. Our first goal is to provide an average
Sciences, The Maria Grzegorzewska University; Ronald A. Beghetto, effect size of the relationship between creativity and academic
Department of Educational Psychology, University of Connecticut.
achievement. Our second goal is to examine the potential impact of
The preparation of this article was supported by a grant from the
factors that may moderate the relationship between creativity and
National Science Centre, Poland (UMO-2011/03/N/HS6/05073).
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Ma- academic achievement. Although there are examples of meta-
ciej Karwowski, Creative Education Lab, The Maria Grzegorzewska analytic studies that have addressed related issues (e.g., the rela-
University, Szczesliwicka 40 Street, 02353 Warsaw, Poland. E-mail: tionship between creativity and intelligence; see Kim, 2005), we
[email protected] are not aware of any published meta-analytic studies of creativity
1
2 GAJDA, KARWOWSKI, AND BEGHETTO
and academic achievement.1 We therefore endeavor to shed light 1981; Vygotsky, 1967/2004). It therefore seems reasonable to
on the mixed findings of prior research by providing a more stable suggest that creativity would be related to academic achievement,
estimate of the relationship between creativity and academic which is conceptualized as the outcome of learning.
achievement and by examining factors that may potentially mod-
erate this relationship. Academic Achievement
Academic achievement is an outcome of learning, which is
Creativity and Academic Achievement typically measured by classroom grades, classroom assessments,
and external achievement tests. Researchers who have examined
Creativity correlates of academic achievement have identified a wide array of
factors, including individual, social, and sociocultural influences
Creativity scholars generally agree that creativity represents a
(see Hattie, 2009, for a review). Of these, student characteristics
combination between originality, novelty, or newness and useful-
play one of the broadest and most influential roles in explaining
ness, meeting task constraints, or meaningfulness as defined within
variations in academic achievement. Student characteristics repre-
a particular sociocultural and historical context (Amabile, 1996;

sent a highly heterogeneous dimension, which includes personality
Kaufman & Beghetto, 2009; Plucker, Beghetto, & Dow, 2004;

(Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2003; Poropat, 2009), cognitive
Simonton, 2012; Sternberg & Lubart, 1999). The following sim-
abilities (e.g., Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2008; Deary,
plified notation captures this definition (adapted from Beghetto &
Strand, Smith, & Fernandes, 2007), intensity and type of motiva-
Kaufman, 2014; Simonton, 2012):
tion (Di Domenico & Fournier, 2015), self-esteem and academic
C O TC self-concept (Marsh & Hau, 2004), and socioeconomic factors
[CONTEXT] (Johnson, McGue, & Iacono, 2007; Sackett, Kuncel, Arneson,
In the above notation, C refers to creativity, O refers to origi- Cooper, & Waters, 2009).
nality, and TC refers to task constraints. As specified by this Creativity is yet another student characteristic that shares a
formulation, creativity is a multiplicative combination of original- conceptual, albeit equivocal, link with academic achievement. As
ity and task constraints as situated within a particular context. we have discussed, researchers have reported associations that are
Consequently, something that is original (O 1) but does not meet relatively strong (e.g., r .41, Marjoribanks, 1976 or r .66,
contextually defined task constraints (TC 0) could be called Yeh, 2004), modest (e.g., r .20, McCabe, 1991), null (e.g., r
original but not creative (C 0). Consider, for instance, a student .03, Tatlah, Aslam, Ali, & Iqbal, 2012), and, in some cases,
taking a calculus exam who produces a vivid and quite stunning negative (e.g., r .03, Anderson et al., 1969). The aim of the
pencil drawing of mathematical symbols transforming into doves present study is to help clarify the empirical ambiguity surround-
(instead of solving the problem presented on the exam). Such a ing the link between creativity and academic achievement by
response is clearly original, but it would not be considered creative providing a stable estimate of the association and also examine
in the context of the exam. In order for a students response on a whether and how potential moderators might influence that asso-
calculus exam to be considered creative, it would need to represent ciation.
a novel solution to the problem at hand (i.e., meet the task
constraints). Potential Moderators
In the context of academic learning, creativity can be thought of What might account for variations in the relationship between
as occurring at both a subjective (creativity as part of the act of creativity and academic achievement? Researchers who have ad-
learning) and an intersubjective (learning as a creative act) level dressed this question (e.g., Freund & Holling, 2008; Gralewski &
(Beghetto, 2016a). At the subjective level, students exercise their Karwowski, 2012; Vijetha & Jangaiah, 2010) have identified sev-
creativity by developing new and personally meaningful ideas, eral moderating factors (see Figure 1). As illustrated in Figure 1,
insights, and understandings within the context of particular aca- those factors include (a) the type of measurement used, (b) grade
demic constraints (Beghetto, 2007; Beghetto & Kaufman, 2007). level of participants, (c) the decade the study was conducted, and
At the intersubjective level, students who share their unique and (d) the geographic region of the study. In the sections that follow,
academically accurate insights and interpretations can also con- we briefly describe each of these potential moderators.
tribute to the learning and understanding of others (Beghetto,
2016a). Type of Measurement
In this way, creativity is more than originality (Beghetto, 2010),
divergent thinking (Baer, 1993; Beghetto, 2013; Guilford, 1967; The type of measurement represents one of the most clearly
Runco, 1991), or vividness of imagination (Dziedziewicz & Kar- identifiable moderators of the empirical relationship between cre-
wowski, 2015; Jankowska & Karwowski, 2015). It also involves
deductive and inductive thinking (Dunbar, 1997; Vartanian, Mar- 1
An anonymous reviewer brought to our attention an unpublished report
tindale, & Kwiatkowski, 2003; Weisberg, 2006), as well as the (Halliburton-Beatty & Simms, 2013) that reanalyzed meta-analytic data
ability to use specific problem-solving strategies to generate novel testing the impact of creativity training programs on school achievement
solutions to complex and ill-defined problems (Beghetto, 2016b; (presented in the meta-synthesis by Hattie, 2009). This report, however,
Finke, Ward, & Smith, 1992; Sternberg, 1998). All these charac- has different scope and focus than our present study. As previously
described, our analysis focuses on the relationship between creative ability/
teristics are important for the acquisition of new knowledge and self-concepts and academic achievement (rather than the impact of creative
learning (Greiff et al., 2013). In this way, creativity and learning training programs), and we analyze effects reported in primary source
work hand-in-hand (e.g., Beghetto, 2016a; Guilford, 1967; Piaget, material (rather than a reanalysis).
CREATIVITY AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 3
Figure 1. Potential factors influencing creativity and achievement relationship.
ativity and academic achievement. Put simply, regardless of the be further divided into dimensions of divergent thinking (i.e.,
conceptual overlap between creativity and academic achievement, fluency, flexibility, originality, or elaboration). Previous studies
the degree of the observed relationship between creativity and have demonstrated that aspects of divergent thinking vary in their
academic achievement will, in large part, be determined by the association with academic achievement (e.g., Auzmendi, Villa, &
amount of overlap in how each construct is measured. Moreover, Abedi, 1996; Feldhusen, Treffinger, Van Mondfrans, & Ferris,
there is a wide array of methods measures that can and have been 1971). We therefore explore whether these different dimensions
used to measure both constructs (Freund & Holling, 2008; influence the relationship between creativity and academic
Gralewski & Karwowski, 2012). With respect to creativity, this achievement but, given the limited work in this area, have no
includes everything from self-report measures to more objective prediction as to the specific strength of this influence (e.g., non-
creativity tests. To further compound this issue, there is little existent, weak, moderate, strong).
consensus in the field of how to best measure creativity (see With respect to academic achievement, researchers have also
Freund & Holling, 2008; Kaufman, Plucker, & Baer, 2008). used a wide array of methods and measures to examine the
The kinds of creativity measures typically used to examine the relationship with creativity. Similar to creativity measures, aca-
relationship between creativity and achievement can be classified demic achievement measures can be classified into two types:
into two types: self-report and more objective creativity tests. subjective assessments and objective tests. Grade point averages
Self-report measures tend to focus on beliefs about ones creative (GPAs) represent the most common type of subjective measure
ability (e.g., Karwowski & Lebuda, 2015; Skager, Klein, & used in studies that have examined the link with creativity (e.g.,
Schultz, 1967), creative activity or achievement (mainly invento- Chamorro-Premuzic, 2006; Freund & Holling, 2008; Gralewski &
ries measuring the intensity of declared creative behaviors and Karwowski, 2012). More objective tests refer to any externally
activities or observable creative accomplishments, e.g., Carson, constructed tests of academic subject matter knowledge or
Peterson, & Higgins, 2005; Jauk, Benedek, & Neubauer, 2014), achievement (e.g., Tan, Mourgues, Bolden, & Grigorenko, 2014).
and indicators of creative personality (e.g., Naderi, Abdullah, Taken together, the measures of creativity and academic
Aizan, Sharir, & Kumar, 2009). More objective creativity tests achievement typically used in studies that have examined their
tend to focus on divergent thinking skills (i.e., the ability to relationship tend to include both subjective and more objective
generate original ideas). These include tests based on Guilfords types of measurement. Moreover, creativity measures tend to focus
theory (e.g., Toll, 1985), the Test of Creative ThinkingDrawing more on assessing divergent thinking skills and abilities (e.g.,
Production (TCT-DP) by Urban and Jellen (Urban, 1991; Kar- generating original ideas), whereas academic tests tend to focus
wowski & Gralewski, 2013), the Torrance Test of Creative Think- more on whether students can meet predetermined task expecta-
ing (TTCT; Clapham, 2004; Torrance, 1968), and other instru- tions (e.g., accurately solving a problem in mathematics). Figure 2
ments (e.g., the Remote Associates Test, Mednick, 1963, or the provides a visual representation of where creativity and academic
Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test, Chooi, Long, & Thompson, achievement tests tend to place their emphasis.
2014). As depicted in Figure 2, these areas of emphasis map onto the
Creativity tests can be further distinguished by modality: verbal conceptual definition of creativity (C O TC), with creativity
tests (i.e., requiring participants to provide verbal answers to the tests tending to focus on the originality (O) aspect of creativity and
problems provided; e.g., the TTCT verbal, Hansenne & Legrand, measures of academic achievement tending to focus on meeting
2012, or the Verbaler Kreativity-Test, Rindermann & Neubauer, predetermined task constraints (TC). The area of empirical overlap
2004) and figural tests (i.e., requiring participants to draw the between these measures is therefore restricted to the narrow inter-
solution; e.g., the TCT-DP, Gralewski & Karwowski, 2012, or the section between O and TC. We therefore might expect that the
Test of Creative Imagery Ability, Jankowska & Karwowski, empirical relationship between creativity and academic achieve-
2015). The most popular divergent thinking tests (e.g., TTCT) can ment is constrained by the types of measures used to assess these
Americans of all ages, especially kindergarten through third grade,

the decline is steady and persistent, from 1990 to present, and
ranges across various components tested by the TTCT (p. 293).
When taking the full range of decades into account, the patterns
demonstrate more variability (including periods of gain, stagna-
tion, and decline). Moreover, the changes from one sampled time
period to the next are often (but not always) statistically signifi-
cant, and the magnitude of the effect varies from small to large
(depending on the particular component of the TTCT examined
and the time period tested).
Consequently, we expect that time period likely will have some
influence on the relationship between creativity and academic
achievement, but it is difficult to predict the direction or magnitude
of that difference. Our analysis will, however, allow us to examine

Figure 2. A visual representation of where creativity and academic
whether studies conducted across different time periods moderate

achievement tests place emphasis.
the relationship between creativity and academic achievement.
constructs. It is unclear, however, how various types of measure- Culture

ment used in previous studies affect the average relationship Finally, we expect culture to play a moderating role in the
between creativity and academic achievement. We therefore en- relationship between creativity and academic achievement. The
deavor to shed light on this moderating factor. direction and magnitude of that difference, however, are once
again difficult to predict. Researchers have noted that conceptual-
Education Stage izations of creativity can and do differ across cultures (Kaufman &
Education stage is another potentially moderating factor in the Sternberg, 2006; Rudowicz, 2003). Given that there is so much
relationship between creativity and academic achievement. Some variation within cultures (Freund & Holling, 2008; Gralewski &
of the earliest creativity research in classrooms was conducted by Karwowski, 2012), it is difficult to untangle the within variation
Torrance (1968), who documented what he called a fourth-grade from the between variation in previous work. As such, the present
slump (i.e., declines in creativity in the transition from third to study aims to help clarify whether and to what extent culture
fourth grade). Since that time, researchers have demonstrated moderates the relationship between creativity and academic
variability in creativity scores across stages of education. The achievement.
relationship between the imagination of children starting school
and their achievements, for instance, hardly exists at all, r .02 Method
(Karwowski & Dziedziewicz, 2012). However, as early as the fifth
grade, that relationship has been found to be more substantial, r Search Strategies
.23 (Jankowska, Gajda, & Karwowski, 2015; Karwowski, 2015).
In yet other studies, the relationship between creativity and We followed a three-step procedure to select the studies in-
achievement in elementary school students has been found to cluded in our meta-analysis. The first step was a review of articles
range between r .08 (Gajda, 2008) and r .39 (Awamleh, Al and research papers in English. We searched EBSCO, PsycExtra,
Farah, & El-Zraigat, 2012). Variations have also been found in Academic Search Complete, PsycInfo, PsycArticles, and ERIC
middle grades, r .18 (Rindermann & Neubauer, 2004) and high databases and used the resources of JSTOR, Science Direct, SAGE
school, ranging from r .12 (Kim & Michael, 1995) to r .21 Journals, Taylor & Francis, and ProQuest. In the next step, we
(Karwowski, 2005). analyzed book publications using three electronic libraries: Wiley
Although education stage seems to moderate the relationship Online Library and Questia, as well as Google Books.
between creativity and achievement, there is no clear pattern or We used the following search parameters to collect articles
direction that can be expected from previous findings. As such, the (keywords, abstracts, titles, and full text): academic achievement
present study aims to provide a more stable estimate of the influ- or school grades or school achievement or scholastic achieve-
ence of grade level on the relationship between creativity and ment or grade point average and creative ability or creativity or
academic achievement. divergent thinking. Finally, in the third step of our search proce-
dure, we explored whether any additional studies could be found
Decade by conducting a review of Polish-language periodicals devoted to
psychology and education. We chose Polish-language periodicals
As with education stage, there is prior empirical work suggest- because the first two authors had access to this literature and are
ing that decade may influence the relationship between creativity fluent in the language.
and academic achievement. Kim (2011) conducted one of the
largest cross-sectional studies (N 279,599) that examined the
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
pattern of creativity scores over six time periods (from 1966
2008). Kim summarized her findings by stating that creativity Our search yielded a total of 148 studies. We then applied the
scores, measured by the TTCT, are declining overtime among following selection criteria to those studies. First, we only consid-
ered studies that presented a quantitative measure of the strength of sured by tests used in the studies (i.e., overall indices of creative
the relationship between creativity and academic achievement, ability, fluency, flexibility, originality of thinking, and elabora-
even if the relationship between creativity and academic achieve- tion). With respect to academic achievement, we coded for how
ment was not the primary goal of the study. A total of 18 studies2 achievement was measured (i.e., GPA or achievement test) and
did not meet this first selection criterion and were eliminated from type of achievement measured (i.e., humanities, science, overall
the analysis. performance, sports).
Next, we only included studies if they used more objective Finally, we coded (a) education stage (i.e., elementary, middle
measures of creativity (e.g., TTCT) or self-report scales that dem- school, high school, college/university), (b) study year (i.e., the
onstrated adequate reliability, such as measures of creative per- year the study was conducted), and location (i.e., the country or
sonality (e.g., Naderi et al., 2009) or creative self-confidence continent where the study was conducted). We also included two
beliefs (e.g., Skager et al., 1967). This resulted in the elimination dichotomously coded control variables that might influence the
of four studies.3 With respect to academic achievement, we in- relationship between creativity and academic achievement. Those
cluded studies that used GPA (e.g., Chamorro-Premuzic, 2006), control variables included (a) goal of the study (i.e., primary
external examinations (e.g., Tan et al., 2014), and achievement purpose was examining the relationship between creativity and
tests created by researchers for the purpose of their study (e.g., academic achievement vs. another goal) and (b) publication status
Dobroowicz, 2002; Sethi, 2012). This resulted in the elimination
(i.e., published or unpublished study).
of one study that used students self-assessments of academic
achievement (Kaltsounis, 1974).
We also excluded two studies that used data presented in other Statistical Methods
publications, one study that used data previously published by a
different author, and two studies that used multilevel models. The When possible, we computed effect size using the values of
two studies that used multilevel models were excluded because correlation coefficients (r) and sample size (N). In a few studies,
they provided unstandardized regression coefficients that were however, we converted the effect value provided (e.g., , F, or 2)
inflated by the control of nesting students into classes and schools. to the value of the r correlation coefficient. To analyze main
Although values are sometimes translated into r values (Peterson effects, we used multilevel meta-analysis (Cheung, 2014, 2015;
& Brown, 2005), there is no widely accepted or robust procedure Konstantopoulos, 2011; Lebuda, Zabelina, & Karwowski, 2015),
for translating coefficients from multilevel models into standard- because individual correlations were clustered within studies. We
ized effect size for use in meta-analysis. carried out a three-level meta-analysis. Level 1 related to the
A total of 120 of the original 148 studies met our selection participants in individual studies, Level 2 to interdependent effects
criteria and were included in the analysis. Taken together, the within independent studies, and Level 3 to the studies themselves.
included studies had 782 effects with over 50,000 participants Three-level meta-analysis made it possible to obtain robust
(N 52,578). Participants had a mean age of 13.8 years (SD estimates of effect size, specifically unbiased estimates of standard
2.43) and attended elementary, middle, and high schools as well as errors, Level 2 (within-study) variance, and Level 3 (between-
colleges or universities. The studies were conducted between 1962 study) variance. Three-level meta-analysis was required because
and 2015, in various countries (including the United States, Euro- averaging the effects of individual studies would have significantly
pean countries, Asia, and Africa). Table 1 provides a detailed weakened the power of the entire analysis (we had 782 effects, but
overview of the studies included in the meta-analysis. these were drawn from 120 studies) and would not have allowed us
to estimate the influence of various moderators (as these were
Coding Procedures attributed to specific effects rather than studies).
The first two authors independently coded each article for

2
relevant information, including sample size, sample selection, ef- Those 18 studies focused on analyzing the theory of positive disinte-
fect size, and information necessary for the moderator analyses gration (Gallagher, 1985); the effectiveness of training influences
(Blumen-Pardo, 2002; Cheung, Roskams, & Fisher, 2006; Malekian &
(i.e., measures of creativity and academic achievement, partici- Fathi, 2012; Yorke-Viney, 2007); the analysis of success in teaching
pants age and stage of education, date and location of publica- (Hodder, 1972); the analysis of the relationship of sibling structure with
tion). Next, we reviewed the coded data and articles, as well as creativity, intelligence, and academic achievement (Cicirelli, 1967); inves-
discussed and resolved any discrepancies to help eliminate errors tigating the predictors of entrepreneurship (Farzaneh et al., 2010); seeking
various predictors of academic achievement (Childs, 1978; Muhich, 1972;
in coding. Owen, Feldhusen, & Thurston, 1970; Richards & Casey, 1975; Yamamoto,
1964); analyzing the relationship between parenting style, perfectionism,
and creativity in talented individuals with high academic achievement
Moderators (Miller, Lambert, & Speirs Neumeister, 2012); the teachers perception of
creativity, intelligence, and academic achievement (Mayfield, 1979); the
For each study included in our analysis, we coded for the key
measurement of creativity, intelligence, and academic achievement (Eisen-
moderators of interest. With respect to type of measurement, we man, Platt, & Darbes, 1968); analyzing the reliability and validity of
coded the type of creativity measure used in the study (i.e., creative ideational originality (Runco & Albert, 1985); and creativity in exact
ability test or self-report questionnaire). We distinguished between sciences (Son, 2009).
3
different types of creativity tests, including tests based on Guil- Those four studies included a single self-report question from a ques-
tionnaire as a measure of creativity (Unal & Demir, 2009), judges rating
fords theory, the TCT-DP by Urban and Jellen, the TTCT, and of participants with low-reliability products (Hasirci & Demirkan, 2007;
other instruments (e.g., Remote Associates Test; Mednick, 1963). Priest, 2006), and a questionnaire completed by the teacher concerning
We also coded the different dimensions of creative ability mea- students creativity level (Baltzer, 1988).
Table 1 6
The Subjects of the Studies Included in the Meta-Analysis
No. of
No. Study Aim of the study Type of publication Creativity measure Achievement measure N r effects School Country Year
1 Cline, Richards, & The reliability of Journal article Guilford Tests of GPA 161 .32 12 high school United States 1962
Abe, 1962 creativity test Divergent Thinking
batteries
2 Mednick, 1963 The creativity of Journal article Creativity Rating Scale GPA 21 .03 2 college/university United States 1963
psychology students Remote Associations Test
3 Cline, Richards, & Creativity and Journal article Guilford Tests of GPA 119 .30 14 high school United States 1963
Needham, 1963 achievement tests in Divergent Thinking
school education
4 DeBoer, 1964 The relationship of Unpublished dissertation Getzels, Jackson Creative The Iowa Test of Basic 277 .51 5 elementary, middle United States 1964
creativity with Thinking Tasks Skills and high school
intelligence and
academic
achievement
5 Karnes, Zehrbach, The intellectual Unpublished study TTCT SAT 203 .32 4 elementary United States 1963
Studley, & functioning of
Wright, 1965 children with high
potential from
culturally threatened
communities
6 Ohnmacht, 1966 Academic achievement, Journal article Getzels and Jackson SAT 204 .56 18 elementary United States 1966
anxiety, and creative Creative Thinking
thinking Tasks: 2. Uses for
Things
7 Yamamoto & Academic achievement, Journal article Minnesota Tests of SAT 790 .22 9 elementary United States 1966
Chimbidis, 1966 intelligence, and Creative Thinking
creative thinking
8 Bentley, 1966 Creativity and Journal article Test of Imagination GPA 75 .34 1 college/university United States 1966
academic The-Ask-and-Guess Test
achievement
9 Klein, Skager, & Measures of artistic Journal article Hidden Figures GPA 92 .02 3 college/university United States 1966
Erlebacher, 1966 creativity and Thurstone
flexibility of Complex Space Pitcher
thinking
GAJDA, KARWOWSKI, AND BEGHETTO
10 Dowd, 1966 The relationship Unpublished study Guilford Tests of Scholastic Aptitude Test 417 .16 18 college/university United States 1966
between creative Divergent Thinking
thinking and
academic success
11 Yamamoto, 1967 Creativity and Journal article Minnesota Tests of Iowa Tests of Educational 159 .04 18 high school United States 1967
unpredictability as Creative Thinking Development
related to academic
achievement
12 Skager, Klein, & Predicting academic Journal article Self-Ratings of Creativity GPA 357 .27 7 college/university United States 1967
Schultz, 1967 and artistic Symbol Production Task
achievement Controlled Associations
Task
Alternate Uses Task
13 Graves, Ingersoll, & The creative medicine Journal article Opinion, Attitude and Medical College 150 .03 5 college/university United States 1967
Evans, 1967 student: a descriptive Interest Survey Admissions Test
study
14 Mednick & Creative thinking and Journal article Remote Associations Test Scholastic Aptitude Test 1,211 .32 2 college/university United States 1967
Andrews, 1967 the level of
intelligence
(table continues)
Table 1 (continued)
No. of
15 Hetrick, Lilly, & Figural creativity, Journal article Gulamerian Flexibility Iowa Achievement Test 196 .06 4 elementary United States 1968
Merrifield, 1968 intelligence, and and Originality tests GPA
childrens
personality
16 Wade, 1968 Differences between Journal article Guilford Tests of GPA 105 .35 3 high school United States 1968
intelligence and Divergent Thinking
creativity:
suppositions
concerning the role
of the environment
17 Tibbetts, 1968 Socioeconomic status, Unpublished dissertation Getzels and Jackson GPA 258 .42 2 high school United States 1968
race, gender, IQ, Creativity Test
age, and GPA
among adolescents
18 Bowers, 1969 Interactions between Journal article TTCT, verbal & figural GPA 278 .26 40 middle-school United States 1969
creativity and Iowa Tests of Educational
intelligence Development
19 Anderson, White, & Creativity, intelligence, Journal article The Utility Test GPA 197 .03 2 high school United States 1969
Stevens, 1969 students The Apparatus Test Language Test CAT
achievement, and The Plot Titles Test
behavior
20 Kanderian, 1969 The relationship Unpublished dissertation Divergent Thinking Test GPA 304 .05 3 elementary Iraq 1969
between academic
achievement,
creativity, and
intelligence
21 Gluskinos, 1971 Types of students Journal article AC Test for Creative GPA 314 .02 11 college/university United States 1971
creativity and their Ability
relationship with The Purdue Creativity
academic grades Test
Guilfords Divergent
production
22 Feldhusen, The relationship Journal article TTCT, verbal & figural GPA 356 .11 112 elementary and United States 1971
Treffinger, Van between school high school
Mondfrans, & grades and the level
CREATIVITY AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
Ferris, 1971 of creative thinking

23 Wagner, 1972 Time-bound and non- Unpublished dissertation Wallach and Wing Test GPA 131 .13 16 high school United States 1972
time-bound measures
of creativity and
their correlates
24 Stallings & The relationship Unpublished study TTCT, figural GPA 292 .06 8 college/university United States 1972
Gillmore, 1972 between nonverbal ACT
creativity and grades
25 Kaltsounis & Arithmetical Journal article TCT, verbal & figural Seeing Through Arithmetic 196 .22 5 elementary United States 1973
Stephens, 1973 achievement and Tests
creativity
26 Porter, 1974 Race, socialization, and Journal article Getzels and Jackson GPA 15,326 .22 2 high school United States 1974
mobility in Unusual Uses
education and early Creativity Test
professional TTCT
achievement
(table continues)
7
8
Table 1 (continued)
No. of
27 Joesting, 1975 Creativity and school Journal article Torrances Creative Achievement Test 133 .16 10 college/university United States 1975
grades, school Motivation Inventory
activities, and Khatena-Torrance What GPA
students attendance Kind of Person Are
You?
28 Marjoribanks, 1976 Regression analyses: Journal article Adaptation of Torrance GPA 450 .41 18 middle-school United States 1976
academic and Guilford Tests of
achievement, Divergent Thinking
intelligence, and
creativity
29 Rodriguez, 1980 The influence of Unpublished dissertation Divergent Thinking Comprehensive Test of 188 .05 4 elementary United States 1980
creativity training on Structure of Intellect Basic Skills
academic Learning Abilities Test
achievement and (SOILAT)
creative thinking
30 Wdz, 1981 Students creative Journal article Wallach Kogan GPA 60 .24 1 elementary Poland 1981
talents and their Creativity Test
academic
achievement
31 Stiles, 1982 Correlates of creativity Unpublished dissertation TTCT, verbal & figural GPA 68 .14 8 college/university United States 1982
among students
32 Jackson, 1982 The relationship of Unpublished dissertation TTCT Comprehensive Test of 76 .30 4 elementary United States 1982
cognitive abilities Basic Skills
with intelligence and Prescriptive Reading Test
academic Prescriptive Mathematics
achievement Test
33 Westcott, 1983 Signature humor as an Unpublished dissertation TTCT, figural The Iowa Tests of Basic 62 .43 6 high school United States 1983
alternative in the Skills
identification of GPA
creative and talented
students
34 Toll, 1985 The relationship Unpublished dissertation New Uses Test Gates-Mac Ginitie Reading 105 .24 3 elementary United States 1985
between Guilfords Seeing Different Test scores
tests and reading Meanings Test
comprehension Judging Object
Adaptations Test
35 Janes, 1988 The relationship Unpublished dissertation TTCT, figural GPA 209 .09 4 high school United States 1988
between creativity
test scores and
receiving awards and
school grades
36 Orieux, 1989 Correlates of creative Unpublished dissertation The Creative Activities GPA 157 .40 4 high school United States 1989
abilities and Checklist
achievement in high Guilford Tests of
schools Divergent Thinking
37 McCabe, 1991 The influence of Journal article TTCT, verbal & figural GPA 210 .20 21 middle-school United States 1991
creativity and
unpredictability on
academic
achievement
38 Guastello, Bzdawka, Cognitive abilities and Journal article CAB 5 GPA 144 .18 5 college/university United States 1992
Guastello, & creative behavior The Remote
Rieke, 1992 Consequences Test
39 Popov, 1992 Creativity and reading Journal article Guilford Tests of Reading Comprehension 63 .38 10 college/university Russia 1992
comprehension Divergent Thinking Test
(table continues)
Table 1 (continued)
No. of
40 Kim & Michael, The relationship of Journal article TTCT, verbal & figural GPA 193 .12 5 high school Korea 1995
1995 creativity with
academic
achievement and the
preferred style of
thinking
41 Auzmendi, Villa, & The validity and Journal article Abedi-Schumacher GPA 2,264 .14 24 no data Spain 1996
Abedi, 1996 reliability of an Creativity Test
instrument for
measuring creativity
42 Johns & Morse, Divergent thinking Journal article The Alternative Uses GPA 79 .28 3 college/university United States 1997
1997 Test (Based on
Guilford and Wallach,
Kogan tests)
43 Simpson, 1998 The relationship of Unpublished dissertation TTCT, figural The Texas Learning Index 71 .14 2 elementary United States 1998
academic The Texas Assessment of
achievement with Academic Skills
intelligence,
creativity,
motivation, and
gender identification
44 Niaz, Nez, & Students academic Journal article TTCT, figural GPA 141 .16 32 high school Venezuela 2000
Pineda, 2000 achievement as an
effect of mental
abilities, cognitive
style, fixation vs.
mobility dimensions,
and creativity
45 Diakidoy & Creativity in physics: Journal article Three Open Tasks GPA 54 .11 4 college/university Greece 2000
Constantinou, the fluency of
2001 answers and the
specificity of tasks
46 Gollmar, 2000 Attention-deficit Unpublished dissertation TTCT GPA 179 .08 20 elementary United States 2000
hyperactivity Iowa Test of Basic Skills
disorder, creativity,
and cognitive styles:
interactions and
effect on school
success
47 Clapham, 2001 The effect of Journal article TTCT GPA 148 .14 1 college/university United States 2001
information
manipulation and
exposure on
divergent thinking
48 Dobroowicz, 2002 Students creativity and Book Modified Guilford Tests School Achievement Tests 445 .28 9 elementary Poland 2002
their academic of Divergent Thinking
achievement
49 Grzelak, 2003 Creative and imitative Unpublished thesis Creative Behavior GPA 200 .06 1 high school Poland 2003
attitudes and Questionnaire
academic
achievement in
third-grade high
school students
(table continues)
9
10
Table 1 (continued)
No. of
50 Chamorro-Premuzic Personality and the Journal article The Barron-Welsh Art GPA 70 .07 2 college/university Great Britain 2003
& Furnham, 2003 prediction of Scale
academic
achievement
51 Cheung, Rudowicz, The influence of the Journal article Alternate Uses Test GPA 859 .09 6 college/university China 2003
Yue, & Kwan, year of study on Guilford
2003 university students
creativity
52 Zhang, 2004 School performance Journal article Sternberg Triarchic GPA 250 .28 16 middle-school Hong Kong 2004
prediction styles Abilities Test
53 Yeh, 2004 Academic achievement, Journal article The Alternative Uses GPA 69 .66 3 middle-school Taiwan 2004
creativity, and mind- Test by WU
mapping ability
54 Rindermann & Processing speed, Journal article Verbaler Kreativity-Test GPA 271 .18 8 middle and high Germany 2004
Neubauer, 2004 intelligence, Verwendungs Test school
creativity, and
school performance
55 Clapham, 2004 The reliability of the Journal article How Creative Are You? SAT 145 .18 8 college/university United States 2004
TTCT test battery How Do You Think? ACT
and self-report
56 Karwowski, 2005 The school Journal article Urban, Jellen TCT-DP GPA 194 .20 1 high school Poland 2005
performance and
creativity of students
perceived by
teachers as different
in terms of abilities
57 Uszynska-Jarmoc, Types of thinking and Journal article Urban, Jellen TCT-DP GPA 167 .10 2 elementary Poland 2005
2005 the academic
achievement of 7-
year-olds
58 Al-Dhobaiban, 2005 The relationship Unpublished dissertation Test Your Creativity GPA 219 .15 2 college/university United States 2005
between self- Level Scale
regulation and Khatena Torrance
creativity Creativity Perception

Inventory
59 Stankiewicz, 2006 The talented student in Unpublished thesis Urban, Jellen TCT-DP GPA 79 .19 1 high school Poland 2006
the teachers eyes
60 Chamorro-Premuzic, Creativity and Journal article Christensen Alternate GPA 307 .19 3 college/university Great Britain 2006
2006 conscientiousness: Uses Test
which of the
variables is a better
predictor of a
students
achievement?
61 Sternberg, 2006 Enhancing the SAT Journal article Sternberg Triarchic GPA 777 .40 2 college/university United States 2006
through assessments Abilities Test
of analytical,
practical, and
creative skills
62 Arseniuk, 2007 Creativity differences Unpublished thesis Urban, Jellen TCT-DP GPA 130 .24 1 high school Poland 2007
and disability
(table continues)
Table 1 (continued)
No. of
63 Freund, Holling, & The relationship Journal article Berlin Structure of GPA 1,135 .38 3 middle-school Germany 2007
Preckel, 2007 between cognitive Intelligence Test for
abilities and Youth: Assessment of
academic Talent and Giftedness
achievement
64 Wang, 2007 Teaching, learning, and Unpublished dissertation Abbreviated Torrance Entrance Examinations 216 .27 3 college/university United States 2007
creativity in Taiwan Test for Adults CBEST
and the United
States
65 Wasil, 2008 The students creativity Unpublished thesis Urban, Jellen TCT-DP GPA 30 .20 2 high school Poland 2008
as related to his or
her grades and
position in the
teachers eyes
66 Dabrowska, 2008 Creative abilities, Unpublished thesis Urban, Jellen TCT-DP GPA 75 .10 1 middle-school Poland 2008
school performance,
and motivation type
as related to
interpersonal
attractiveness
67 Gajda, 2008 The accuracy of Unpublished thesis Urban, Jellen TCT-DP GPA 90 .08 1 elementary Poland 2008
teachers
nominations and the
actual level of
students creative
abilities
68 Hirsh & Peterson, The prediction of Journal article Creative Achievement GPA 98 .01 1 college/university Canada 2008
2008 creativity using an Questionnaire
instrument connected
with personality
traits
69 Palaniappan & The influence of Journal article TTCT, figural GPA 72 .17 8 high school Malaysia 2008
Persekutuan, intelligence on the
2008 relationship between
creativity and
academic
achievement
70 Sternberg, 2007 Improving school- Journal article Sternberg Triarchic GPA 793 .50 4 college/university United States 2008
related skills by Abilities Test Scholastic Assessment Test
diversifying the (Writing and Math)
goals to be achieved SAT
71 Silvia, 2008 Creativity and Journal article Guilford Tests of School and College Ability 151 .25 1 elementary United States 2008
intelligence: a latent Divergent Thinking Test
variable analysis by Sequential Tests of
Wallach and Kogan Educational Progress
72 Zielinska, 2009 The significant others Unpublished thesis Urban, Jellen TCT-DP GPA 115 .07 1 high school Poland 2009
of young people
with different levels
of creativity
73 Tkaczyk, 2009 Conflict resolution Unpublished thesis Urban, Jellen TCT-DP GPA 209 .18 1 middle-school Poland 2009
styles and selected
aspects of middle
school students
creativity
(table continues)
11
12
Table 1 (continued)
No. of
74 Karwowski, Lebuda, Creative abilities and Journal article Urban, Jellen TCT-DP GPA 1,316 .11 2 middle and high Poland 2009
& Wisniewska, styles as predictors school
20082009 of school success
75 Naderi, Abdullah, Creativity, age, and Journal article Khatena-Torrance GPA 153 .16 1 college/university Iran 2009
Aizan, Sharir, & gender as predictors Creative Perception
Kumar, 2009 of students Inventory
academic
achievement
76 Karwowski, Ciak, & The accuracy of Book chapter Urban, Jellen TCT-DP GPA 94 .12 3 high school Poland 2009
Grubek, 2009 teachers Creative Behavior
nominations in Questionnaire
recognizing students
creativity
77 Mann, 2009 The identification of Journal article Creative Abilities in Connecticut Mastery Tests 89 .48 1 middle-school United States 2009
creative potential in Mathematics Test
middle school
students
78 Bierly, Kolodinsky, The relationship Journal article Creativity Scale based on GPA 899 .04 1 college/university United States 2009
& Charette, 2009 between creativity Kirton and Robinson
and ethical theories
ideologies
79 Olatoye, Akintunde, Emotional intelligence, Journal article Nicola Holt Creativity GPA 235 .00 1 college/university Nigeria 2010
& Yakasai, 2010 creativity, and Test: The Creative
students academic Cognition Inventory
achievement
80 Day, Hanson, Hope as a predictor of Journal article Gilford Tests of GPA 129 .31 1 college/university Great Britain 2010
Maltby, Proctor, academic personality Divergent Thinking
& Wood, 2010 and academic
achievement
81 Vijetha & Jangaiah, Intelligence, creative Journal article Baqer Mehdi Nonverbal GPA 50 .07 4 elementary India 2010
2010 thinking, and Test of Creativity
academic
achievement in
children with
hearing disorders
82 Kousoulas, 2010 The interrelations Journal article Two Open Tasks Achievement Test 115 .26 12 elementary Greece 2010
between creative GPA
behavior, divergent
thinking, and
knowledge during
students creative
expression at the
time of learning
83 Sak & Maker, 2006 The developmental Journal article DISCOVER (based on Mathematical Knowledge 297 .38 2 elementary United States 2010
differentiation of Guilford Divergent DISCOVER
mathematical Thinking Tests)
creative thinking in
children depending
on age, education,
and the level of
knowledge
(table continues)
Table 1 (continued)
No. of
84 Dhatrak & Wanjari, The relations between Journal article Verbal Test of Creative GPA 500 .05 1 high school India 2011
2011 school attitude, Thinking Baqer Mehdi
creativity, and
academic
achievement
85 Pishghadam, Creativity and learning Journal article Arjomand Creativity GPA 272 .36 1 college/university Iran 2011
Khodadady, & foreign languages Questionnaire
Zabihi, 2011
86 Dollinger, 2011 Recruitment tests and Journal article Hocevar Creative ACT 433 .17 4 college/university United States 2011
creativity Behavior Inventory
87 Dziedziewicz & Creativity and Unpublished study Urban, Jellen TCT-DP GPA 362 .29 2 middle-school Poland 2011
Gajda, 2011 academic 3-grade and 6-grade
achievement in Achievement Tests
middle school
88 Petrulyte, 2011 Creativity and Journal article TTCT GPA 140 .24 1 high school Lithuania 2011
academic Asmenybes Kurybiskumo
achievement in Klausimynas
students of arts
89 Vock, Preckel, & Intellectual abilities and Journal article Berlin Structure of GPA 1,135 .38 3 high school Germany 2011
Holling, 2011 academic Intelligence Test for
achievement: Youth: Assessment of
analysis of mediators Talent and Giftedness
90 Ofili, 2011 Do multicultural Unpublished thesis Creative Achievement GPA 122 .16 1 college/university United States 2011
experiences and Questionnaire
biculturalism
enhance students
creativity?
91 Hansenne & Creativity, emotional Journal article TTCT GPA 73 .20 14 elementary Belgium 2012
Legrand, 2012 intelligence, and
academic
achievement in
students
92 Pirkowska, 2012 The dynamics of Unpublished thesis Urban, Jellen TCT-DP GPA 107 .17 1 high school Poland 2012
strategic behaviors
in learning and their
associations with
creative abilities
93 Sethi, 2012 Investigating Journal article Verbal Test of Creative Mathematics Achievement 700 .26 3 high school India 2012
performance in math Thinking Baqer Mehdi Test for 9th Class
in relation to the
creativity of high
school students
94 Anwar, Aness, The relationship Journal article TTCT GPA 256 .46 4 high school Pakistan 2012
Khizar, Naseer, between creative
& Muhammad, thinking and
2012 students academic
achievement
95 Awamleh, Al Farah, Creativity level Journal article TTCT GPA 63 .39 4 elementary Jordan 2012
& El-Zraigat, measured using the
2012 TTCT
96 Putwain, Kearsley, Creative self-awareness Journal article Abedi Test of Creativity Achievement Test 122 .23 4 middle-school Great Britain 2012
& Symes, 2012 as related to literary
achievement and
motivation
(table continues)
13
Table 1 (continued)
14
No. of
97 Karwowski & Correlations between Book Creative Imagery Test of Skills at School 1,096 .02 12 nursery and Poland 2012
Dziedziewicz, creative imagination Abilities Test Beginning elementary
2012 and skills at the
beginning of school
98 Walia, 2012 The relationship Journal article Balka Creative Ability in Sessional Assessment in 180 .66 3 middle-school India 2012
between Mathematics Test Mathematics Test
achievement and
mathematical
creativity
99 Tatlah, Aslam, Ali, The role of intelligence Journal article Nicola Holt Creativity GPA 235 .03 1 college/university Pakistan 2012
& Iqbal, 2012 and creativity in Test: The Creative
academic Cognition Inventory
achievement
100 Dai et al., 2012 The influence of social Journal article Four-item creativity test GPA 229 .35 2 middle-school United States 2012
environment and
education conditions
on creativity in
adolescence
101 Ibrahim, 2012 The relationship Unpublished dissertation TTCT GPA 85 .03 7 college/university United States 2012
between creativity,
engineering,
knowledge, and
design
102 Gajda, 2013 Creativity and Unpublished dissertation Urban, Jellen TCT-DP GPA 384 .16 1 elementary Poland 2013
academic
achievement,
elementary schools
103 Karwowski, 2013a Creativity and Unpublished study Urban, Jellen TCT-DP GPA 392 .14 1 no data Poland 2013
academic
achievement
104 Karwowski, 2013b Creativity and Unpublished study Urban, Jellen TCT-DP GPA 113 .03 1 no data Poland 2013
academic
achievement
105 Dziedziewicz, 2013 Creativity and learning Unpublished study Creative Imagery GPA 238 .14 1 college/university Poland 2013
styles Abilities Test
106 Mitrofanow, 2013 Creative imagination Unpublished thesis Creative Imagination Test GPA 140 .12 3 college/university Poland 2013
and academic by Kujawski
achievement
107 Ritchie, Luciano, The relationship Journal article Queensland Core Skills Reading and Spelling Test 855 .32 1 no data Australia 2013
Hansell, Wright, between reading- Test: create and Core
& Bates, 2013 related skills and present scores
creativity
108 Gralewski & Students gender and Journal article Creative Activity in GPA 589 .05 5 high school Poland 2013
Karwowski, 2013 the accuracy of Science
teachers creativity Creative Activity in Arts
nominations Urban Jellen TCT-DP
Creative Behavior
Questionnaire
109 Lovelace & Hunter, The influence of Journal article Divergent Thinking Test SAT 336 .03 4 college/university United States 2013
2013 charismatic of Fluency (Baer,
ideological and 1993)
pragmatic leaders on
the creative process
and the products of
creativity
(table continues)
Table 1 (continued)
No. of
110 Matthew & Stemler, The assessment of the Journal article Abbreviated Torrance SAT 299 .17 5 college/university United States 2013
2013 flexibility of Test for Adults
thinking based on a
new word
recognition test
111 Tan, Mourgues, Two methods of Journal article Cartoon Numbers is a Key Stage 2 Exam Tests 205 .66 2 elementary Great Britain 2013
Bolden, & scoring creativity in subtest of the Aurora MidYIS (Middle Years
Grigorenko, 2014 the Aurora test Battery Information System)
112 Zabelina, Condon, The relationship of Journal article Abbreviated Torrance ACT 100 .11 2 college/university United States 2014
& Beeman, 2014 psychopathology Test for Adults
with creative Creative Achievement SAT
achievement and Questionnaire
creative thinking
113 Chooi, Long, & Sternberg Triarchic Journal article Sternberg Triarchic GPA 260 .37 3 college/university United States 2014
Thompson, 2014 Abilities Test as an Abilities Test
instrument for
measuring
intelligence
114 Szumski & Investigating the Unpublished study Divergent Thinking Tests Achievement Tests 1,611 .25 2 middle-school Poland 2014
Karwowski, 2014 influence of students (Mathematics and
with special Language)
educational needs on
the functioning of
their healthy peers
115 Karwowski & Effects of intraclass Unpublished study Guilford Tests of Achievement Tests 3,312 .24 4 middle-school Poland 2014
Szumski, 2014 comparisons Divergent Thinking (Mathematics and
Language)
116 Hunter & Examining the role of Journal article Guilford Tests of GPA 201 .06 6 college/university United States 2015
Cushenbery, disagreeableness in Divergent Thinking Scholastic Assessment Test
2015 the sharing and (Writing and Math)
utilization of original SAT
ideas
117 Wallace & Russ, Pretended play, Journal article Wallach, Kogan Test of AIMS Web Achievement 24 .54 5 elementary United States 2015
2015 divergent thinking, Creative Thinking Scores Test

and mathematical
achievement
118 Pretz & Kaufman, University admission Journal article Creative Self-Efficacy Scholastic Assessment Test 363 .04 12 college/university United States 2015
in press criteria and (Writing and Math)
applicants creativity Guilford Tests of SAT
Divergent Thinking
119 Jankowska, Gajda, The determinants of Journal article Creative Imagery Mathematic Achievement 5,174 .21 4 elementary Poland 2015
& Karwowski, education efficiency Abilities Test Test
2015 Language Achievement
Test
120 Roke & Ka lis, 2015 The relationship Journal article Urban, Jellen TCT-DP GPA 180 .27 15 middle-school Lithuania 2015
between academic
achievement and
creativity
Note. GPA grade point average; TTCT Torrance Test of Creative Thinking; SAT Stanford Achievement Tests; ACT American College Testing; CAB 5 Comprehensive Ability Battery;
TCT-DP Test of Creative ThinkingDrawing Production; CBEST California Basic Educational Skills Test.
15
The multilevel meta-analysis was conducted using the meta-

SEM package (Cheung, 2014, 2015) in the R statistical environ-
ment (R Development Core Team, 2013). When analyzing the
effect of publication bias, we also used the Comprehensive Meta-
Analysis package (Biostat, 2008), the metafor package in R
(Viechtbauer, 2010), and p-curve (Simonsohn, Nelson, & Sim-
mons, 2014).
Results
We present the results of the meta-analysis in three steps. First,
we present a general estimation of the effect size obtained in the
multilevel model and in the random-effects model. Next, we
analyze the potential influence of publication bias, which helps

determine the robustness of the obtained effect size. Finally, in

further multilevel models, we present the results of our moderator Figure 3. A funnel plot assessing the possible publication bias.
analyses.
Overall Effect to be regularly suppressed by the effects on the other side). This
Table 2 presents the overall effect of the relationship between pattern suggests a lack of publication bias (although such an
creativity and academic achievement. The obtained mean effect interpretation is based more on a qualitative judgment, rather than
size was consistent with our expectations. More specifically, there strict statistical rules).
was a positive and statistically significant, albeit modest, relation- To assist with the interpretation of the funnel plot, research-
ship: r .22, 95% CI [.19, .24].4 As expected, this effect was also ers conducting meta-analyses often include statistical analysis.
heterogeneous, Q(df 781) 9,481.65, p .001. Both within- We used Eggers regression intercept test (Egger, Davey Smith,
study variance (between particular effects) and between-study Schneider, & Minder, 1997). Based on the random effects
variance were statistically significant, with most of the variance model, assessing funnel plot asymmetry, and Begg and Mazum-
being between (I2 .62) rather than within studies (I2 .30).5 dar (1994) rank correlation test (nonsignificant ps .42 and
Prior to examining the influence of moderators, however, we .30, respectively), we concluded there was no evidence of
examined to what extent the obtained effect may be influenced by publication bias.
publication bias. We next performed a p-curve analysis7 (Simonsohn et al., 2014)
to examine the credibility of the estimate using the online appli-
Publication Bias cation available at http://www.p-curve.com/. The results of the
p-curve analysis (see Figure 4) provided no evidence of a file-
We analyzed the robustness of the obtained effect size by
examining whether it was influenced by publication bias. We used
4
a four-step process that included both classic and more recent Robustness check performed using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis
software (Biostat, 2008) on averaged effects for studies revealed the
methods of analysis. First, we used a funnel plot (Duval & existence of an identical relationship. Due to high heterogeneity (Q
Tweedie, 2000) with several nonparametric techniques to estimate 892.61, df 119, p .001, I2 86.67%), we performed analyses using
possible bias. We next used a p-curve analysis (Simonsohn et al., the random-effects model, in which we obtained a mean correlation of r
2014) and then estimated the effect of using PET-PEESE6 (Stanley .22, 95% CI [.19, .24], and a high degree of heterogeneity, 2 .015,
.12.
& Doucouliagos, 2014). Finally, we compared effect sizes ob- 5
The relatively low within-study variance compared to between-study
tained in published versus unpublished studies. variance suggests that an equally good analytic choice could have been
An inspection of the funnel plot (see Figure 3) does not suggest meta-analysis using the random-effects method on data aggregated to the
asymmetry (i.e., correlations on one side of the funnel do not seem level of individual studies. However, we chose multilevel analysis per-
formed at the level of individual correlations (with correlation grouping in
studies controlled for), because some of the possible moderators clearly
had a within-study character (e.g., the operationalization of creative abil-
Table 2 ities as the fluency, flexibility, and originality of thinking).
Overall Effect Size Obtained Using Three-Level Meta-Analysis 6
This method fits a meta-regression model predicting effect sizes in
studies by their variances (the precision effect test, called PET) or their
95% CI standard errors (the precision effect estimate with standard errors, called
PEESE). If the intercept is statistically significant in the PET model, the
Effects Estimate SE LL UL p
PEESE model should be taken into account as the publication biasfree
Fixed effect effect size.
7
Overall effect .215 .015 .187 .244 .001 The p-curve analysis focuses only on statistically significant studies
Random effects (i.e., all effects below significance level are excluded) and checks whether
Within-study variance .010 .001 .008 .011 .001 just significant effects (i.e., slightly lower than p .05 or between p
Between-study variance .020 .003 .013 .026 .001 .04 and p .05) are not overrepresented in the analyzed studies. Such
overrepresentation may be caused not only by publication bias but also by
Note. Number of studies 120, number of effects 782, total N cherry-picking, p-hacking, or other questionable research practices
52,578. CI confidence interval; LL lower limit; UL upper limit. (Simonsohn et al., 2014).
Figure 4. The p-curve analysis of publication bias. (A) The p-curve analysis and (B) its robustness. See the
online article for the color version of this figure.
drawer effect (i.e., most studies provided highly significant represent estimations obtained using the analysis of variance
sults) and there was also no overrepresentation of just significant (ANOVA) analog (Wilson, 2014), performed at the study level.
effects (i.e., slightly lower than p .05 or between p .04 and Although not as statistically robust as multilevel models, the
p .05; Figure 4A). Even more important, p-curve analysis ANOVA analog analysis provides estimated effects for different
demonstrated that the obtained effects were quite robust and in- groups of studies in a more convenient and easier to interpret
sensitive to the exclusion of subsequent studies with the highest p fashion.
values (Figure 4B). Types of measurement and study year. In the first step, we
Moreover, the continuous test for a right-skewed curve (i.e., entered three moderators representing the measurement of creativ-
examining whether studies contain evidential value) was statisti-
ity (0 self-report, 1 test), academic achievement (0 test, 1
cally significant (z 30.78, p .0001), whereas testing for
GPA), and study year (grand centered). We also included two
left-skewed studies (i.e., those that exhibit evidence of p-hacking)
control variables in Step 1: research objective (0 other, 1
did not yield significant results (p .999). Taken together, the
creativityachievement) and publication status (0 unpublished,
results of our p-curve analysis provided further evidence that there
was not an influence of publication bias. 1 published).
The third step in the analysis of publication bias was the This model demonstrated better fit to the data (2LL 813.61,
creation of a model based on the PET-PEESE method. Because df 8, 2LL 18.69, df 5, p .002) compared to our baseline
the intercept obtained using PET was statistically significant model. The results are presented in Table 3.
(r .219, SE .016, p .001), we adopted the intercept As displayed in Table 3, the predictors entered in the model
obtained based on PEESE as a measure of effect size not explained 11% of between-study variance and 2.2% of within-
affected by publication bias, as recommended by Stanley and study variance. The obtained effects were stronger when cre-
Doucouliagos (2014). The obtained effect was nearly the same ativity was measured using tests compared to when it was
as the results reported before (i.e., r .215, 95% CI [.192, measured using self-report scales, as well as stronger for aca-
.239], p .001), which also suggests no evidence of publica- demic achievement measured using standardized tests com-
tion bias. pared to using GPA. With respect to study year, there was no
Finally, the results of comparing the effects obtained in pub- significant influence on the obtained effect size, suggesting that
lished, r .23, 95% CI [.20, .27], versus unpublished studies, r the correlations were stable across time (see Figure 5). Finally,
.19, 95% CI [.15, .22], revealed a marginal difference in favor of the two control variables (i.e., research objective and publica-
published studies (Q 3.86; df 1, p .05), but the similar size tion status) were not significantly related to effect size.
of the estimated effects and the overlapping confidence intervals In the second step, we removed nonsignificant predictors
make it legitimate to conclude that publication bias did not sub- from the model (research objective, publication status, study
stantively influence our estimations. year) and added variables specifying the location of study (with
Europe as the reference value) and type of achievement mea-
Moderator Analysis sured (i.e., performance in the humanities, in sciences, and
We analyzed the role of moderators in a sequence of multilevel overall performance, with sport as the reference value). This
regression models and used the measures of the baseline models model did not fit the data significantly better than the previous
fit (2LL 794.92, df 3) obtained in our analysis of the model (2LL 819.37, df 13, 2LL 5.76, df 5,
overall effect to compare models with moderators included as p .33). Given that these additional moderators did not influ-
predictors. This approach allowed us to control for the mutual ence the obtained effects, our results indicate that the relation-
associations between predictors. At the end of this section, we also ship between creativity and achievement was stable regardless
Table 3
Moderator Analysis: Types of Measurement and Study Year
95% CI
Fixed effects
Intercept .119 .040 .041 .198 .003
Creativity measurement (0 self-report, 1 test) .097 .028 .042 .153 .001
Academic achievement measurement (0 test, 1 GPA) .039 .018 .074 .004 .03
Study year (grand centered) .0002 .001 .001 .002 .76
Goal (0 other, 1 creativity achievement) .003 .029 .060 .054 .91
Published? (0 no, 1 yes) .054 .030 .005 .114 .07
Random effects
Within-study variance .009 .001 .008 .011 .001
Between-study variance .018 .003 .012 .023 .001

Note. Number of studies 120, number of effects 782, total N 52,578. CI confidence interval; LL
lower limit; UL upper limit; GPA grade point average.
of location8 where the study was conducted and regardless of previously tested model (2LL 681.35, df 8; 2LL
domain of achievement examined. Moreover, given that these 4.65, df 5; p .46). Moreover, the various aspects of creative
additional moderators were not significant, we do not provide ability (fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration) did not differ
detailed results of Step 2 of the analysis (but interested readers from the reference category in terms of the effect size generated
can find those results in the online supplemental material Table (see the online supplemental material Table S3).
S1). Next, we examined whether the verbal or figural characteristics
Education stage. The next step took into account the possi- of the creativity test resulted in different obtained effects. For this
bility of effects being influenced by the participants education analysis, from the total pool of studies using creativity tests (106
stage. We used a different model for examining this moderator studies, 700 effects), we excluded 16 studies whose authors did not
because eight studies (and 154 correlations) used samples that
provide separate results for verbal and figural tests (e.g., Anwar,
combined participants from elementary and middle, elementary
Aness, Khizar, Naseer, & Muhammad, 2012; Porter, 1974; Za-
and high, or middle and high schools. Thus, we removed those
belina, Condon, & Beeman, 2014). The observed effect was there-
eight studies from this step and conducted our analysis using a
fore estimated on a total of 90 studies. The results of this model are
model that included a total of 628 effects from 112 studies (see
Table 4). presented in Table 5.
The results of multilevel regression, using elementary school As depicted in Table 5, the average effect size estimated on 617
students as the reference category, indicated that the effect ob- correlations did not differ significantly from the overall effect
served for middle school students was significantly higher than the previously reported: r .228, SE .017, 95% CI [.194, .262],
effect for elementary students (B 0.12, SE 0.05; p .015). p .001; Q(df 616) 7,520.86, p .001; I2 between studies
The effect sizes obtained for high school and university/college .595; I2 within studies .322 (2LL 577.52, df 3). This
students did not differ significantly from the effect obtained for modelwhich examined test type (0 figural, 1 verbal), in
elementary school students. addition to the previously examined moderators and controlsfit
Aspects of creativity tests. Given that we found consistently the data better than the previously tested model
stronger associations between creativity and academic achieve- (2LL 685.00, df 15; 2LL 107.48, df 12; p
ment obtained in studies where creativity was measured using tests .001). Moreover, the results of this analysis indicate that verbal
compared to self-report, we conducted a more focused analysis on
studies that used creativity tests (i.e., 106 studies, 700 effects). The
overall effect obtained only in those studies was r .23, SE 8
An anonymous reviewer questioned our decision to include studies
.016, 95% CI [.20, .26], with a significant level of heterogeneity, published in languages other than English (especially Polish but also
Lithuanian). Specifically, the reviewer recommended that we exclude these
Q(df 699) 8,145.81, p .001, situated mainly between studies as they may cause difficulty for those who want to replicate our
studies, I2 .60, rather than within them, I2 study. Ultimately, we decided to keep these non-English studies in our
.31, 2LL 676.70, df 3. analysis for three reasons. First, eliminating them would reduce the statis-
Therefore, in the next model, in addition to the method of tical power of our meta-analysis to 88 studies. Second, our additional
measuring academic achievement, we included four more specific analyses (see the online supplemental material Table S2) showed that
although studies published in Polish and Lithuanian yielded significantly
moderators in the group of creativity test predictorsnamely, lower effect size, r .14, 95% CI [.10, .18], than studies published in
fluency, flexibility, originality of thinking, elaboration, and overall English, r .24, 95% CI [.21, .27], this effect was caused by the fact that
creative ability (e.g., the sum of TTCT or TCT-DP scores) and nonverbal tests were more often used in Poland and Lithuania, not by the
other measures (e.g., imagination as measured by Jankowska & country itself. When we controlled for the type of the test, the effect of
country was no longer significant (p .44). Hence, we decided to analyze
Karwowski, 2015). We used a combination of overall indices of all obtained effects. Finally, we are making available the raw data and R
creative ability and other measures as the reference category for scripts to researchers interested in replicating our analyses, available here:
our analysis. This model did not fit the data better than the https://osf.io/zhr8v/.
Figure 5. The relations between study year and effect size.
tests of creativity generated significantly higher effects than figural What Is the Relationship Between Creativity and
tests. Academic Achievement?
Finally, in an effort to provide a summary of estimated effects
of the moderators, we conducted a meta-analysis analog of With respect to the relationship between creativity and academic
ANOVA9 using the estimations obtained at the study level. Results achievement, our results indicate that there is a modest but signif-
of that analysis are presented in Table 6. As with our previously icantly positive association (r .22) in the studies we analyzed.
reported findings, the results of this analysis indicate that the Moreover, our analyses indicate that this relationship was not
observed effect was stable across time (similar in concurrent influenced by publication bias. These findings align with long-
decades) but moderated by the type of creative test used. More standing assertions of scholars who have described creativity and
specifically, verbal tests developed in the Guilford tradition (e.g., learning as representing interrelated phenomena (e.g., Beghetto,
unusual uses or consequences tasks; see Guilford, 1967) resulted in 2016a; Guilford, 1967; Piaget, 1962, 1981; Sawyer, 2012; Vy-
more than two times higher correlations (r .30) with academic gotsky, 1967/2004). The modest magnitude of this relationship
achievement than did figural (e.g., TCT-DP, see Urban, 1991) tests (r .22), however, raises questions as to why the observed
(r .14). Moreover, the use of standardized academic achieve- association was so low. Indeed, this relationship only explains 5%
ment tests resulted in higher correlations with creativity (r .28) of the variance in creativity and academic achievement. With so
compared to the use of GPA (r .19). In addition, the academic much unaccounted for variance, it is important to consider what
stage of middle school (r .33) resulted in higher correlations factors might be influencing this relationship. The results of our
between creativity and academic achievement compared to ele- moderator analysis help shed some light on this issue. In the
mentary schools (r .23), high schools (r .21), and universities sections that follow, we discuss the results of our moderator
(r .17). analysis and conclude with a brief discussion of strengths, limita-
Finally, the results of our ANOVA analog analysis also indi- tions, and future directions for this line of research.
cated significant differences in the strength of creativity and aca-
demic achievement between continents (Q 32.58, df 5, p
What Is the Influence of Different Types of Measures?
.001). This finding, however, suggests that it is an artifact caused
by the lack of control for differences in the characteristics of Conceptually speaking, one of the clearest factors that can
studies. Indeed, as our previous analysis indicates (see the online influence the observed relationship between creativity and aca-
supplemental material Table S1), when properly controlling for demic achievement is how the constructs are measured. Our results
between-country differences in creativity and academic achieve- indicate that the relationship between creativity and academic
ment measurement, continent does not significantly influence the achievement was significantly stronger when creativity was mea-
obtained the effect size. sured with tests, r .23, 95% CI [.20, .26]particularly verbal
tests, r .30, 95% CI [.25, .34] compared to when it was
Discussion measured using self-report scales, r .12, 95% CI [.07, .17]. That
test-based measures would have a stronger influence on the rela-
The goal of this meta-analysis was to clarify the somewhat tionship between creativity and academic achievement is not sur-
mixed findings of previous research that has examined the rela-
tionship between creativity and academic achievement. More spe-
9
cifically, we endeavored to obtain a stable estimate of the direction Although this analytic technique does not control for the associations
and shared variance between moderators (and is therefore less robust than
and magnitude of the relationship between creativity and academic previously reported multilevel regression models), it provides results (i.e.,
achievement. In addition, we had the aim of examining the influ- effects in terms of averaged correlations), which tend to be easier for
ence of potential moderators on this observed relationship. readers to interpret.
Table 4
Moderator Analysis: Education Stage
95% CI
Fixed effects
Intercept .17 .04 .08 .25 .001
Creativity measurement (0 self-report, 1 test) .08 .03 .02 .14 .01
Education stage (elementary reference category)
Middle school .12 .05 .02 .21 .015
High school .004 .04 .08 .08 .93
College/university .04 .04 .11 .04 .36
Random effects

.001
Between-study variance .02 .003 .011 .022

Note. Estimated on 112 studies and 628 correlations. CI confidence interval; LL lower limit; UL upper
limit; GPA grade point average.
prising. Indeed, as we noted earlier, cognitive characteristics rel- achievement was measured using standardized achievement tests,
evant to creative ability, such as the fluency, flexibility, and r .28, 95% CI [.22, .34]. This difference may be caused by
originality of thinking (Guilford, 1967); imagination (Jankowska various factors. It may reflect the lower reliability of school grades
& Karwowski, 2015); induction and deduction abilities (Weisberg, compared to standardized achievement tests (Elliott & Strenta,
2006); and the use of specific problem-solving strategies play a 1988). In a majority of the meta-analyzed studies (especially the
considerable role in the learning process (Chamot, Dale, OMalley, early ones), data concerning the reliability of grades were not
& Spanos, 1992; Hmelo-Silver, 2004). As such, our results provide given, and therefore we were unable to estimate the corrected
further evidence of the potentially positive role that creativity can correlations.
play in the acquisition, consolidation, and processing of new It is also possible, however, that this difference has substantive
knowledgeincluding school knowledge (Hennessey & Amabile, meaning. One reason why the correlation between creativity and
1987). grades was lower than the correlation between creativity and more
We also found that obtained effect size differed depending on objective academic achievement tests (Organisation for Economic
the type of academic achievement measure used. More specifi- Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2014) is because the
cally, when the criterion of achievement was GPA, the effect was willingness to express ones creativity can be influenced by subtle
significantly weaker, r .19, 95% CI [.16, .22], compared to when environmental features of the classroom (Amabile, 1996; Beghetto
Table 5
Moderator Analysis: Figural vs. Verbal Creativity Tests
95% CI
Fixed effects
Intercept .040 .131 .296 .216 .76
Year (grand centered) .001 .001 .001 .003 .36
Goal (0 other, 1 creativity achievement) .018 .033 .048 .083 .59
Published? (0 no, 1 yes) .004 .035 .064 .073 .90
Test type (figural 0, verbal 1) .170 .017 .136 .203 .001
School subjects (sport reference category)
Humanistic .200 .124 .043 .443 .11
Science .189 .124 .055 .432 .13
Overall .164 .127 .084 .413 .20
Creative abilities (other general reference)
Fluency .038 .023 .083 .007 .10
Flexibility .024 .025 .073 .025 .35
Originality .029 .024 .076 .018 .23
Elaboration .018 .030 .041 .077 .56
Random effects
Between-study variance .017 .003 .011 .023 .001
Note. Estimated on 90 studies and 617 correlations. CI confidence interval; LL lower limit; UL upper
limit; GPA grade point average.
Table 6
Meta-Analysis Analog of ANOVA: Summary of Moderators
Moderator k N r 95% CI Heterogeneity (Q)a
Decade (Q 8.83, df 5, p .12)

19601969 19 5,378 .25 [.18, .32] 126.91
19701979 8 17,198 .17 [.09, .26] 46.37
19801989 9 1,121 .20 [.09, .31] 29.56
19901999 7 3,024 .15 [.11, .19] 6.25
20002009 35 10,239 .20 [.15, .26] 273.57
20102015 42 21,711 .23 [.18, .27] 377.42
Region (Q 32.58, df 5, p .001)
Africa 2 539 .03 [.06, .11] .39
South America 1 141 .16 [.01, .32] NA
North America 61 30,299 .22 [.18, .26] 427.24
Australia 1 855 .32 [.26, .38] NA

Asia 14 3,852 .27 [.16, .38] 155.63

Europe 41 22,985 .20 [.16, .24] 272.55
Type of creative ability mode (Q 26.94, df 2, p .001)
Verbal 42 18,929 .30 [.25, .34] 438.16
Nonverbal 28 10,451 .14 [.10, .18] 62.93
Creativity test (Q 10.44, df 3, p .02)
Guilford 30 11,125 .26 [.21, .31] 205.19
TCT-DP 15 3,929 .18 [.14, .21] 13.78
TTCT 22 3,746 .20 [.15, .25] 54.66
Other 25 16,306 .27 [.21, .34] 394.70
Academic achievement measure (Q 6.27, df 1, p .01)
GPA 73 35,341 .19 [.16, .22] 412.66
Achievement tests 31 11,328 .28 [.22, .34] 322.04
Education stage (Q 16.44, df 3, p .001)
Elementary 26 10,906 .23 [.17, .29] 204.21
Middle school 15 8,511 .33 [.27, .39] 204.73
High school 28 21,559 .21 [.16, .26] 148.82
College/university 42 11,602 .17 [.12, .22] 287.67
Note. A meta-analysis analog of analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used with a study as a unit of analysis. k the number of studies included in the
analysis; N sample size. CI confidence interval; NA Not Applicable; TCT-DP Test of Creative ThinkingDrawing Production; TTCT Torrance
Test of Creative Thinking; GPA grade point average.
a
df for Q statistic is the number of studies (k) 1.

p .001.
& Kaufman, 2014; Hennessey, 2010). Teachers who, for instance, which include a combination of originality and task constraints
prioritize students ability to meet predetermined task expectations (Beghetto, Kaufman, & Baer, 2015; Plucker et al., 2004; Simon-
(over originality) when assessing students work send subtle mes- ton, 2012). Consequently, such measures are a bit too narrow in
sages to students that originality is not necessary or perhaps not what they measure. The same can be said for self-assessments of
wanted (Beghetto, 2013). Consequently, students may learn that it creativity.
is not worth the risk or effort to try to be creative in their responses. Indeed, it may be the case that self-assessments also suffer from
It is also possible that teachers may downgrade more original or a form of originality bias (Beghetto, 2010; Runco & Acar, 2010)
unexpected responses. Indeed, there is evidence that teachers wherein they emphasize the more divergent aspects of creativity at
sometimes hold negative views about student behaviors associated the expense of the more convergent aspects of creativity. Given
with creativity (Gralewski & Karwowski, 2013, 2016; Karwowski,
that academic measures tend to focus more on convergence (i.e.,
2007, 2010; Scott, 1999; Westby & Dawson, 1995). Regardless of
meeting task constraints, providing expected results), the use of
the reason, it is important to note that the observed relationship
overly narrow measures of creativity may result in systematically
was still positive (albeit, somewhat modest).
Taken together, these findings help illustrate the importance of suppressed estimates of the observed relationship between creativ-
the types of measures used to assess creativity and academic ity and academic achievement. At this point, such assertions are
achievement. Indeed, given the theoretical links between creativity somewhat speculative and therefore warrant attention in future
and learning, one might expect a stronger correlation than what we studies. As such, future research should focus on developing and
found. With respect to creativity, the most popular measures tend testing measures of creativity that more adequately represent the
to focus on divergent thinking (i.e., the ability to produce original creative combination of divergent and convergent thinking (see
ideas) and less on convergent thinking (i.e., the ability to meet task Barbot et al., 2015; Lubart & Besanon, in press). Doing so may
constraints) (see Barbot, Besancon, & Lubart, 2015, for an excep- help clarify whether there is a stronger empirical relationship
tion). As such, commonly used creativity tests often fail to repre- between creativity and academic achievement than what is other-
sent broader conceptions of creativity (Baer, 2014; Cropley, 2006), wise represented in more traditional measures.
With respect to academic achievement, future studies should divergent thinking (i.e., fluency, flexibility, elaboration, and orig-
also use more precise measures of academic achievement. In the inality of thinking)were not sensitive enough to provide differ-
case of GPA, it is frequently effort (Brookhart, 1997), progress ential estimations of academic achievement across disciplines.
(Nitko, 2001), or even the students adjustment to the teachers Once again, these findings point to the importance of the sen-
demands (Wortham, 2004) that are evaluated. Moreover, given sitivity and scope of the measures used to assess creativity and
that creative students sometimes approach learning tasks in unex- academic achievement. Indeed, both creativity and learning re-
pected and unorthodox ways (Beghetto, 2013, 2016a; Gner & searchers tend to be in agreement that creativity and learning are
Oral, 1993; Karwowski & Jankowska, in press), their GPAs may domain specific (Alexander, 1995; Baer, 2014, in press; Beghetto
be negatively influenced by failing to meet behavioral expectations et al., 2015; Poitras & Lajoie, 2013). Future research should
(rather than a reflection of academic ability). Measures of aca- therefore use domain-specific measures to examine whether such
demic achievement that more clearly focus on learning gains measures influence the observed relationship between creativity
(rather than meeting teachers expectations for obtaining those and learning and whether there are potentially important differ-
gains) might provide a more accurate assessment of student learn- ences across domains.
ing and thereby more accurately reflect the relationship between

student creativity and academic achievement. What Is the Influence of Time and Place?
Finally, we examined the potential influence of time (i.e., when
What Is the Effect of Education Stage? the study was conducted) and place (i.e., what country or continent
Our results indicate that the influence of education stage on the the study was conducted). Our findings indicate that the relation-
relationship between creativity and academic achievement is sim- ship between creativity and academic achievement was stable
ilar across most stages, with the exception of middle school (r across time and place. This finding differs from the results of
.33). Why might this be the case? Classic (Torrance, 1968) and previous research, which have suggested that creativity may be
more contemporary (Krampen, 2012) analyses suggest that al- declining over time (Kim, 2011) and that creativity is often con-
though there may be declines in creativity development in child- ceptualized and experienced differently across cultures (Kaufman
hood, there seems to be rather systematic growth in creative ability & Sternberg, 2006).
from puberty onward (Claxton, Pannells, & Rhoads, 2005; Mil- When interpreting these findings, it is important to point out that
gram & Hong, 1999). Even though there is some evidence of the analyses conducted here and in related studies (e.g., Kim,
higher levels of creativity in elementary school students compared 2005) are cross-sectional. Without longitudinal data, it is difficult
to middle school students (Yi, Hu, Plucker, & McWilliams, 2013), (if not impossible) to make any definitive claims about the rela-
middle school students may, on average, experience a boost in tionship between creativity and academic achievement across time.
creative ability. This assertion has a basis in developmental theory Moreover, the studies we analyzed did not have the goal of
(Feldman, 2003) and in neuropsychology (Barbot & Tinio, 2014). providing direct comparisons across cultures, and as such, cultural
The middle school years are, for instance, thought to be a key differences that may influence creativity and academic achieve-
developmental period for thinking skills, which are then measured ment may not have been adequately assessed or represented in the
in students skills assessment programs such as Programme for studies we analyzed. Consequently, strong claims about the influ-
International Student Assessment (OECD, 2014). Although studies ence of time and culture are not appropriate until additional re-
have demonstrated an increase in thinking skills starting in ele- search is conducted, which focuses specifically on addressing the
mentary school (Molnr, Greiff, & Csap, 2013), the most pro- impact of time (measured longitudinally) and the impact of culture
nounced development of these skills tends to be the middle school (using more direct cross-cultural comparisons). Our findings, how-
years (Csap, 1997). This is not to say that middle school years are ever, do provide a starting point for researchers to examine
free from declines or creative suppression (Beghetto & Dilley, whether and under what conditions the positive relationship be-
2016), but prior work suggests that these years of development tween creativity and academic achievement is stable across time
may serve as a key time of growth in creative abilities (Barbot, and place.
Lubart, & Besancon, 2016; Kleibeuker, De Dreu, & Crone, 2013).
Such assertions, however, warrant further empirical exploration. Strengths and Limitations of the Present Study
Our findings also indicate higher correlations in the middle
school stage of education compared to high school and universi- Strengths
ties. This finding has less theoretical and empirical support than
the observed difference between elementary and middle school. A strong point of our meta-analysis is that it serves as the first
One possible explanation is that learning becomes increasingly study to provide a stable estimate of the relationship between
more specialized at higher levels of education. The majority of the creativity and academic achievement. Consequently, this study
studies included in our meta-analysis used general rather than contributes much-needed clarification on this relationship. Another
discipline-specific measures of creative potential, which tend to key strength is the scope of the study. More specifically, our
have lower levels of predictive validity when explaining more results cover a wide range of temporal (19622015), territorial
specialized academic achievement (see Baer, 2014, in press). The (studies from all over the world), and numerical (120 independent
fact that we did not observe differences in the strength of the studies, 782 effects, and the total joint sample exceeding 52,000
relationship between various dimensions of school functioning participants) factors. In fact, this study represents one of the largest
may also be an indication that domain-general measures of cre- meta-analyses in the creativity literature to date. We also consider
ative abilitywhich tended to be operationalized as a form of the analytic models applied (multilevel meta-analysis) to be an
advantage. Indeed, multilevel models enabled us to provide more niques such as segmented regression (Jauk et al., 2013) or a
robust estimations of the observed effects and the effects of key necessary condition analysis (Dul, 2016).
moderators.
Concluding Thoughts
Limitations For more than six decades, the question of whether creativity
A disadvantage of this meta-analysis was the limited number of and academic achievement are related has been a focus of theo-
moderators we were able to include. There are several moderating retical and empirical work in educational psychology. This ques-
factors (e.g., instructional approach, curriculum used, contextual tion has proven to be a thorny one, complicated by various types
influences of schools and classrooms, and measures of various of measures and potentially intervening factors. Not surprisingly,
individual differences, such as student and teacher beliefs) that the results of previous research have run the gamut from positively
may have shed additional light on factors that influence the rela- related, unrelated, and even negatively related. The upshot of a
tionship between creativity and academic achievement. Additional decades worth of research on this question is that it provided
studies are therefore needed that take into account these additional numerous effects that we were able to analyze using robust meta-
individual and sociocultural factors. analytic techniques and thereby take an important step in the
The unavailability of relevant data at the level of individual direction of addressing the longstanding question of whether cre-
studies was also a limitation (e.g., the reliability of academic ativity and academic achievement are related.
achievement measures). The lack of these data prevented us from Indeed, prior to this study, the question of whether there is a
being able to make corrections to the obtained effects. Future relationship between creativity and academic achievement could
researchers (and journal reviewers) are therefore well advised to best be answered with the equivocal response of, It depends.
report (and require the reporting of) relevant psychometric data on Based on the findings from this meta-analysis, we can now more
all measures so that such corrections can be made. confidently respond, Previous research has, on average, demon-
Perhaps the most severe limitation of this synthesis was our strated a positive (albeit modest) relationship between creativity
and academic achievement, which is significantly moderated by
inability to properly control for a number of mediators and con-
the types of measures used to assess creativity and academic
founding variables at the level of individual studies. This is a
achievement. This, of course, does not mean that the question is
limitation that plagues meta-analytic studies more generally. One
now closed. Rather, the results of the present study provide re-
way to help address this issue is for researchers to ensure that their
searchers with a baseline correlation that they can use in subse-
studies include as many theoretically important predictors of aca-
quent research for comparison and further exploration.
demic achievement in one study as possible. In the case of cre-
The next logical step is to continue to design studies that
ativity, this would include factors such as intelligence and person-
examine the stability of this estimate and more carefully examine
ality (Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2008; Day, Hanson,
what additional factors might influence this relationship. We have
Maltby, Proctor, & Wood, 2010), thinking styles (Zhang, 2004,
already pointed to several needed directions for future study. One
2010, 2012; Zhang & Sternberg, 2005), motivational factors (Ban-
of the most important future directions pertains to developing and
dura, 1997; Hill & Amabile, 1993; Karwowski, 2011, 2012, 2014;
examining the influence of more precise measures of creativity and
Kaufman & Beghetto, 2013), and contextual factors (Beghetto &
academic achievement. Such work, however, is not purely empir-
Kaufman, 2014; Schacter, Thum, & Zifkin, 2006).
ical. Complementary theoretical work is also needed to help spec-
As already mentioned, longitudinal studies, using more precise ify how and to what extent creativity and academic achievement
measures, are particularly needed. Longitudinal studies, although are related phenomena. Educational psychologists can play a key
costly in terms of time and resources, would pay out in the form of role in this endeavor by working alongside creativity researchers to
being able to provide needed insights into how creativity and develop more detailed theoretical models that help specify the
academic achievement grow and develop over time. Such studies relationship between creativity and academic achievement and
would also enable researchers to empirically test various proposed also help develop more sensitive measures that can test and further
theoretical links between creativity and academic achievement clarify these asserted relationships. Doing so will provide addi-
(Beghetto, 2016a), including whether the relationship is best
thought of as unidirectional (e.g., creativity academic achieve-
10
ment; academic achievement creativity) or reciprocal (e.g., The nonlinear relationship between creativity and cognitive abilities,
creativity academic achievement). such as intelligence, has been asserted by some of the earliest theorists
(e.g., Guilford, 1967). Some theorists have posited a so-called threshold
A final limitation we feel important to highlight pertains to the hypothesis (see Jauk et al., 2013; Karwowski & Gralewski, 2013; Preckel,
possibility of a nonlinear relationship between creativity and aca- Holling, & Wiese, 2006). This hypothesis asserts a positive relationship
demic achievement. Such a relationship cannot be fully captured in between creativity and intelligence only in the groups of individuals whose
the types of data (correlation coefficients) and analyses used in this intelligence level is below an IQ of 120, whereas above this threshold, the
correlation is expected to disappear or weaken significantly (Guilford,
study. A nonlinear pattern should therefore not be ruled out. 1967). Consequently, the threshold hypothesis does not assume linear
Indeed, there is evidence that such patterns exist between association but rather a curvilinear inverted J-shaped relationship between
creativity and related constructs, such as creativity and intelli- intelligence and creativity. Similar thresholds may exist in the relationship
gence (see Jauk, Benedek, Dunst, & Neubauer, 2013; Kar- between creativity and academic achievement, such as high levels of
academic achievement suppressing creativity (see Simonton, in press) or,
wowski & Gralewski, 2013).10 Consequently, subsequent work conversely, high levels of creativity negatively influencing academic
should explore possible nonlinear patterns in the relationship achievement (Kim, 2008). We thank an anonymous reviewer for highlight-
between creativity and academic achievement using analytic tech- ing this possibility.
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Creativity and Academic Achievement: A Meta-

Article in Journal of Educational Psychology February 2017

Aleksandra Gajda Maciej Karwowski

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Creativity and Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis

Aleksandra Gajda and Maciej Karwowski Ronald A. Beghetto

Keywords: creativity, school grades, academic achievement, meta-analysis

Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/edu0000133.supp

a particular sociocultural and historical context (Amabile, 1996;

Kaufman & Beghetto, 2009; Plucker, Beghetto, & Dow, 2004;

Figure 1. Potential factors influencing creativity and achievement relationship.

Americans of all ages, especially kindergarten through third grade,

of that difference. Our analysis will, however, allow us to examine

whether studies conducted across different time periods moderate

constructs. It is unclear, however, how various types of measure- Culture

The first two authors independently coded each article for

Ferris, 1971 of creative thinking

creativity Creativity Perception

2015 divergent thinking, Creative Thinking Scores Test

The multilevel meta-analysis was conducted using the meta-

analyze the potential influence of publication bias, which helps

determine the robustness of the obtained effect size. Finally, in

Between-study variance .018 .003 .012 .023 .001

Figure 5. The relations between study year and effect size.

Within-study variance .01 .001 .008 .01 .001

Between-study variance .02 .003 .011 .022

Moderator k N r 95% CI Heterogeneity (Q)a

Decade (Q 8.83, df 5, p .12)

Australia 1 855 .32 [.26, .38] NA

Asia 14 3,852 .27 [.16, .38] 155.63

ing and thereby more accurately reflect the relationship between

Beghetto, R. A. (2016a). Creative learning: A fresh look. Journal of

Cognitive Education and Psychology, 15, 6 23. http://dx.doi.org/10

5378. Educational Psychology, 101, 964 981. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/

scores on the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. Creativity Research 10.1037/h0042429

ment. The Journal of Educational Research, 60, 321325. http://dx.doi

Zhang, L. F., & Sternberg, R. J. (2005). A threefold model of intellectual

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