2 Completions & Fluids

Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level
Chapter 2
Chapter 2 Table of Contents

Title Page No.
Wellhead and Christmas Tree..................................................................................2-3
Lubricator.................................................................................................................2-5
Subsurface Components...........................................................................................2-6
Tubing...................................................................................................................2-7
Packer...................................................................................................................2-7
Completion Methods..............................................................................................2-12
Open Hole Advantages.......................................................................................2-13
Open Hole Disadvantages...................................................................................2-13
Perforated Casing Advantages............................................................................2-13
Perforated Casing Disadvantages........................................................................2-13
Workover Operations.............................................................................................2-14
Functions and Properties of Drilling Fluids.........................................................2-15
Transport Cuttings and Cavings..........................................................................2-15
Suspend Particles................................................................................................2-15
Control of Subsurface Pressure..........................................................................2-15
Cool and Lubricate..............................................................................................2-16
Support the Walls of the Hole.............................................................................2-16
Help Suspend the Weight of the Drill String and Casing....................................2-16
Transmit Hydraulic Energy.................................................................................2-16
Provide a Medium for Wireline Logs..................................................................2-16
Minimize Formation Damage..............................................................................2-17
Protect the Drill String and the Casing...............................................................2-17
Drilling Fluid Properties........................................................................................2-17
Mud Weight (Density).........................................................................................2-18
Rheological Properties........................................................................................2-19
Rheology Models Used for Fluids......................................................................2-19
Mud pH and Alkalinity........................................................................................2-21
Filtration..............................................................................................................2-22
Filtrate Analysis...................................................................................................2-22
Solids Analysis....................................................................................................2-23
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC or MBT)........................................................2-23
Rheological Terms...................................................................................................2-24
Flow Regimes.....................................................................................................2-26
Fluid Types..........................................................................................................2-26
Rheological Models............................................................................................2-27
Bingham Model...................................................................................................2-27
Power Law Model..............................................................................................2-28
Herschel-Bulkley (Yield Power Law [YPL]) model...........................................2-29
Static and Dynamic Filtration..............................................................................2-30
Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level Page 2-1

January 1997
Filtration Tests........................................................................................................2-30
Fann 90 Test........................................................................................................2-30
Particle Plugging Test (PPT)...............................................................................2-32
Completion and Workover Fluids.........................................................................2-32
Types of Fluid.....................................................................................................2-33
Safety..................................................................................................................2-34
Crystallization Points..........................................................................................2-35
Packer Fluids...........................................................................................................2-36
DRIL-N Fluids........................................................................................................2-37
BARADRIL-N....................................................................................................2-38
COREDRIL-N....................................................................................................2-40
MAXDRIL-N.....................................................................................................2-41
SHEARDRIL-N..................................................................................................2-43
SOLUDRIL-N....................................................................................................2-44
Completion and Workover Well Control..............................................................2-45
Weight Material Calculations..............................................................................2-46
Neutralizing A Producing Well..............................................................................2-48
Bullheading.........................................................................................................2-49
Lubrication..........................................................................................................2-54
Coiled Tubing......................................................................................................2-54
Snubbing Unit.....................................................................................................2-54
Perforated Tubing...............................................................................................2-54
Pulling Out of Packer..........................................................................................2-55
Page 2-2 Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level

January 1997
Wellhead and Christmas Tree

In oil and gas production, the wellhead is comprised of three component parts; the casing
section, tubing section and christmas tree. The christmas tree is an assembly of valves and
fittings used for production control and includes all equipment down to the tubing head
top connection. Figure 2-1 identifies components that make up the wellhead and christmas
tree. Each component is described on the following pages.
Item Identification
1 Tubing Pressure Gauge 1
2 Top Companion Flange
3 Swab Valve 2
4 Wing Valve
3
5 Choke 4 4
6 Flow Line
5 5
7 Flow Fitting
8 Upper Master Valve 6 7 6
8
9 Lower Master Valve
10 Tubing Hanger
9
11 Tubing Head
12 Secondary Seal
13 Drilling Through Fitting
14 Casing Valve 10
11
15 Casing Pressure Gauge 15
16 Casing Hanger 12
13
17 Casing Head 14
18 Plug Valve
12
17
16
18
Figure 2-1: Components of a Wellhead and Christmas Tree
The basic functions of each component of the wellhead and christmas tree are:

January 1997
Item 1: This pressure gauge registers the amount of pressure that exists inside the tubing
string. In multiple completions, a pressure gauge is placed on each individual
tubing string.
Item 2: The top companion flange is normally threaded. The threads provide access to the
christmas tree for the attachment of a wireline valve and lubricator to perform
downhole wireless work.
Item 3: The swab valve is placed above the flow outlet of the christmas tree. When the
swab valve is closed, it provides a pressure seal which then allows service
equipment to be rigged up on top of the christmas tree while the well continues to
flow. Always use the swab valve when conducting wireline work, not the master
valves located below the flow outlet of the christmas tree.
Item 4: The attachment of a wing valve to the flow outlet of the christmas tree serves as
the means to shut off well flow at the surface.
Item 5: The choke is an element which is used to restrict the flow of produced liquids or
gas. It may have either a positive fixed orifice or a variably adjustable orifice.
Item 6: The flowline is surface pipe that directs the flow of liquids or gas leaving the well
to separators, storage tanks, pipeline, etc.
Item 7: The flow fitting can be a tee or cross that is normally flanged or studded. It has a
full round opening bore that permits the passage of tools or instruments as well as
the flow of production liquids or gases.
Items The upper and lower master valves are placed below the flow outlet of the
8 & 9: christmas tree and are used in the event the swab valve and/or wing valve
malfunctions and well flow must be shut off at the surface. These master valves
must be preserved in good condition, so they must not be used indiscriminately or
unnecessarily.
Item 10: The tubing hanger is designed to suspend one or more tubing strings and to seal
off the casing annulus after the casing hanger is landed.
Item 11: The tubing head is a unit attached to the uppermost casing heads, casing spool or
smallest casing string, which serves to suspend the tubing and to seal the annular
space between the tubing and casing. The tubing head is composed essentially of
a body and a hanger packer mechanism.
Item 12: The secondary seal is used as backup support to keep pressure off the tubing
hanger if a leak occurs around the upper casing hanger seal assembly. The same
application is accomplished when a secondary seal is used between two casing
hangers.
Item 13: The drilling through fitting is a spool body member, with or without outlet
connections and prescribed full round opening bores identical to the through
bores of blowout preventers with comparable end connections. Outlet
connections provide access to the tubing annulus and the straight bore may or
may not accept a casing hanger assembly.
Item 14: The casing valve is attached to the outlet at the drilling through fitting and
provides access to the tubing annulus. When this valve is closed, the existing
casing pressure gauge can be removed and a new pressure gauge installed. The
valve may be closed and casing pressure gauge removed for rigging up pump in
lines or the attachment of choke for circulating purposes.

January 1997
Item 15: This pressure gauge registers the amount of pressure that exists in the annulus or
outside the tubing string and is commonly referred to as the casing pressure
gauge.
Item 16: The casing hanger is landed in the casing head. It supports a casing string and
provides a place to seal off the annulus. The hanger usually has a means for
bypassing mud returns during cementing. The casing hanger may carry the
annulus seal as a part of the assembly.
Item 17: The casing head is a unit attached to the end of a casing string or to another
casing head, which serves to support the next smaller casing string and seal of the
annular space between the two strings.
Item 18: The plug valve has a closure member (plug) which is rotated. This plug may be
cylindrical, conical, or spherical in shape, solid or split, with a conduit bore which
aligns with the seat bore in the open position. This valve is used when pressure
occurs between casing strings and needs to be bled off.
Note:
Tubing can be hung in the wellhead assembly in different ways. The easiest approach
involves threading the tubing into a tubing head adapter or as shown in Figure 2-1, the
components of a wellhead and christmas tree, the tubing hanger is threaded onto the top
of the tubing and hung off in the tubing head.
If workover operations require the removal of the installed christmas tree or blowout
preventers, use a split bowl and slips to support the tubing before removing equipment
above the tubing head adapter. The blowout preventer is removed when a testing tree is
used to determine the wells flow rate.
When re-connecting a flange, make sure a new ring gasket has been installed because a
ring gasket is mechanically deformed each time the seal is made. Use API (American
Petroleum Institute) Rx or Bx type ring gaskets, not the old R-type ring gaskets. The
flange bolts must be in good condition prior to installation. Inspect flange bolts for burrs,
nicks, and stretch; replace if needed with new bolts. Bolt stretch can be determined by
comparing the new versus used threads per inch. When any sealing component of the
wellhead and/or christmas tree is disassembled and put back together, a pressure test must
be conducted before additional work can be carried out.
Lubricator
A lubricator is a specially fabricated length of casing or tubing usually placed temporarily
above a valve on the top of the casinghead or tubing head; used to run swabbing or
perforating tools into a producing well; it provides a method for sealing off pressure and
thus should be rated for highest anticipated pressure. The lubricator is sometimes referred
to as a riser assembly. It is usually a three part section of tubing rated to withstand high
pressures. The diameter and length of the lubricator are sufficient to hold the entire tool
string between the stuffing box and the swab valve. Well pressure admitted into the
lubricator may be vented through bleeder valves, which may also be used to install
pressure gauges.
Subsurface Components

January 1997
Figure 2-2 identifies the basic subsurface elements of a production well.
Casing
Selective
Landing
Nipples
Tubing
... Sliding sleeve

Figure 2-2: Basic Subsurface Elements of a Production Well
Packer
No go nipple
Tubing
Perforations
{
The term tubing refers to small diameter pipe through which liquids and/or gas are
produced. It can also reference its use in special applications during completion or
workover operations. The outside diameter of tubing varies from 0.45 inch to 0.75 inch
and may be jointed or coiled (tubing without joints is continuous tubing). Tubing used for
production is normally jointed with non-upset or upset connections and has outside
diameters ranging from 1.050 inches to 4.5 inches. The standard API grades of tubing are
H-40, J-55, C-75, L-80, C-90, and P-105. The C-grade tubing is heat treated to produce a
Rockwell hardness that is not higher than 22, allowing the use of C-grade tubing in

January 1997
hydrogen sulfide environments. The numbers accompanying the grade indicates the
minimum yield strength in 1,000 psi. High strength tubing is usually considered to be
grades having yield strength of about 80,000 psi.
In some cases, production occurs through coiled tubing. Normally coiled tubing is used
when work needs to be conducted inside the tubing string or in the annulus of the tubing
string. Coiled tubing outside diameter varies from 2.5 to 9.57 inches.
Reasons to use tubing include:
Allows for circulation of completion fluids, kill fluids, corrosion inhibitors or paraffin
solvents
The efficiency of flow is better
Provides a means to monitor bottom hole flowing pressure
Protects the casing from pressure, corrosion, and/or abrasion
Provides multiple flow paths when using an artificial lift system
Permits through tubing wireline surveys and remedial work
Packer
A packer is used to effectively seal off the tubing annulus in casing. There are two general
classifications; retrievable and permanent. The major components of a packer are the
tubing seal assembly, bore receptacle, outer seal assembly, and slip assembly.
The slip and outer seal assemblies are the elements that secure and seal the packer against
the casing. The packer bore receptacle and tubing seal assembly provides the pressure seal
between the tubing and packer and allows for tubing expansion and contraction.
A permanent packer is set with wireline or tubing when precise packer location is
necessary. Wireline setting is a valuable asset. Wireline setting a permanent packer begins
by attaching a setting tool and collar locator to the packer. The entire assembly is then run
into the well to the desired setting depth. An electrical signal is sent to the packer that
detonates a explosive charge which in turn builds up gas pressure that is transmitted
hydraulically through the piston assembly of the packer to mechanically force the packer
to set. A release stud then shears and the setting tool is retrieved from the well. The tubing
seal assembly that will be set in the packer bore receptacle is run on the tubing. Using
tubing to set a permanent packer is a combination of right hand pipe rotation, tension, and
weight.
A permanent packer can be removed from the well in approximately two to three hours
drilling time using a packer mill. If a rock bit is used, drilling time will probably be in
excess of six hours.
The cost of a permanent packer is higher than the cost of weight set or tension set packers
(retrievable packers), but the cost is much less when compared to the cost of a hydraulic
set packer (retrievable packer). Figures 2-3 through 2-7 show the different types of
packers.

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Figure 2-3: Tension-Set Packer Figure 2-4: Mechanical-Set Packer

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Figure 2-6: Retrievable Packer
Figure 2-5: Hydraulic-Set Packer

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Figure 2-7: Crossover Gravel Packer
A retrievable packer can be set by tension mechanically, hydraulically, or weight activated.

The weight set packer is employed by friction blocks engaging on the casing. The tubing is
moved downward, causing the cone to move behind the slips, anchoring the packer in the
casing. Tubing weight is applied, forcing the sealing element to expand. Releasing the
weight set packer is accomplished by picking up the weight of the tubing string, which
pulls the cone from behind the slips and allows the slips to disengage. The frictional drag
that occurs places limits on tubing weight and setting force that can be applied. The
tension packer is basically a weight activated packer run upside down and is set by pulling

January 1997
tension on the tubing. When setting or retrieving a mechanically set packer, tubing rotation
must be used. The rotation requirement can activate the components in a couple of
different ways. The rotation may create simultaneous setting of the seals and slips or it
may allow the release of the inner mandrel, which lets tubing weight force the cone behind
the slips and compression of the sealing element occurs. Release is accomplished by right
hand rotation of tubing. The hydraulic packer is set by fluid pressure acting on a piston
cylinder assembly which forces the cone behind the slip and is kept in place by a pressure
activated mechanical locking device. Release is accomplished by picking up the weight of
the tubing string.
The most common type of rubber used for the sealing element is Nitril, which has a
durometer harness of 70. When a packer is used in high bottom hole temperature
environment, the rubber sealing element should have a durometer harness of 80 to 90.
For the sealing element to hold, the stress developed in the seal must exceed the
differential pressure. Stress developed in the seal depends upon the packer setting force
and metallic backup rings to limit sealing element extrusion. If hydrogen sulfide or carbon
dioxide is present, then seal materials and temperature are a major consideration. Nitril
rubber and metallic backup rings can be used for static seals in temperatures below 250F.
Viton can be used effectively with little or no hydrogen sulfide embrittlement, but it
becomes marginal at 300F. A layered sealing element, consisting of rings of Kalrez,
Teflon, and Rylon and the metallic backup rings can be used at temperatures up to 300F
and 10,000 psi differential pressure, providing movement is limited. A Teflon sealing
element resists hydrogen sulfide or chemical attack up to 450F, but extrusion may be a
problem. Glass filled Teflon and metallic backup rings can perform satisfactorily up to
450F and 15,000 psi differential pressure, but due to the rigidity of this sealing element, it
may not perform well below 300F.
Packer are used to:
Improve stabilized well flow
Protect the casing from well fluids and/or pressure
Keep packer fluids or kill fluids in the annulus of the tubing in place
Provide pressure containment when using a safety shut-in system
Completion Methods
Well completion is the activities and methods necessary to prepare a well for oil and gas
production. A flowline, wellhead, tubing and packers are installed to form a link between
the formation and the surface to produce hydrocarbons. The approach to preparing a well
for production will vary and should be dictated by the type of production zone(s) to be
produced. Choosing the method may seem like a difficult decision making process. The
two methods used are open hole or perforated casing. Open hole completion consists of
the running and cementing of a casing string at the top of production zone and producing
from the drilled open hole. A good application for open hole is when production exists in a
hard formation; for example, a carbonate production zone. Perforated casing completion

January 1997
means that casing will be run and cemented through the production zone and perforated
through casing, cement and into production zone. Open hole or perforated casing
approaches have their advantages and disadvantages.
Open Hole Advantages:

Special drilling practices can be used to minimize formation damage
Special drilling techniques may be used to prevent loss circulation in production zone
Excellent sand control when gravel packed
Zero perforating expenditure
Log interpretation is not a critical factor
Can easily be converted to a line completion
Going to a perforated completion is easily accomplished
Open Hole Disadvantages:

Becomes difficult to control excessive gas or water production
Stimulation by acidizing or selective fracturing is difficult
Casing setting point is established before production zone is drilled and/or logged
Requires more rig time when completing, as compared to perforated casing
completion
Open hole section may require frequent cleaning
Perforated Casing Advantages:

Easier control of excessive gas or water production
Selective stimulation, such as acidizing or facing is applicable
The decision to run and cement casing or abandonment is made after logs and
formation samples are evaluated
Will control most sands
Special sand control techniques can be carried out
Can easily be deepened
Has application for multiple completion
Minimum rig time on completion when compared to open hole completion
Perforated Casing Disadvantages:

The cost of perforating long zones can be significant
Is not adaptable to special drilling practices to minimize formation damage
Log interpretation may become critical to avoid perforating submarginal zones

January 1997
A poor primary cement job in production zone essentially means reverting to an open
hole completion
When continuous perforating is done and production zones are not isolated between
perforated intervals, then basically an open hole completion is being executed
The decision to produce from a single zone or multiple zones will more than likely be
based upon one or more of the following areas of concern:
Operators policies and procedures
Governmental regulations
Corrosive well fluids
High production rates and/or high pressure
Workover Operations
Workover operations are used to maintain optimum producing capability of a well. Some
of the reasons for workovers are:
Production impairment due to plugged perforations, water block damage, asphalt
plugging, scale damage, paraffin plugging, silt damage, emulsion damage, and clay
damage
Through tubing perforating and re-completion of multiple oil or gas reservoirs or
zones
Increased production from a low permeability well by acidizing the formation
perforations, hydraulic fracturing of formation, or fracture acidizing the formation
Reduced gas production in oil wells by squeezing off the gas producing zone(s) and
re-complete in a zone that has a lower gas/oil ratio
Repair mechanical failure; for example, communication within the wellbore in dual or
multiple completions, packer leak, tubing leak, casing leak and failure of primary
cement job
Reduce water production in oil and gas wells which may be the result of water
fingering in stratified or layered reservoirs or water coning which can occur if the
vertical permeability of the matrix or fracture is appreciable
Changing zones or reservoirs in perforated casing completions or in open hole
completions
Checking for any lateral and vertical movement of gas, water, and oil in specific zones
and reservoirs
Functions and Properties of Drilling Fluids

January 1997
Drilling fluids are used to:

Transport drilled cuttings and cavings to the surface
Suspend drilled cuttings and caving in the annulus when circulation is stopped
Control subsurface pressure
Cool and lubricate the bit and drill string
Support the walls of the wellbore
Help suspend the weight of the drill string and casing
Transmit hydraulic energy
Provide a medium for running wireline logs
Minimize formation damage
Protect the drill string and casing from corrosion
Transport Cuttings and Cavings

Because cuttings and cavings are heavier than the drilling fluid, they have a tendency to
fall towards the bottom of the wellbore while they are being lifted by the drilling fluid
during drilling and circulating operations. The rate at which these particles fall through the
flowing fluid depends primarily on the density and viscosity of the fluid and the size,
shape, and density of the particles. The rate at which the particles are being lifted is the
difference between the circulating velocity of the drilling fluid and the falling rate of the
cuttings and cavings. If the hole is not cleaned properly, the solid material will accumulate
in the annulus causing increased torque, drag, fill, and hydrostatic pressures. Pipe failure,
stuck pipe, reduced penetration rates, and loss of circulation are possible consequences of
improper hole cleaning.
Suspend Particles
When the fluid is not being circulated, the force of the rising fluid is eliminated. The
cuttings and cavings fall to the bottom of the hole unless the drilling fluid has the ability to
form a gel-like structure when it is not flowing. The fluid must, of course, regain its
fluidity when circulation is restarted.
Control of Subsurface Pressure

Water, gas, and oil found in the ground are under great pressure. This pressure must be
overbalanced to prevent an uncontrollable flow of these formation fluids into the wellbore.
Control is accomplished by maintaining the wellbore full of drilling fluid with a density
high enough to provide sufficient hydrostatic pressure.
Cool and Lubricate

Heat is generated as the bit scrapes the bottom of the hole and the drill string rotates
against the walls of the hole. The drilling fluid must absorb this heat and conduct it away.

January 1997
The drilling fluid also acts as a lubricant for the bit, drill string, and casing during drilling.
Special materials are sometimes added to the drilling fluid to improve its lubricating
properties.
Benefits include longer bit life, decreased torque and drag, reduced pump pressure, and
reduced frictional wear on the drill string and casing.
Support the Walls of the Hole

Lateral support of the walls of the hole is removed as the bit drills a subsurface formation.
Unless the support is replaced by the drilling fluid until casing can be set, the formation
will fall into the wellbore. The mechanism that prevents this from occurring depends on
the nature of the formation. If the formation is very firm (granite is an extreme example),
little support by the drilling fluid is required. If the formation is fairly firm and
consolidated (shale, for example), sufficient support may be obtained solely from the
density of the mud. If the formation is weak and unconsolidated (sand, for example), the
drilling fluid must have sufficient density plus it must have the ability to form a thin,
impermeable, and deformable deposition of particles on the walls of the hole.
Help Suspend the Weight of the Drill String & Casing

The weight of a drill string or a string of casing can exceed 200 tons. This extreme weight
can place a high stress on the rig's surface equipment. These tubulars are partly supported
by the buoyant force of the drilling fluid. The buoyant force is dependent upon the
pressure exerted by the fluid and the cross-sectional area on which this pressure acts.
Transmit Hydraulic Energy

During circulation, the drilling fluid is ejected through the bit nozzles at a very high rate of
speed. This hydraulic force keeps the surface beneath the bit free of drilled cuttings. If the
cuttings are not removed, the bit regrinds the old cuttings and reduces the rate of
penetration. The successful removal of cuttings from the bit surface depends on the
physical properties of the drilling fluid and its velocity through the nozzles. In special
situations, the hydraulic force of the drilling fluid is also used to turn the bit. The bit is
attached to a downhole hydraulic motor; the assembly is then attached to the bottom of
the drill string. This method is often used for directional drilling and is gaining acceptance
for straight-hole drilling in certain areas.
Provide a Medium for Wireline Logs

Although the drilling fluid disturbs the original characteristics of the formations, its
presence is necessary for many of the common wireline logs used for formation evaluation.
These logs require that the drilling fluid be an electrically conductive liquid that exhibits
electrical properties different from the fluids in the formation. Proper evaluation of the
formation is difficult if the liquid phase of the drilling fluid penetrates the formation deeply
or if the fluid has physically or chemically eroded the hole.
Minimize Formation Damage

January 1997
Almost any drilling fluid will alter the original characteristics of the formations it comes in
contact with, although some formations are more sensitive than others and some fluids are
more damaging than others.
Damage to subsurface formations can appear in two different forms:
Reduction in the ability of a formation to produce hydrocarbons
Reduction of wellbore stability
Damage to producing formations can result from physical plugging by inert solids or from
a chemical reaction between the drilling fluid and the formation. The wellbore can become
unstable through chemical reactions (as in water-sensitive shales) or through physical
erosion. Particularly sensitive formations may require special treatment of the fluid or even
a special fluid.
Protect the Drill String & the Casing

The drilling fluid can provide a corrosive environment for steel tubulars used below the
surface. This effect can be minimized by proper chemical treatment of the fluid or by
adding a protective film (chemical or physical) to the surface of a steel. Some drilling
fluids (those that are predominantly oil) are noncorrosive. In special instances, the drilling
fluid can actually protect the tubulars from corrosive materials found at subsurface levels.
Drilling Fluid Properties

Baroid's field service representatives record mud properties on the standard daily mud
report. Daily monitoring and interpretation of the changes in the drilling fluid is necessary
to recognize many of the problems in day-to-day drilling operations. Drilling fluid
properties determined from routine field testing can be used as qualitative and quantitative
guides for controlling drilling fluid performance. Standard field tests include:
Mud weight (density)
Rheological properties
Funnel viscosity
Plastic viscosity
Yield point
Gel strength
Mud pH and alkalinity (Pm)
Filtration
API (low temperature, low pressure)
HTHP (high temperature, high pressure)
Filtrate analysis
Alkalinity (Pf/Pm)
Salinity
Hardness

January 1997
Solids analysis
Sand
Total solids
Liquid
Oil
Water
Cation exchange capacity (CEC or MBT)
Mud Weight (Density)

Formation pressures are contained by the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid.
Hydrostatic pressure is a function of depth and mud density (or mud weight). Mud weight
is determined with a mud balance which consists of a cup with a lid mounted at the end of
a graduated arm. See Figure 2-8. A knife edge on the arm rests on a supporting base. A
sliding weight on the arm is moved towards or away from the knife edge to balance the
mud-filled cup. Mud weight is then read directly on the arm of the mud balance in lb/gal,
g/cc, lb/sq in/1000 ft, and lb/cu ft. A mud balance is accurate to 0.1 lb/gal. It may be
calibrated with fresh water at 8.35 lb/gal and balancing it by adding or removing lead shot
from the weight adjustment chamber. A pressurized density balance such as the Fann
model 144 should be used to determine the density of cement slurries, gas cut, or aerated
fluids.
Weight adjustment
Plastic screw cover
carrying case
Lead shot
Rider
Fulcrum
Lid
Knife edge with level
Base with fulcrum
Figure 2-8: Fann Mud Balance

January 1997
Rheological Properties
Funnel viscosity
Plastic viscosity (PV)
Yield point (YP)
Gel strength
Measurement of the rheological properties of a drilling fluid are used to:
Calculate frictional pressure losses
Determine the ability of the mud to lift cuttings and cavings to the surface
Analyze contamination of the mud by solids, chemicals, or temperature
Determine pressure changes in the wellbore during a trip
Rheology Models Used for Fluids

Fluid rheology and hydraulics are engineering terms that describe the behavior of fluids in
motion.
The viscosity of a fluid, measured in poise, is the stress in dynes per square centimeter
needed to produce a difference in velocity of one centimeter per second between two
layers that are one centimeter apart, and one-hundredth of a poise is equal to a centipoise.
An increase or decrease in viscosity has a direct effect on pressure losses from fluid flow.
There may be a dramatic increase in viscosity when an influx of gas/saltwater enters from
a kick. For example, thicker fluid results in a higher annular pressure loss, which increases
the equivalent circulating density, resulting in wellbore stress. In some cases, increasing
the viscosity of a fluid can decrease the amount of fluid lost to a formation.
Funnel viscosity, in seconds per quart, is measured by using a Marsh funnel and measuring
cup. The Marsh funnel measures a timed rate of flow. Funnel viscosity is the number of
seconds required for a quart of mud to pass through a 3/16 tube fastened to the bottom
of a 12-inch funnel. The resulting value is a qualitative indicator of the mud viscosity.
A better measure of mud rheological properties is obtained from a direct-reading,

concentric-cylinder rotary viscometer. The standard field unit is a Fann VG meter or a
modified Fann meter. See Figure 2-9. The viscometer provides two readings that are easily
converted to the rheological parameter's plastic viscosity and yield point. Plastic viscosity
has units of centipoise and is that part of the flow resistance in a mud caused primarily by
the friction between suspended particles and the viscosity of the liquid phase. Plastic
viscosity is affected by the concentration, size, and shape of the solids particles found in
the mud. Yield point has units of pounds per 100 square feet and is that part of the
resistance to flow caused by the attractive forces between particles.

January 1997
Cover
Jewel
Crank
Rotor
Gel strength
knob
Scribed
Line
300 rpm
Sleeve position
600 rpm
position
Stir position
Cup
Bob Leg locknut
Cup alignment holes
Base
Figure 2-9: Fann 260 Rotary Viscometer
The rotary viscometer is also used to determine a drilling fluid's thixotropic characteristics,
(its ability to develop a rigid or semirigid gel structure when not circulating). Gel strength
measurements are taken after allowing the mud to stand for 10 seconds and for 10
minutes.
Mud pH and Alkalinity

The pH of a drilling fluid indicates its relative acidity or alkalinity. The pH scale ranges
from zero to fourteen; a pH of seven is neutral. Muds are nearly always alkaline. The
typical pH range for drilling fluids is 8.5 to 12.5. Mud pH affects the dispersability of
clays, solubility of various products and chemicals, corrosion of steel materials, and mud
rheological properties.
The two principal methods for determining pH are the colorimetric and the electrometric
methods. The colorimetric method is based on the effect of acids or alkalis on the color of
certain chemical indicators found on the strips of pH paper. pH strips are placed on the
surface of the drilling fluid and the resulting color is compared to a standard chart. The
electrometric method is based on the voltage developed between two special electrodes

January 1997
when they are immersed in the drilling fluid (pH meter). The latter method is more
accurate.
Alkalinity of a fluid is a measure of the concentration of water-soluble ions that neutralize
acids. The Pm test is used to measure total alkalinity contributing compounds, soluble and
insoluble, in a drilling fluid.
Filtration (API low temperature/low pressure, HTHP high temperature/high pressure)

When a drilling fluid is placed opposite or circulated past a permeable formation, it will
lose some of its liquid phase into that formation. Mud solids will deposit on the walls of
the hole and form a filter cake. Fluid loss is affected by the permeability of the formation,
the differential pressure between the mud and the formation, and the filtration
characteristics of the drilling fluid.
Two standard tests are used for measuring the relative fluid loss of a drilling fluid. The two
tests are distinguished by the pressure applied to the fluid and the temperature at which the
test is conducted. The standard API test is conducted at low temperature and 100 psi
pressure. The high temperature/high pressure (HTHP) test is usually run at 300F (77C)
and 500 psi. Sometimes the HTHP test is run at a temperature and pressure that simulates
subsurface conditions. Normally, the HTHP test results in higher fluid loss than the low
pressure test because some filtration-control agents lose their effectiveness when subjected
to temperature and pressure.
Filtrate Analysis
Using the filtrate collected from the API filtration test, several chemical analyses are
performed. These include:
Alkalinity (Pf/Mf)
Hardness
Salinity
These tests are used to determine the presence of contaminants, to assist in the control of
fluid properties, and to determine treatments.
Alkalinity - Alkalinity is a measure of the concentration of water-soluble ions that

neutralize acids. The Pf and Mf tests are used to determine the concentration of alkalinity
contributing ions soluble in the aqueous phase of a drilling fluid. The Pf (phenolphthalein
endpoint of the filtrate) measures the concentration of ions down to a pH of 8.3. It is
usually assumed that this test is a measure of hydroxyl (OH-) ions.
The Mf ( methyl orange endpoint of the filtrate) measures the concentration of ions down
to a pH of 4.3. These ions primarily include carbonates (CO-3) and bicarbonates (HCO-3).
Even though there are other ions that could contribute to alkalinity, these are the most
common.
Hardness - The hardness test is used to determine the concentration of polyvalent metallic
ions (i.e. Ca+2, Mg+2, Fe+3) in the mud filtrate. Sources of these ions usually include
contaminants such as cement, anhydrite formations, calcium flows, etc.

January 1997
Salinity - The salinity test is used to determine the concentration of salt in a drilling fluid.
Monitoring the salt concentration allows the field service representative to check for
contamination of the drilling fluid by saltwater flows or salt containing formations.
Solids Analysis
Solids analysis is used to determine the amounts of:
Sand
Total solids
Liquid
Oil
Water
The solids content affects most drilling fluid properties including density, viscosity, gel
strength, fluid loss, and temperature stability. The solids content also has an influence on
fluid treatment and the equipment necessary for efficient drilling operations.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC or MBT)

This test provides a method of monitoring the concentration of clays in the drilling fluid.
Data from this test is usually expressed as pounds per barrel (lb/bbl) bentonite equivalent
or milliequivalent per milliliter of fluid (meq/ml).
Rheological terms
The following table contains standard rheological terms and definitions.

January 1997
Rheological Symbol Unit(s) Definition

term
Shear rate sec-1 The change in fluid velocity divided by the gap
or width of the channel through which the
fluid is moving in laminar flow.
Shear stress lb/100 ft2 The force per unit area required to move a
Pa fluid at a given shear rate; shear stress is
measured on oil field viscometers by the
deflection of the meters dial at a given shear
speed. The specific dial reading is usually
denoted by .
Example:
300 describes the dial deflection at 300 rpm
on the rotational viscometer.
Shear speed rpm The rotational speed on a standard oil field

viscometer on which the shear stress is
measured.
Viscosity centipoise A fluids shear stress divided by the

cP corresponding shear rate, or = /. Fluid
Pa sec viscosity can be measured at a certain point or
over a wide range of shear stress/shear rate
measurements.
Effective cP The viscosity used to describe fluid flowing

viscosity Pa sec through a particular geometry; as hole
geometries change, so does .
Yield point YP lb/100 ft2 The force required to initiate flow; the
Pa calculated value of the fluids shear stress
when the rheogram is extrapolated to the y-
axis at = 0 sec-1.
Note:
The YP is a time-independent measurement
and is usually associated with the Bingham
model.
Rheological Symbol Unit(s) Definition

term
Yield stress 0 lb/100 ft2 The force required to initiate flow; the
Pa calculated value of the fluids shear stress

January 1997
when the rheogram is extrapolated to the y-

axis at - 0 sec-1.
Note:
Yield stress is a time-independent
measurement and is usually denoted in the
Herschel-Bulkley (yield-power law [YPL])
model as 0 and Bingham model as YP. It can
also be considered a gel strength at zero time.
Gel none lb/100 ft2 Time-dependent measurements of a fluids

strengths Pa shear stress under static conditions. Gel
strengths are commonly measured after 10-
second, 10-minute and 30-minute intervals,
but they can be measured for any desired
length of time.
Plastic PV cP The contribution to fluid viscosity of a fluid

viscosity Pa sec under dynamic flow conditions. Generally the
plastic viscosity is related to the size, shape,
and number of particles in a moving fluid. PV
is calculated using shear stresses measured at
600 and 300 on the Fann 35 viscometer.
Flow index n none The numerical relation between a fluids shear

stress and shear rate on a log/log plot. This
value describes a fluids degree of shear-
thinning behavior.
Consistency K (eq) cP The viscosity of a flowing fluid identical in

index Pa secn concept to the PV.
lb/100 Note:
ft2secn Viscous effects attributed to a fluids yield
stress are not part of the consistency index as
this parameter describes dynamic flow only.
Table 2-1: Rheological Terms and Definitions
Flow Regimes
There are three basic types of flow regimes. These are:
Laminar
Turbulent
Transitional

January 1997
Laminar flow occurs at low-to-moderate shear rates when layers of fluid move past each
other in an orderly fashion. This motion is parallel to the walls of the channel through
which the fluid is moving. Friction between the fluid and the channel walls is lowest for
this type of flow. Mud rheological parameters are important in calculating frictional
pressure losses for muds in laminar flow.
Turbulent flow occurs at high shear rates where the fluid moves in a chaotic fashion.
Particles in turbulent flow are carried by random loops and current eddies. Friction
between the fluid and the channel walls is highest for this type of flow. Mud rheological
parameters are not significant in calculating frictional pressure losses for muds in turbulent
flow.
Transitional flow occurs when the flow shifts from laminar flow to turbulent flow or vice
versa. The critical velocity of a fluid is the particular velocity at which the flow changes
from laminar to turbulent or vice versa.
Fluid Types
There are two basic types of fluids; Newtonian and non-Newtonian. Rheological and
hydraulic models have been developed to characterize the flow behavior of these two
types of fluids.
Newtonian fluids have a constant viscosity at a given temperature and pressure condition.
Common Newtonian fluids include:
Diesel
Water
Glycerin
Clear brines
Non-Newtonian fluids have viscosities that depend on measured shear rates for a given
temperature and pressure condition. Examples of non-Newtonian fluids include:
Most drilling fluids
Cement
Rheological Models
Rheological models help predict behavior across a wide range of shear rates. Most drilling
fluids are non-Newtonian, pseudoplastic fluids. The most important rheological models
that pertain to them are the following:
Bingham model
Power law model
Herschel-Bulkley (yield-power law [YPL]) model

January 1997
Figure 2-10 depicts typical rheological profiles for Bingham-plastic fluids, power law
fluids, and Newtonian fluids. A typical drilling fluids rheological profile is also included to
show that these rheological models do not characterize non-Newtonian drilling fluids very
well. The Herschel-Bulkley (yield-power law [YPL]) model is the most accurate model for
predicting the rheological behavior of common drilling fluids.
Bingham-plastic fluid
Figure 2-10: Fluid Behavior Comparison.

Typical drilling fluid
Bingham Model Power-law fluid

The Bingham model describes laminar flow using the following equation:
Shear
Newtonian fluid
stress
= YP + (PV x )
Where:
= Measured shear stress in lb/100 ft2 Shear rate
YP = Yield point in lb/100 ft2
PV = Plastic viscosity in cP
= Shear rate in sec-1
Current API guidelines require the calculation of YP and PV using the following
equations:
PV = 600 - 300
YP = 300 - PV
Or
YP = (2 x 300) - 600
Because the model assumes true plastic behavior, the flow index of a fluid fitting this
model must have n = 1. Unfortunately, this does not often occur and the model usually

January 1997
overpredicts yield stresses (shear stresses at zero shear rate) by 40 to 90 percent. A quick
and easy method to calculate more realistic yield stresses is to assume the fluid exhibits
true plastic behavior in the low shear-rate range only. A low shear rate yield point (LSR
YP) can be calculated using the following equation:
LSR YP = (2 x 3) - 6
This calculation produces a yield stress value close to that produced by other, more
complex models and can be used when the required computer algorithm is not available.
Power Law Model

The power law model describes fluid rheological behavior using the following equation:
= K x n
This model describes the rheological behavior of polymer-based drilling fluids that do not
exhibit yield stress (i.e., viscosified clear brines). Some fluids viscosified with biopolymers
can also be described by power law model behavior.
The general equations for calculating a fluids flow index and consistency index are:
log (t 2 /t 1)
n =
log (g 2 /g 1)
2
n = n
2
Where:
= Calculated shear stress in lb/100 ft2
2 = Shear stress at higher shear rate
1 = Shear stress at lower shear rate
n = Flow index
2 = Higher shear rate
1 = Lower shear rate
K = Consistency index
Example:
Using the shear stresses measured at shear rates equal to 600 and 300, the general
equations become:
600
log [ ]
n = 300
600
log [ ]
300

January 1997
or
600
n = 3.32 x log [ ]
300
511 x 300
K = n
(in eq cP) or
511
511 x 600
K = n
(in eq cP)
1022
Note:
The power law model can produce widely differing values of n and K. The results depend
on the shear-stress/shear-rate data pairs used in the calculations.
Herschel-Bulkley (yield power law [YPL]) Model

Because most drilling fluids exhibit yield stress, the Herschel-Bulkley (yield power law
[YPL]) model describes the rheological behavior of drilling muds more accurately than
any other model. The YPL model uses the following equation to describe fluid behavior:
= 0 + (K x n)
Where:
= Measured shear stress in lb/100 ft2
0 = Fluids yield stress (shear stress at zero shear rate) in lb/100 ft2
K = Fluids consistency index in cP or lb/100 ft2 secn
n = Fluids flow index
K and n values in the YPL model are calculated differently than their counterparts in the
power law model. The YPL model reduces to the Bingham model when n = 1 and it
reduces to the power law model when 0 = 0. An obvious advantage the YPL model has
over the power law model is that, from a set of data input, only one value for n and K are
calculated.
Note:
The YPL model requires:
A computer algorithm to obtain solutions.
A minimum of three shear-stress/shear-rate measurements for solution. Model
accuracy is improved with additional data input.
eq cP
lb/100 ft 2 sec n =
478.8
Static and Dynamic Filtration

January 1997
Filtration loss (fluid loss) is a loss of the liquid portion of a drilling fluid through a filter
cake of relatively low permeability that is formed on the surface of a filter medium such as
a permeable formation. There are two types of filtration that occur during the drilling of a
well:
1. Static filtration takes place when the drilling fluid is not being circulated.
2. Dynamic filtration occurs when the drilling fluid is being circulated. It is tested using a
Fann 90 unit.
Filtration Tests
Filtration tests are used to determine the filtration properties of a drilling fluid.
Fann 90 test
Particle-plugging test (PPT)
Fann 90 Test
Description
The Fann 90, a dynamic radial filtration apparatus, evaluates the filtration properties of a
circulating fluid through a ceramic core. Dynamic filtration simulates the effect of fluid
movement (shear rate) on the filtration rate and filter cake deposition. Normal operating
conditions include:
Temperatures up to 500F (260C)
Core with mean pore throat diameters of 5 to 190 microns
Differential pressure across the core up to 500 psi (3,447 kPa)

January 1997
Interpretation
This test determines if the fluid is properly conditioned to drill through permeable
formations. The test results include two numbers: dynamic filtration rate and cake
deposition index (CDI). The dynamic filtration rate is calculated from the slope of the
curve of volume versus time. The CDI, which reflects the erodability of the wall cake, is
calculated from the slope of the curve of volume/time versus time. CDI and dynamic
filtration rate are calculated using data collected after twenty minutes. Typical Fann 90 test
results for the dynamic filtration rate and maximum acceptable values for CDI are shown
in Figure 2-11.
Volume, ml XYZ Petroleum Volume/Time, ml/min

Fann 90 data at 250F 5.0
16
14 Dynamic filtration rate, ml/min = 0.17 4.0
12 3.0
10
2.0
8
6 1.0
4 0.0
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time, min
Volume vs Time Vol/Time vs Time
10-micron core Base mud

Figure 2-11: Fann 90 Test Results.
Fann 90 maximum acceptable values
Mud weight, lb/gal (sg) Rate, mL/min CDI
9-12 (1.08-1.44) 0.22 25
12-15 (1.44-1.80) 0.18 20
Greater than 15 (1.81 or greater) 0.14 16
Table 2-2: Fann 90 CDI Values

January 1997
Particle-Plugging Test (PPT)

Description
The particle-plugging apparatus is a static inverted HTHP filter press with a ceramic disk
as a filter medium. This static test measures the pore-plugging ability of a fluid. PPT
results include initial spurt loss and total volume loss over 30 minutes.
Normal operating conditions include:
Temperatures up to 350F (176C)
Differential pressures up to 2,000 psi (13,770 kPa)
Ceramic disk with mean pore-throat diameters of 5 to 190 microns
Routine testing of filtration properties are conducted in the field with a low pressure filter
tester and/or Fann high temperature high pressure (HTHP) filter tester. Results are
produced under static conditions and should not be considered as actual down hole
conditions. To obtain desirable filtration loss test results, fluid and/or chemical additions
are made to the drilling fluid.
Completion and Workover Fluids
Types of Fluids
Completion and workover fluids can be divided into three basic categories:
Water: Oil: Gas:
Fresh water Diesel Nitrogen
Bay water No. 2 jet fuel
Sea water Lease crude
Field water Oil base mud
Water base mud
Class 1 brine:
Potassium chloride (KCl)
Calcium chloride (CaCl2)
Class 2 brine:
Calcium bromide (CaBr2)
Class 3 brine:
Zinc bromide (ZnBr2)
Table 2-3: Types of Completion and Workover Fluids

January 1997
Proper brine type and formulation requires:

Proper density to control the well (see Figure 2-12)
Minimization of formation damage
Evaluation of formation to fluid compatibility
Non-corrosive, free of solid particles and with proper crystallization point
Evaluation of the economic factors (cost per barrel)
Stability with time and temperature
Safety
Safety is a primary concern requiring balanced or slightly overbalanced down hole
pressure conditions. There are additional points to consider when using gas, water, or oil
as a completion or workover fluid.
1. The necessary equipment for handling nitrogen must be available to safely convert the
nitrogen from its liquid state (-320F at atmospheric pressure) to a gas. This
requires a pump, safety valves, gasifier, and appropriate controls and instruments
for operation. A viscosifier or foaming agent may be required to provide carrying
capacity to the nitrogen.
2. Salt solutions may cause environmental damage to animal, marine or plant life. The use
of salt water or fresh water may also cause some clays and shales to swell. Damage
created by swelling clay or shale can cause severe or total plugging of formation.
Lease water should be treated with water wetting surfactant if it contains oil
wetting emulsion breakers. The temperature at which a brine formation will be
transported, stored, and used must also be considered. The crystallization point
(temperature at which last crystal dissolves) of a brine formulation should be well
below the anticipated temperatures to prevent crystallization before or during use.
Table 2-4 shows crystallization points for commonly used clear-fluid completion
systems. At surface pressure, the density of a brine solution will decrease as
temperature increases. All brine densities should be measured at the same
temperature (70F) using a hydrometer. Figure 2-12 shows the maximum densities
and specific gravities of commonly used clear-fluid completion systems. Corrosion
is a concern when using brines, especially brines containing calcium chloride,
calcium bromide, and zinc bromide. A suitable corrosion inhibitor must be used to
considerably reduce corrosion rates.
3. When oil is mixed with certain crudes, the precipitation of asphaltenes can occur which
can cause serious formation plugging. Oil is commonly referred to as a solids free
fluid; however, it can carry fine sand and solids which should be filtered out. Since
oil density varies from 6 to 8 pounds per gallon, its application is directed towards
low pressure wells. The fire and/or pollution potential needs to be a major concern
when an oil is being used.

January 1997
Comparative densities of clear-fluid completion systems
20.5 (2.46)
19.7 (2.36)
19.2 (2.30)
15.4 (1.85)
15.1 (1.81)
13.3 (1.60)
Density, lb/gal (sg)
12.7 (1.53)
11.8 (1.42)
11.5 (1.38)
11.1 (1.33)
10.0 (1.20)
9.7 (1.16)
CaBr 2 /ZnBr 2
CaCl2 /CaBr2
NaBr/NaCl
Na formate
Ca formate
NaCl/KCl
K formate
KBr/KCl
ZnBr2
CaBr2
CaCl2
NaCl
KCl
Figure 2-12: Comparative Densities of Clear-Fluid Completion Systems

January 1997
Crystallization Points
Density Type (lb/gal) Crystallization Point
NaCl, NaBr 8.4 to 10.00 -1 to 31F
8.4 to 12.7 -19 to 63F
KCl, KBr 8.4 to 9.7 14 to 60F
8.6 to 11.5 30 to 75F
KCl/KBr 9.8 to 10.9 23 to 70F
NaCl/NaBr 10.0 to 12.7 -22 to 45F
10.0 to 12.4 -22 to 30F
NaCl/KCl 8.4 to 10.0 -7 to 31F
8.4 to 10.0 4 to 55F
NaCl/CaCl2 10.1 to 11.1 -42 to 0F
CaCl2 8.4 to 11.6 -57 to 44F
CaBr2 11.0 to 14.5 -81 to 35F
14.3 to 15.4 25 to 87F
14.0 to 15.5 15 to 81F
CaCl2/CaBr2 11.7 to 15.1 45 to 68F
11.7 to 14.9 45 to 67F
11.8 to 14.9 55 to 59F
11.9 to 14.8 45 to 52F
11.7 to 15.1 39 to 64F

Table 2-4: Crystallization Points

January 1997
Density Type (lb/gal) Crystallization Point

CaCl2/CaBr2 11.7 to 14.2 -15 to 39F
11.6 to 14.5 30 to 40F
11.8 to 14.4 5 to 15F
10.7 to 14.2 -54 to 64F
10.9 to 14.2 -30 to 15F
11.0 to 14.2 -18 to 15F
11.1 to 14.2 -15 to 15F
11.2 to 14.2 -11 to 15F
11.3 to 14.2 -2 to 20F
11.4 to 14.2 -5 to 32F
11.5 to 14.2 1 to 41F
11.6 to 14.2 4 to 50F
11.7 to 14.2 7 to 55F
10.7 to 15.1 -58 to 68F
11.7 to 15.1 45 to 68F
CaCl2/CaBr2/ZnBr2 14.4 to 15.1 -6 to 69F
14.3 to 15.6 10 to 40F
14.3 to 15.6 10 to 20F
15.0 to 19.2 -8 to 28F
15.0 to 19.2 3 to 46F
15.0 to 19.2 20 to 51F
15.0 to 19.2 -40 to 23F
14.6 to 19.2 16 to 63F
15.0 to 19.2 16 to 64F
Table 2-4: Crystallization Points Continued
Packer Fluids
There are several types of packer fluids: diesel, crude oil, oil base mud, fresh water, brines,
and water base mud. Packer fluid considerations:
Water-based mud in general is not a good packer fluid. Temperature and time may
create an unpumpable or solidified mud. The organic thinners degrade and can
form sulfides.
Fresh water and brines are satisfactory packer fluids as long as they are not severely
contaminated by corrosive formation fluids due to casing, tubing, or packer leaks.
Fresh water and brine packer fluids should be treated with the appropriate
inhibitor.
Some drilling fluid will likely remain in or on the casing. This will result in some
corrosion and small quantities of sulfide may develop. Treat the packer fluid with
the appropriate inhibitor.

January 1997
Even though oil base mud can provide long term protection from corrosion, there is
still the concern of weight material settling inside and/or outside a tubing string.
Diesel and crude oil are very good packer fluids if their density is high enough to get
the job done and if they are not used on a gas well.
The high cost of synthetic fluids make brine completion fluids economical.
DRIL-N Fluids
DRIL-N Fluids are designed to be essentially non-damaging to the producing formation,
provide superior hole cleaning, allow easy clean-up and are cost effective. These fluids
address the wide range of problems encountered in horizontal drilling, completion, and
workover operations. DRIL-N fluids are designed to provide the lowest filtration rate
possible in order to minimize or prevent formation damage.
Bridging off the production zone is a key to preventing formation damage. Bridging
materials that are used in DRIL-N fluids include sized calcium carbonate and salt.
When bridging production zones, the correct sizing of particles becomes important. The
pore diameter of the formation must be known to effectively bridge. An industry rule of
thumb for estimating an unknown pore diameter (microns) is to take the square root of the
permeability in millidarcies. To effectively bridge off the production zone, 20-30% by
weight of the bridging material should be one-third of the pore size in microns.
Filtration tests on DRIL-N fluids are conducted using a ceramic disk that simulates as
close as possible the pore size of the formation. These tests can be used in the field to
determine proper application of the DRIL-N fluids system.
Baroid has five unique systems, each designed to do a specific job of addressing a specific
set of conditions and objectives. The following table gives a brief description of each
system. A more detailed description is found in each system section.
DRIL-N Fluid Systems
System Description
BARADRIL-N Sized calcium carbonate system
COREDRIL-N All oil drilling and coring system
MAXDRIL-N Mixed metal silicate system
SHEARDRIL-N Clay free, modified polymer system
SOLUDRIL-N Sized salt system
Table 2-5: DRIL-N Fluid Systems

January 1997
The following table lists the DRIL-N systems in this chapter, providing a matrix that rates
each system according to its applicability for various drilling situations. Table 2-6 rates
DRIL-N fluids as good, better or best under various drilling situations.
Good
Better
Best
DRIL-N Fluid situations
Systems Reactive Depleted Horizontal/ Minimize Clean -up

shales zones High angle formation
drilling damage
BARADRIL-N
COREDRIL-N
MAXDRIL-N
SHEARDRIL-N
SOLUDRIL-N
Table 2-6: DRIL-N Fluids Versus Drilling Situations
BARADRIL-N
The BARADRIL-N system provides acid soluble drilling, completion, and workover fluid
compositions. The BARADRIL-N system is designed for non-damaging drilling when
fluid loss and formation stability are of primary concern. Return permeabilities are
excellent with the BARADRIL-N system and the filtercake is easily removed by treating
with hydrochloric acid. Table 2-7 lists products and provides typical product
concentrations for formulating BARADRIL-N fluids. Table 2-8 lists base fluids and their
recommended corresponding density ranges for formulating BARADRIL-N fluids.
Formulation
Products are listed in order of addition.
Density range 8.5 - 16.0 lb/gal (1.02-1.92 sg)
Additive Function Typical concentrations,

January 1997
lb/bbl (kg/m3)
N-VIS Viscosifier 0.25-1 (0.7-3)
N-VIS P Viscosifier/Filtration control 1-3 (3-9)
N-DRIL HT Filtration control 2-10 (6-29)
BARACARB Weighting/ Bridging agent As needed

5/25/50/150
BARABUF Alkalinity 0.1-3.0 (0.3-9)
Table 2-7: BARADRIL-N Product Guidelines
Formulation guidelines
BARADRIL-N fluids may be formulated in freshwater, seawater, potassium chloride,
sodium chloride, calcium chloride, sodium bromide, or calcium bromide brines.
Add all polymers slowly to prevent the formation of fish eyes.
Add BARACARB as needed for density and bridging requirements.
Add BARABUF for pH control
Base fluid BARADRIL-N fluid density, lb/gal (sg)
Freshwater 8.8-10.0 (1.05-1.20)
Seawater 9.0-10.0 (1.08-1.20)
Potassium chloride 9.0-12.0 (1.08-1.50)
Sodium chloride 9.0-12.5 (1.08-1.50)
Sodium bromide 12.0-14.5 (1.44-1.74)
Calcium bromide 12.0-16.0 (1.44-1.92)
Table 2-8: BARADRIL-N Base Fluid Guidelines

Caution:
When selecting a saturated salt fluid, be aware of its crystallization point.

January 1997
Maintenance guidelines
Add BARABUF to maintain alkalinity in the 8 - 10 pH range.
BARACARB additions should be sized according to the mean pore diameter size of
the formation.
Note:
Rule of Thumb To effectively bridge off the productivon zone, 20-30% by weight of the
bridging material (BARACARB) should be one-third of the pore size in microns.
COREDRIL-N
COREDRIL-N fluids are 100% oil/synthetic drilling fluids that have been developed to
control the formation damage that could be caused by conventional drilling operations.
The COREDRIL-N system contains an optimum concentration of BARACARB designed
to bridge rock pores, thus providing low filtration rates - minimizing fluid invasion into
potential pay zones. COREDRIL-N fluids use passive emulsifiers which reduce the risk of
creating emulsion blockage and preserve the wettability characteristics of the reservoir
rocks. Table 2-9 lists products and provides typical product concentrations for formulating
COREDRIL-N fluids.
Formulation
Density range 7.5 - 12.0 lb/gal (0.90-1.44 sg)

lb/bbl (kg/m3)
Oil/Synthetic Base fluid As needed
EZ-CORE Passive emulsifier 2 (6)
Lime Alkalinity/Emulsification aid 1-2 (3-6)
BARABLOK or High temp filtration control 5-25 (14-71)

BARABLOK 400 or
DURATONE HT
N-VIS O Viscosifier/Suspension 6-15 (17-43)
BARACTIVE Polar additive 2-3% (2-3%)
BARACARB 5/25/50/150 Weighting/Bridging agent As needed
Table 2-9: COREDRIL-N Product Guidelines

Note:

January 1997
When using DURATONE HT for filtration control, BARACTIVE must be used as an

activator.
COREDRIL-N fluids may be formulated with diesel, mineral oils, esters, and
synthetics.
Provide sufficient mixing time and high shearing action for proper yield.
Lime addition provides alkalinity to aid in emulsification.
Minimize invasion of water from formation through proper control of hydrostatic
pressure.
Do not contaminate fluid with water from surface equipment.
Note:
"Rule of thumb" To effectively bridge off the production zone, 20-30% by weight of the
MAXDRIL-N
The MAXDRIL-N is a mixed-metal silicate system (MMS) designed for drilling, milling,
and completion operations. MAXDRIL-N provides borehole stability and superior hole
cleaning for milling casing and drilling highly deviated/horizontal sections. This fluid is
especially effective when drilling in unconsolidated, unstable, stressed or faulted
formations.
MAXDRIL-N forms a low permeability filter cake that restricts solids and fluid invasions
into the formation, thus reducing damage to the formation. Table 2-10 lists products and
provides typical product concentrations for formulating MAXDRIL-N fluids.
Formulation
Density range 8.8 - 13.0 lb/gal (1.06-1.56 sg).

lb/bbl (kg/m3)

January 1997
Soda ash Hardness reducer 0.05-0.25 (0.15-0.7)
AQUAGEL GOLD SEAL Viscosifier 8-15 (23-43)
Caustic soda Alkalinity As needed for pH 9.5-11.5
N-DRIL Fluid Control 2-6 (6-17)
N-VIS HI Viscosifier 0.075 lb per lb

AQUAGEL
(0.075 kg per kg
AQUAGEL )
BARACARB 5/25/50/150 Weighting/Bridging agent As needed
Table 2-10: MAXDRIL-N Product Guidelines

Treat fresh water with soda ash to reduce hardness below 60 mg/L to improve the
yield of AQUAGEL GOLD SEAL.
Prehydrate AQUAGEL GOLD SEAL for at least one hour before adding caustic soda.
Caution:
Do not add any chemicals (i.e., fluid loss control additives or thinners) that are not on
the formulation list.
Note:
For a seawater system, premix chemicals in freshwater and add the premix to salt water
in the pits.
Add prehydrated AQUAGEL GOLD SEAL and/or N-VIS HI, when necessary, to
increase viscosity.
Dilute with water when necessary to decrease viscosity.
Avoid using more than 0.1 lb of N-VIS HI per lb (.1 kg/kg) of AQUAGEL GOLD
SEAL.
Maintain pH between 9.5 and 11.5 with caustic soda.
Caution:
Any anionic product may cause adverse deflocculation or dispersion.
Note:
"Rule of thumb" To effectively bridge off the productivon zone, 20-30% by weight of the
Contamination

January 1997
Clean tanks prior to adding fluid or products. When milling casing, the old drilling fluid
left behind casing may cause deflocculation or thinning.
Keep calcium levels below 60 mg/L with soda ash.
SHEARDRIL-N
SHEARDRIL-N fluids are designed as a solids-free modified polymer drilling fluid.
SHEARDRIL-N provides maximum penetration rates while minimizing formation
damage. Table 2-11 lists products and provides typical product concentrations for
formulating SHEARDRIL-N fluids.
Formulation

lb/bbl (kg/m3)
N-DRIL HI Viscosifier/ Filtration control 1-3 (3-9)
N-DRIL LO Viscosifier/Filtration control 1-3 (3-9)
Caustic soda Alkalinity 0.05-1 (0.15-3)
BARABUF Alkalinity 1-3 (3-9)
Table 2-11: SHEARDRIL-N Product Guidelines
When mixing N-DRIL HI and N-DRIL LO, add slowly and agitate to ensure proper
hydration of polymers.
Use brines to obtain the required density. Refer to the brine density tables in the
chapter titled Completion fluids in the Baroid Red Handbook for density
guidelines.
Caution:
Do not use brines containing zinc.
In saltwater fluids use BARABUF to maintain alkalinity.
In other systems maintain alkalinity with caustic soda.
SOLUDRIL-N

January 1997
SOLUDRIL-N fluids are designed for drilling, completion or workover operations in

horizontal and vertical wells. SOLUDRIL-N fluids utilize BARAPLUG (sized salt) and a
cross-linked polymer to provide superior rheological and filtration control. Table 2-12 lists
products and provides typical product concentrations for formulating SOLUDRIL-N
fluids. Table 2-13 lists base fluids and their corresponding density ranges for formulating
SOLUDRIL-N fluids.
Formulation

lb/bbl (kg/m3)
Brine (saturated) Base fluid Saturate based on the

brine used
N-VIS P Viscosifier/Filtration control 1-3 (3-9)
N-DRIL HT Filtration control 5-10 (14-29)
BARAPLUG Weighting/Bridging agent As needed

6-300/20/40/50
BARABUF Alkalinity 1-3 (3-9)
Table 2-12: SOLUDRIL-N Product Guidelines
SOLUDRIL-N fluids may be formulated in saturated potassium chloride, sodium
chloride, calcium chloride, sodium bromide, or calcium bromide brines.
Add all polymers slowly to prevent the formation of fish eyes.
Add BARAPLUG as needed for density and bridging requirements.
Add BARABUF to maintain alkalinity in the 8-10 pH range.
Base fluid SOLUDRIL-N fluid density, lb/gal (sg)
Potassium chloride 10.0-12.0 (1.20-1.44)
Sodium chloride 10.4-12.5 (1.25-1.50)
Calcium chloride 12.0-13.5 (1.44-1.62)

January 1997
Sodium bromide 13.0-14.5 (1.56-1.74)
Table 2-13: SOLUDRIL-N Base Fluid Guidelines

Caution:
When selecting a saturated salt fluid be aware of its crystallization point.
Any fluid dilution should be made with the saturated brine used for the base fluid.
BARAPLUG additions should be sized according to the mean pore diameter of the
formation.
Note:
"Rule of thumb" To effectively bridge off the productive zone, 20-30% by weight of the
bridging material (BARAPLUG) should be one-third of the pore size in microns.
Completion and Workover Well Control

Well control for completion and workover operations are practically the same principles
and procedures used in a drilling well control environment. During well completion there
is an intentional flow from the well. The following is list of similarities between completion
well control and well control:
Utilization of soft and hard shut-in procedures
Kill weight mud calculation
Casing burst pressure consideration
Concern about formation fracturing
Stripping and snubbing operations
Conducting a lubrication or bullheading procedures
Dynamic kill method (Wait and Weight or Drillers)
Working in hydrogen sulfide environment
Monitoring of hole fill up during trip
Placement of barite or cement plug
Establishing shut-in pressure when a float valve is in the string
Establishing kill rate pressure if unknown at time of shut-in
However, there are points of distinction that separate completion and workover well
control from drilling well control. Completion and workover well control is associated
with abnormally low, normal, and/or abnormally high pressure zones. These zones are
known producing intervals which are exposed to the wellbore. The fluid used to control
the production zone(s) is normally a clear water-based brine, which is solids free and has a
low viscosity. The low viscosity of brines will facilitate the rate of gas migration.

January 1997
Furthermore, simultaneous drilling and completion or workover operations on the same

platform is quite common. Well control during this operation can be restated as
communication and safety. Shut down systems include automatic shut down systems and
emergency shut down systems. They provide protection for life and property. These
systems are designed to shut-in a producing well in the event of operational or other
critical or hazardous system irregularities. The shut down can be accomplished by manual
or automatic, direct or remote control using surface or subsurface valves and tools. If the
emergency shut down system is activated, then all possible ignition sources must be shut
off to reduce the risk factor for an explosion or fire.
The probability of fluid loss or seepage is high when dealing with low pressure zones. To
diminish the risk, a viscous polymer pill or calcium carbonate are commonly used to plug
off the formation. Pills are a predetermined quantity of fluid designed for a specific
purpose to be spotted at or pumped to specific place.
The plugging agent must be removed after operation(s) are completed, by acidizing or
back flowing the formation.
Weight Material Calculations

BARACARB (Calcium Carbonate) is:
2.7 Specific Gravity
22.5 Pounds per Gallon
945 Pounds per Barrel
18.89 Sacks per Barrel
Pounds per Barrel Calculation:
945 x (FD - SD)
lb/bbl =
22.5 - FD
Required Pounds Calculation:
lb = lb/bbl x (V1 + V2)
Total Number of Sacks:

lb
Total sacks =
50 bbl/sack
Pit Volume Increase:

total sacks
bbl =
18.89
Where:

January 1997
FD = Final density, lb/gal

SD = Starting density, lb/gal
V1 = Surface volume, bbl
V2 = Hole volume, bbl
Maintaining well control when high and low pressure zones are exposed is a problem. The
low pressure zone will not withstand the increase in hydrostatic pressure due to the
density requirements needed to control the high pressure zone. Once again, a plugging
agent is sometimes used or a mechanical plug is set to isolate the zones from each other.
When work string or tubing is off bottom, circulating of kill fluid can be carried out two
different ways. See Figures 2-13 & 2-14. One option is to use the standard circulation
approach. The phrase standard circulation means that kill fluid is pumped down the
work string or tubing, up the annulus and back to the surface. The other option is the
reverse circulation approach. The phrase reverse circulation means that kill fluid is
pumped down the annulus and up the work string or tubing back to the surface. Reverse
circulating has a couple of disadvantages. For example, if there are jets or circulating ports
in the work string or tubing, the possibility of plugging the work string or tubing becomes
a high risk factor. The kill rate speed used can be lower than the rate the gas migrates.
Neither circulating option can be used if the work string or tubing is out of the well. A
bullheading, lubrication, or stripping procedure will need to be initiated before circulation
can be established.

January 1997
Figure 2-13: Standard circulation Figure 2-14: Reverse circulation
Neutralizing a Producing Well

Starting a workover operation will, most often than not, require killing a producing well.
There are several methods to choose from, such as:
Bullheading
Lubrication
Standard circulation
Reverse circulation
When choosing the most effective kill method, evaluate well conditions. As a guideline,
consider the following questions and comments and evaluate the resulting answers.
Has erosion or corrosion affected tubing and casing integrity (burst limits)? In some
cases, casing pressure will need to be applied to keep tubing from bursting. The
possibility of burst pressure is not limited to casing. It is also applicable to the
tubing, especially in high pressure operations. Especially when high pump in
pressure are required.
Do holes or leaks exist in tubing string?
What type of fluids are being produced (gas, water, or oil)? At low pump in rates, the
rate of gas migration may equal or even exceed pump in rate. To reduce the rate of
gas migration, add viscosifiers to the kill fluid. The rate at which gas can flow back
into a formation is greater than the flowback rate of oil or water. The tendency to
plug the formation is reduced when dealing with a gas producing well.
Can the packer fluid in the annulus be circulated?
What are the formation parameters? Such as, depth of perforations, formation
pressure, formation fracture gradient, and formation type (example: fractured
limestone or sand).
Before well control operations can be carried out, the following precautions should be
taken. Stop the well production by closing the production chokes and the master valve.
Close the upper swab valve; this allows the installation of workover equipment to the
production tree. The type of equipment that may be attached to a production tree are:
blowout preventers, pump in lines, and/or lubricator. For additional safety, a wireline plug
is set inside the tubing and a back pressure valve is set mechanically in the bottom of the
production tree. The back pressure valve and plug are used in case the production tree is

January 1997
damaged during installation of the surface equipment or if a leak develops in the

production tree during the pressure testing. The back pressure valve and plug are removed
prior to the initiating of a kill procedure.
Bullheading
Bullheading is the procedure of pumping a kill fluid down the tubing, forcing the
production fluids out of the tubing, across the perforations, and back into the formation
that it came from.
This procedure can be used on normally pressured wells and high pressured wells. The
burst pressure of the casing should never be exceeded, especially when dynamic pressure
is high and the tubing leaks or a hole exists in the tubing. The application of some surface
pressure to the casing side is normally required when dynamic pressure is high and there
are no leaks, no hole in the tubing, or when tubing integrity (erosion or corrosion damage)
is questionable.
Procedure:
4. Determine tubing burst pressure and casing burst pressure
5. Determine kill fluid density requirement.
FP
FDk =
0.052 x Pd
6. Calculate tubing capacity to the perforations.
ID 2
Ct =
1029
Where:
Ct = Tubing capacity, lb/gal
FDk = Kill fluid density, lb/gal
FP = Formation pressure, psi
ID = Internal diameter of tubing, inch
Pd = Depth of perforation, ft
7. As a guideline, double the calculated tubing capacity to establish surface volume
requirement unless experience dictates less surface volume.
8. Calculate the following values:
9. Tubing hydrostatic pressure HPt = EGp x Pd

10. Formation fracture pressure FFP = FGf x 0,052 x Pd
11. Kill fluid hydrostatic pressure HPk = FDk x 0.052 x Pd
12. Initial formation fracture pressure FFPi = FFP - HPt
13. Final formation fracture pressure FFPf = FFP - HPk
Where:

January 1997
FFP = Formation fracture pressure, psi

FFPf = Final formation fracture pressure, psi
FFPi = Initial formation fracture pressure, psi
FGf = Formation fracture gradient, psi/ft
FGp = Production fluid gradient, psi/ft
HPt = Tubing hydrostatic pressure, psi
HPk = Kill fluid hydrostatic pressure, psi
Pd = Depth of perforations, ft
Plot the following values on graph paper for reference during a bullheading procedure:
Tubing capacity
Tubing burst pressure
Shut-in tubing pressure
Initial formation fracture pressure
Final formation fracture pressure
14. Begin pumping kill fluid down the tubing slowly and try to keep tubing pressure below
formation fracture pressure.
7. During pumping operation, monitor the casing pressure and any adjacent tubing strings
for pressure increase. A pressure increase indicates communication has occurred.
7. Open choke and check for flow. A slight flow may be observed due to the expansion of
kill fluid as it warms up down hole.
Example:
Use the following data to make the necessary calculations for a bullheading procedure and
plot information on graph paper for reference when conducting the procedure.
Known:
Tubing: OD=2.375 inch ID=1.995 inch Burst=11,200 psi
Perforations: 8,650 ft
Formation Pressure: 4,723 psi
Formation Fracture Gradient: 0.8216 psi/ft
Production Fluid Gradient: 0.0894 psi/ft
Shut-in Tubing Pressure: 3,950 psi
Procedure:
15. Determine kill fluid density requirement.
FP
FDk =
0.052 x Pd
16. Calculate the pressure reduction per barrel of kill fluid pumped.
1029
17. psi/bbl = x 0.052 x FD k
Tubing ID 2

January 1997
Where:
FDk = Kill fluid density, lb/gal

FP = Formation pressure, psi
ID2 = Internal diameter of tubing, in
Pd = Total pressure required, psi
Solutions:
4723 psi
= 10.5 lb/gal Kill Fluid Density
0.052 x 8650 ft
(1.995 in) 2
x 8,650 ft = 33.5 bbl Tubing Capacity
1029
0.0894 psi/ft x 8,650 ft = 773 psi Tubing Hydrostatic Pressure
10.5 lb/gal x 0.052 x 8,650 ft = 4,723 psi Kill Fluid HP
0.8216 psi/ft x 8,650 ft = 7,107 psi Formation Fracture Pressure
7,107 psi - 773 psi = 6,328 psi Initial Formation Fracture Pressure
7,107 psi - 4,723 psi = 2,384 psi Final Formation Fracture Pressure
14000 Tubing burst pressure
12000
10000
8000
FFPi Ct
Tubing Pressure
6000
SITP FFP
4000
2000
0
0 10 20 30 40
Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level Volume pumped Page 2-49

January 1997
Figure 2-15: Volume Pumped vs. Tubing Pressure

18. Establish the total pressure reduction needed and the pressure increments that will be
used.
19. Calculate the total volume of kill fluid required and the volume of kill fluid to be
pumped per pressure increments.
Total volume required:
PRt
bbl =
psi/bbl
Volume to pump:
PI
bbl =
psi/bbl
Where:
PI = Pressure increments, psi

PRt = Total pressure required, psi
20. Make sure appropriate surface equipment has been rigged up such as: kill line, choke
line, flare line, choke(s) and pumps.
21. Slowly pump the volume of kill fluid established in step 3 down the tubing. A slight
increase in tubing pressure might be observed during pumping and should be
recorded.
22. Stop pumping and wait for a period of time (15 minutes to 1 hour) for gas to migrate
through the kill fluid.
23. Open choke and vent gas from well until tubing pressure has decreased by pressure
increments. If a pressure was recorded during pumping, then that amount of
pressure needs to be bled off. Do not allow kill fluid to escape.
24. Close choke and repeat steps, 5 through 8 until tubing pressure has been reduced to a
safe working pressure or the well is dead.
25. Monitor casing pressure and any adjacent tubing strings for pressure increase.
Example:
Use the following data to establish the total volume of kill fluid and volume to be pumped
to reduce tubing pressure by 1,500 psi.

January 1997
Known:
Surface equipment: 5,000 psi rated working pressure

Shut-in tubing pressure: 4,500 psi
Tubing: OD = 2.375 in ID = 1.995 in
Perforations: 8,650 ft
Formation pressure: 4,723 psi
Solution:
4723 psi
= 10.5 lb/gal Kill Fluid Density
0.052 x 8650 ft
1029
x 0.052 x 10.5 lb/gal = 141 psi/bbl Pr essure per Barrel
(1.995 in) 2
1,500 psi Total Pressure Reduction
500 psi Pressure Increments
1500 psi
= 3.5 bbl Volume to Pump
141 psi/bbl
Lubrication
The lubrication procedure is sometimes referred to as the lubricate and bleed procedure.
This procedure can be described as a three phase re-cycling process which reduces surface
pressure or kills a well. The first phase of this operation consists of slow pumping a
calculated volume of kill fluid into the tubing. The second phase is waiting several minutes
for the gas to work its way through the kill fluid. The third phase is the releasing of gas
from the well through a choke. When the third phase is completed, the cycle is repeated
until the surface pressure is a safe level or the well is dead. This procedure is time
consuming.
The lubricate and bleed procedure is not limited to reducing surface pressure or killing a
well. It should also be considered if the wellbore or perforations are plugged or on high
pressure wells where:
The well pressure approaches the rate working pressure of wellhead.
The tubing pressure could exceed the safe working pressure limits of equipment if
dynamic pressure were imposed.
Coiled Tubing
This operation requires running coiled tubing inside the production tubing so that kill fluid
can be pumped down the coiled tubing and up the annulus of the coiled tubing. Coiled
tubing can be used to kill an oil or gas producing well especially in cases where the
wellbore is plugged. When coiled tubing is used on a gas producing well, the kill fluid to

January 1997
be used versus tensile strength of coiled tubing should be considered. However, this is not
the case on an oil producing well due to the buoyancy supplied by the oil.
Snubbing Unit
A snubbing unit is able to run a small diameter pipe inside production tubing, under
extremely high well pressure and gives the same circulating capability of kill fluid as in a
coiled tubing operation. Snubbing requires additional time to snub small diameter jointed
pipe versus the running of smooth and continuous coiled tubing. Snubbing has an
advantage because the pipe can be rotated and its tubular strength is greater than coiled
tubing.
Perforating Tubing
A producing well can be killed by perforating the tubing. Perforating the tubing sets up
communication between the inside of the tubing and the tubing annulus. This establishes a
circulating path for pumping kill fluid. Reverse circulation is commonly used. There are
two areas of concern when perforating:
Be selective when choosing the perforating tool. Do not perforate the casing or
adjacent tubing strings.
The packer fluid must be circulated. If not, then coil tubing should be used to work on
packer fluid circulating capability.
Pulling Out of Packer

This operation requires lifting the tubing string high enough to pull the seal assembly out
of the pack. With the seal assembly out of the pack, the circulating of kill fluid down the
tubing and up the annulus can be carried out. Once again, the packer fluid in the annulus
must be able to circulate. Pulling the seal assembly out of the pack requires disconnecting
sections of the production tree to allow lifting up the tubing string. Disconnecting sections
of production tree alters well control capability. Moreover, this procedure should not be
considered in tubingless completions or when a long seal assembly has been used and the
lifting height of tubing string exceeds the workover rigs capability.

January 1997

2 Completions & Fluids

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Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level

Chapter 2 Table of Contents

Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level Page 2-1

Page 2-2 Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level

Wellhead and Christmas Tree

Figure 2-1: Components of a Wellhead and Christmas Tree

Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level Page 2-3

Page 2-4 Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level

Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level Page 2-5

Figure 2-2 identifies the basic subsurface elements of a production well.

... Sliding sleeve

Page 2-6 Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level

Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level Page 2-7

Figure 2-3: Tension-Set Packer Figure 2-4: Mechanical-Set Packer

Page 2-8 Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level

Figure 2-6: Retrievable Packer

Figure 2-5: Hydraulic-Set Packer

Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level Page 2-9

Figure 2-7: Crossover Gravel Packer

A retrievable packer can be set by tension mechanically, hydraulically, or weight activated.

Page 2-10 Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level

Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level Page 2-11

Open Hole Advantages:

Open Hole Disadvantages:

Perforated Casing Advantages:

Perforated Casing Disadvantages:

Page 2-12 Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level

Functions and Properties of Drilling Fluids

Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level Page 2-13

Drilling fluids are used to:

Transport Cuttings and Cavings

Control of Subsurface Pressure

Cool and Lubricate

Page 2-14 Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level

Support the Walls of the Hole

Help Suspend the Weight of the Drill String & Casing

Transmit Hydraulic Energy

Provide a Medium for Wireline Logs

Minimize Formation Damage

Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level Page 2-15

Protect the Drill String & the Casing

Drilling Fluid Properties

Page 2-16 Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level

Mud Weight (Density)

Knife edge with level

Base with fulcrum

Figure 2-8: Fann Mud Balance

Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level Page 2-17

Rheology Models Used for Fluids

A better measure of mud rheological properties is obtained from a direct-reading,

Page 2-18 Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level

Mud pH and Alkalinity

Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level Page 2-19

Filtration (API low temperature/low pressure, HTHP high temperature/high pressure)

Alkalinity - Alkalinity is a measure of the concentration of water-soluble ions that

Page 2-20 Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC or MBT)

Baroid Well Control Supervisory Level Page 2-21

Rheological Symbol Unit(s) Definition