RPDM Chapter4 PDF

Department of Main Roads Chapter 4
Road Planning and Design Manual Application of Design Principles and Guidelines
Chapter 4
Application of Design
Principles and Guidelines
December 2005
i
Manual Contents
Chapter 1
Chapter 12
Framework of the Road Planning and
Vertical Alignment
Design Manual
Chapter 2 Chapter 13
4 Design Philosophy
Chapter 3
Intersections at Grade
Chapter 14
Road Planning and Design
Roundabouts
Fundamentals
Chapter 4
Chapter 15
Application of Design Principles and
Auxiliary Lanes
Guidelines
Chapter 5
Chapter 16
Traffic Parameters and Human
Interchanges
Factors
Speed Parameters Lighting
Cross Section Traffic signals
Chapter 8
Chapter 19
Safety Barriers and Roadside
Intelligent Transport Systems
Furniture
Sight Distance Roadside Amenities
Chapter 21
Chapter 10
Railway and Cane Railway Level
Alignment Design
Crossings
Horizontal Alignment Bridges, Retaining Walls and Tunnels
December 2005
ii
Table of Contents
Glossary 4-1
4.1 Introduction 4-2
4.2 Motorways and roads performing a motorway function 4-3
4.2.1 General 4-3
4.2.2 Design speed, desired speed and target speed 4-4
4.2.3 Level of service 4-5 4
4.2.4 Alignment 4-6
4.2.5 Cross section 4-6
4.2.6 Operations 4-7
4.3 Rural arterial roads 4-8
4.3.1 General 4-8
4.3.2 Design speed, desired speed and target speed 4-9
4.3.3 Level of service 4-10
4.3.4 Alignment 4-10
4.4 Urban arterial roads 4-16
4.4.1 General 4-16
4.4.2 Design speed, operating speed and target speed 4-16
4.4.3 Level of service 4-17
4.4.4 Alignment 4-20
4.5 National Highways 4-28
4.6 AusLink National Network - National Network Road Links 4-29
4.6.1 General 4-29
4.6.2 Commonwealth Government requirements 4-29
4.7 Other roads 4-29
4.7.1 Service roads 4-30
4.7.2 Collector-distributor roads 4-32
December 2005
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4.7.3 Frontage roads 4-33

4.7.4 Temporary roads (including sidetracks) 4-36
4.8 Restoration projects 4-38
4.8.1 Introduction 4-38
4.8.2 Essential requirements and documentation 4-39
4.8.3 Design speed, operating speed and target speed 4-40
4 4.8.4
4.8.5
Cross section
Horizontal alignment
4-40
4-40
4.8.6 Vertical alignment 4-41
4.8.7 Intersections 4-42
4.8.8 Other parameters 4-42
4.9 Requirement for geometric assessment and choice of Domain 4-42
4.9.1 Guides for the Extended Design Domain 4-43
References 4-48
Relationship to Other Chapters 4-50
Appendix 4A: Process to follow when using the Extended Design Domain
4-51
Appendix 4B: Guide for the Extended Design Domain for stopping sight
distance 4-62
Appendix 4C: Guide for the Extended Design Domain for sight distance at
intersections 4-71
Appendix 4D: Guide to evaluating cross sections using the Extended
Design Domain 4-79
Appendix 4E: Guide for the Extended Design Domain for Intersection
Turn Treatments 4-91
Appendix 4F: Guide for the Extended Design Domain for horizontal
curves with adverse superelevation 4-96
December 2005
iv
List of Tables
Table 4.1 Speeds for design of motorways 4-5
Table 4.2 Desirable design criteria for new rural motorways for a speed limit of
110km/h (i.e. desired speed of 120km/h) for an element with a design speed of
120km/h 4-7
Table 4.3 Intersection analysis tools 4-19
Table 4.4 Minimum service road lane widths for roads with low traffic volumes 4-30 4
Table 4.5 Minimum service road carriageway widths for roads with low traffic volumes
and low parking demand 4-30
Table 4.6 Warrants for geometric assessment and guidelines for selecting the
appropriate area of the design domain 4-45
Table 4.7 Example tabulation of available sight distance and sight distance deficiency
4-53
Table 4.8 Example of assessment summary stopping capability 4-54
Table 4.9 Example of assessment summary effect of improving crests (110km/h
design speed) 4-56
Table 4.10 Manoeuvre sight distance base cases for the Extended Design Domain 4-
66
Table 4.11 Stopping sight distance base cases for the Extended Design Domain 4-67
Table 4.12 Minimum shoulder/traversable widths when the Extended Design Domain
is used 4-68
Table 4.13 Stopping sight distance checks for the Extended Design Domain 4-69
Table 4.14 Stopping sight distance, optional checks for borderline cases for the
Extended Design Domain 4-70
Table 4.15 Approach sight distance base cases for the Extended Design Domain 4-75
Table 4.16 Safe Intersection Sight Distance base cases for the Extended Design
Domain 4-76
Table 4.17 Safe Intersection Sight Distance checks for the Extended Design Domain 4-
77
Table 4.18 Safe Intersection Sight Distance, optional checks for borderline cases for
the Extended Design Domain 4-78
Table 4.19 Minimum carriageway and seal widths in rural areas for MCV routes 4-84
December 2005
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List of Figures
Figure 4.1 Typical relationship of traffic flow to travel time on urban streets with varying
delay characteristics 4-18
Figure 4.2 Variation of speed with flow for typical two way urban streets 4-18
Figure 4.3 Typical median terminal treatments 4-22
Figure 4.4 Minimum spacing of median crossings for medians 3m and wider for roads
4 with operating speeds [70kmh 4-23
Figure 4.5 Determination of intersection spacing for co-ordinated signals using space-
time diagram 4-23
Figure 4.6 Reverse flow 4-24
Figure 4.7 Reverse flow terminals 4-25
Figure 4.8 Examples of pedestrian crossings 4-26
Figure 4.9 Methods of reducing conflicts at cross streets when service roads are
present 4-31
Figure 4.10 Collector-distributor road 4-32
Figure 4.11 Functions of frontage roads 4-33
Figure 4.12 Continuity of frontage roads 4-34
Figure 4.13 Local traffic circulation can be improved by the use of frontage roads 4-34
Figure 4.14 Frontage roads can provide access to properties 4-35
Figure 4.15 Frontage roads can collect and distribute motorway or other major road
traffic 4-35
Figure 4.16 Frontage roads can collect and distribute crossing traffic 4-36
Figure 4.17 Guideline for selecting the appropriate design domain 4-47
Figure 4.18 Example of diagrammatic representation of assessment of stopping
capability 4-57
Figure 4.19 Example of plan showing intent of widening 4-58
Figure 4.20 Application of widening to provide Extended Design Domain
manoeuvre/traversable width 4-65
Figure 4.21 A heavy vehicle operating on route with a single lane seal with caravans
(Potter, 2002) 4-85
Figure 4.22 What can be done with existing 8.5m or 8.6m carriageway 4-86
Figure 4.23 What can be done with existing 7.9m or 8m carriageway 4-87
December 2005
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Figure 4.24 Example of inadequate single lane (5.6m) seal on a Type 2 road train
route (AADT of 400 with 30% heavy vehicles) 4-88
Figure 4.25 Example of Type 2 road train operating on a 7.9m carriageway with full
width seal on a low formation 4-88
Figure 4.26 Example of road train operation on a single lane seal - Type 2 road trains
remain wholly on the seal - approaching vehicles must therefore move off the seal 4-89
Figure 4.27 Testing the tracking characteristics of a MCV on a rough surface and
narrow formation with 3m to 3.5m lanes (Haldane, 2002) 4-89
Figure 4.28 Example of two-lane, two-way road with narrow formation and seal on a 4
Type 2 road train route (AADT of 550 with 15% MCVs and 15% other heavy vehicles)4-
90
Figure 4.29 Minimum Extended Design Domain channelised right-turn treatment for
roadways without medians 4-93
Figure 4.30 Minimum Extended Design Domain channelised right-turn treatment for
roadways with medians 4-94
Figure 4.31 Minimum Extended Design Domain auxiliary left-turn treatment 4-95
December 2005
vii
Chapter 4 AmendmentsDecember 2005

Revision Register
Issue/ Reference Description of Revision Authorised Date
Rev Section by
No.
4 1 - First Issue. Steering

Committee
Oct
2000
2 4.3.1 A paragraph on investment strategies added
(last paragraph). Steering Aug
4.6.1 Table 4.1 modified. Committee 2001
New Relationship to other Chapters.
3 All Complete Chapter reviewed
Steering Aug
4.7 New Section
Committee 2004
Rehabilitation/Reconstruction/Restoration
4 Title Name of Chapter changed from Application of
Design Principals and Standards to
Application of Design Principals and
Guidelines
List of List of Tables and List of Figures added.
Tables and
List of
Figures
Glossary Glossary added.
(new)
Various Term standard changed to design criteria,
Steering Dec
sections design parameter or design value where
Committee 2005
appropriate.
Term desired speed introduced for the term
speed environment (the two are largely
analogous).
Terms operating speed and target speed
introduced where appropriate.
Some minor amendments to various sections.
References throughout updated where
required.
References to new Appendices included
where appropriate.
December 2005
viii

Rev Section by
No.
4 Various References to the National Highway deleted.
sections Where appropriate these references were
continued amended to Auslink National Network Road
Link or National Network Road Link.
References to the District Roads deleted.
Where appropriate these references were
amended to Local Roads of Regional
Significance or LRRS.
4
Section 4.1 Text added including text in related to the
Design Domain, Normal Design Domain
and Extended Design Domain.
Sections Title of sections changed to include target
4.2.2, 4.3.2 speed and operating speed.
and 4.4.2 Terms desired speed, target speed,
operating speed and design speed included
where appropriate. Associated text amended
to reflect this.
Text in Section 4.3.2 amended substantially.
Table 4.1 Table caption changed. Notes to table
amended. Steering Dec
Correction made to desired speed for an outer Committee 2005
urban road.
Terms desired speed, target speed and
design speed included.
Table 4.2 Table caption changed. Contents of, and
notes to, table amended.
Correction made to desired speed for an outer
urban road.
Terms desired speed, target speed and
design speed included.
Figure 4.3 Directional arrows corrected.
Sections Titles of subsections amended.
4.3.4, 4.3.5 Substantial amount of new text added to
and 4.3.6 Section 4.3.4. Text amended in and/or added
to Sections 4.3.5 and 4.3.6.
Section Sub-section renamed from Intersection
4.4.6 spacing to Intersection spacing and control.
Text added to Median openings subsection.
Sub-section renamed from One-way streets
to One-way roads.
December 2005
ix

Rev Section by
No.
4 Section Sub-section renamed from Reverse flow and
4.4.6 tidal traffic to Reverse flow/tidal traffic flow
continued Text added to Cyclists subsection.
Text added to Parking subsection.
Figure 4.4 Caption amended.
Section 4.5 New paragraph added. Remaining text
4 deleted because the National Highway
scheme no longer exists.
Section 4.6 New Section added. It discusses the Auslink
(new) National Network Road Links.
Tables 4.4 Table captions changed. Contents of, and
and 4.5 notes to, tables amended.
Section 4.6 Former section renumbered changed from
(old) / 4.7 4.6 to 4.7. Subsections renumbered
(new) accordingly. Text added to subsections.
Section Former section renumbered changed from
4.6.3 (old)/ 4.6.3 to 4.7.3.
4.7.3 (new) Text added regarding geometric and
pavement design where/if continuous frontage
roads are to be used in maintenance Steering Dec
operations. Reference included to local area Committee 2005
traffic management devices also included.
Sub-section renamed from Maintain local
traffic circulation to Maintain local traffic
circulation in residential areas.
Sub-section renamed from Provide access to
properties fronting the motorway to Provide
access to properties fronting a motorway or
other major road.
Sub-section renamed from Collect traffic
destined for a motorway and distribute traffic
from a motorway to Collect traffic destined
for a motorway or other major road and
distribute traffic from a motorway or other
major road.
Sub-section renamed from Collect and
distribute traffic crossing a to Collect and
distribute traffic crossing a motorway or other
major road. This sub-section was also moved
to later in Section 4.7.3.
December 2005
x

Rev Section by
No.
4 Figures Figure captions changed.
4.12, 4.13
and 4.14
4.6.4 (old)/ 4.6.4 to 4.7.4.
4.7.4 (new) Text added stating that total carriageway width
must also be suitable for expected operation.
Remark that pavement design is a secondary
4
consideration deleted.
Various other significant text amendments.
National Highway sub-section deleted (see
above)/
Sections Former section renumbered changed from
4.7.3 (old)/ 4.7.3 to 4.8.3.
4.8.3 (new) Title of sections changed to include target
speed and operating speed.
Terms desired speed, target speed,
where appropriate. Steering Dec
Section 4.7 Former section renumbered changed from Committee 2005
(old) / 4.8 4.7 to 4.8. Subsections renumbered
(new) accordingly.
Section renamed from Rehabilitation/
Reconstruction/Restoration to Restoration.
4.7.1 (old)/ 4.7.1 to 4.8.1.
4.8.1 (new) Subsections renumbered accordingly.
Sub-section renamed from Design element
combination to Combination of design
elements.
Sub-section renamed from Existing accident
history to Existing crash history.
Text amended significantly.
4.7.2 (old)/ 4.7.2 to 4.8.2.
4.8.2 (new) Section renamed from Essential
requirements to Essential requirements and
documentation.
Text amended.
December 2005
xi

Rev Section by
No.
4 Section Title of section changed to include target
4.7.3 (old)/ speed and operating speed.
4.8.3 (new) Terms desired speed, target speed,
where appropriate. Associated text amended
to reflect this. Remaining text also amended.
4 Section
4.7.5, 4.7.6
Text amended substantially.
and 4.7.7
(old)/ 4.8.5,
4.8.6 and
4.8.7 (new)
Section 4.9 New section Requirements for geometric
assessment and choice of domain added.
References References added.
Appendix New appendix Process to follow when using Steering Dec
4A the Extended Design Domain for restoration Committee 2005
projects added.
Appendix New appendix Guide for evaluating sight
4B distance for roads using the Extended Design
Domain added.
Appendix New appendix Guide for evaluating sight
4C distance for intersections using the Extended
Design Domain added.
Appendix New appendix Design Domain for cross
4D sections added.
Appendix New appendix Guide for short length right
4E turn lanes using the Extended Design Domain
added.
Appendix New appendix Guide for the Extended Design
4F Domain for horizontal curves with adverse
superelevation added.
December 2005
xii
Chapter 4
Application of Design
Principles and Guidelines
Glossary
4
Design Speed: Refer to Chapter 6. the context of this Manual, these terms fall
under the umbrella of restoration projects.
Desired Speed: Refer to Chapter 6.
Speed Environment: Refer to Chapter 6.
Eighty-fifth (85th) Percentile Speed:
Refer to Chapter 6. Standard: Within this Chapter, the term
standard simply serves as a comparison of
Motorway: In Queensland, a motorway is
the capability of different road
a road that has been declared as such under
segments/aspects/alignments. For example,
the legislation. It is a divided road for
a high (geometric) standard road has
through traffic with full control of access
geometry that permits high operating
and with interchanges provided at points
speeds in free flowing conditions and a high
where access to the local road system is
level of service. Conversely a low
required. In this Manual, the term
(geometric) standard road has geometry that
motorway is used in a generic sense, to
results in low operating speeds and
describe a road that has all of the
probably a lower level of safety. The term
characteristics of a motorway and
is not intended to determine some level of
performs the function of a motorway.
conformance to a prescribed standard. The
Refer to Section 4.2 for further details.
only exception is where a prescriptive
Operating Speed: Refer to Chapter 6. standard (e.g. an Australian Standard) is
Restoration Project: A restoration project cited.
is a project where the cross section, Target Speed: Refer to Chapter 6.
structural capacity of the pavement and/or
riding quality of an existing road is
improved. Restoration projects also usually
retain most or all of the existing alignment
(i.e. they may also include some
realignment works). The nature of the work
typically has the potential to change
drivers perception of the standard of the
road. In many cases road users will not
distinguish between a restored road and a
new road. Note the terms rehabilitation
and reconstruction are often used but, in
December 2005
4-1
Generally, any new road on a new

4.1 Introduction
alignment should be designed to conform to
The purpose of this Chapter is to provide the Normal Design Domain (refer to
guidance on the appropriate general Section 4.9 and Chapter 2) for the various
standard of design for the various road design criteria set out in this manual.
functions encountered on state declared (Chapter 2 describes the design domain
Main Roads. The detailed technical concept.) Specifically the alignment should
chapters of this Manual provide the be designed above, or if necessary to, the
background and theoretical basis for the desirable minimum value shown/given for a
4 development of the parameters to apply to
design. The various tables and diagrams in
design parameter.
For existing alignments, and possibly for a
those chapters are necessarily generic and major re-alignment on an existing road with
cover the whole range of design criteria that low traffic volumes, some compromises
might apply to any road. might have to be made to obtain an
The overall philosophy of design is economical result. However, every design
discussed in Chapter 2 and it is necessary must abide by the fundamentals of road
for designers to be familiar with that design, and the design values chosen must
philosophy before attempting to apply this be defensible in an objective analysis. An
Chapter or the details given in any other Extended Design Domain has been
Chapter of this Manual, or indeed any other developed, for certain design criteria, to
type of guideline or standard such as help achieve this. (Chapter 2 describes the
Austroads Guide to Traffic Engineering Extended Design Domain concept.) The
Practice series. Extended Design Domain concept helps
demonstrate that the original intents of the
There will be a somewhat different relevant design criteria have been
approach when designing restoration or maintained and that reasonable capability is
rehabilitation works on existing still provided.
alignments from that used on a green
field site (i.e. a new road on a new This Chapter provides guidance on the
alignment). Section 4.9 specifies the approach to design that should be adopted
requirements for geometric assessment for to achieve an appropriate design for
various project/work types, and provides projects on new alignments and projects on
guidance in relation to the choice of the existing alignments. Designers should
Design Domain to be used for a particular adopt design criteria that will meet the
project/work type. Guides for the expectations of drivers now and in the
application of the Extended Design Domain future. To meet these expectations, roads
are included in the Appendices of this performing at the highest functional level
Chapter. (e.g. motorways) would generally require
the use of design values that tend towards
It is important to note that, in general, the upper bound of the design domain. For
the design values and design criteria roads performing at the lower functional
given in this Manual are for the Normal levels (e.g. minor rural roads), drivers
Design Domain unless Extended Design expectations would generally be met by
Domain values or criteria are explicitly using lower order design values (i.e. values
given.
December 2005
4-2
that tend towards the lower bound of the Within the general functional types,
design domain for a parameter where an discussion has focussed on the
increase in its value produces a higher administrative classes used in Queensland
benefit or values that tend towards the to define the road system. It is not always
upper bound of the design domain for a the case that the functional class and the
parameter where an increase in its value administrative class coincide and
produces a lower benefit). Nevertheless planners and designers should be alert to
higher order design values (i.e. values that the difference. For example, some Local
tend towards the upper bound of the design Roads of Regional Significance carry heavy
domain for a parameter where an increase
in its value produces a higher benefit or
volumes of traffic and their function is to
connect major population centres with a
4
values that tend towards the lower bound of high quality road. The normal standards
the design domain for a parameter where an applicable to a local road function would
increase in its value produces a lower clearly not be appropriate in these
benefit) may be appropriate for roads circumstances even though,
performing at the lower functional levels administratively, the road is classed as
where: local. There will not always be a nexus
between the roads administrative
the terrain and other constraints allow
classification and the standards required.
such values to be adopted at negligible
increased cost; and For all roads, the emphasis should be on
consistency of standards based on the
the design values are consistent with
investment strategies and the vision for the
driver expectation (i.e. it produces a
road in question. These in turn must be
context sensitive design).
based of the function of the road in
It is necessary for designers to apply proper question, its place in the hierarchy of roads
analysis to the particular circumstances that in the State, the volume of traffic and the
apply to the case they are considering and environment through which the road passes
use the appropriate standards to suit that (i.e. the solution should be a context
case. This Chapter has been structured to sensitive design).
address the different road functions under
With these provisos, it is reasonable to
the headings of Motorways (Section 4.2),
consider the type of standards required for
Rural Arterial Roads (Section 4.3), Urban
roads at different levels in the hierarchy and
Arterial Roads (Section 4.4) and Other
this Chapter attempts to do this.
Roads (Section 4.7).
National Network Road Links are also 4.2 Motorways and roads
briefly discussed (Section 4.6). While performing a
designation of a road as a National Network motorway function
Road Link does not grant or imply a
functional class, this set of roads are 4.2.1 General
critically important to national and regional
economic growth, development and Where a road has all of the characteristics
connectivity with a focus on provision for of a motorway and performs the function of
freight vehicles. They are also subject to a motorway, the design should be in
the requirements of the federal government. accordance with the requirements of this
December 2005
4-3
Section, and the rest of this Manual, between entering and exiting traffic.
regardless of whether the road has been Drivers will therefore have a high desired
declared as a Motorway under the speed; the design will have to cater for this
legislation. behaviour. This in turn results in generous
horizontal and vertical alignments that
Motorways are generally:
reinforce the high desired speed.
high speed, high volume roads with full
Drivers expect that a motorway will operate
control of access; and
at a consistently high speed along its length,
grade separated multi-lane roads with
4 no property access allowed.
even in difficult terrain. Consequently
target speeds of 110km/h or 120km/h
should generally be selected for roads in
Legislation allows Main Roads to preclude
certain classes of vehicles from using a rural and semi rural areas (refer to Table
declared motorway providing appropriate 4.1). In urban areas, the desired speed is
signage is applied. These characteristics often just as high, but it will depend on the
lead to the need for high standards area traversed and the level of development
producing a very safe driving environment. in the area (i.e. the built environment).
Some motorway standard roads have been Operating speeds depend largely on the
constructed in stages, the first stage being a horizontal alignment as well as the speed
two-lane, two-way road with the limit (refer to Chapter 6). Further operating
interchanges constructed in the first stage. speeds can be modified by judicious use of
The design of the interchange ramps for horizontal curvature. Careful design of the
these roads requires special consideration to transitions between sections with different
avoid inappropriate movements at the ramp desired speeds (speed environments) is
terminals on the motorway. If no median is required. However, except at such
introduced, wrong way movements might transitions, restrictions to operating speed
be attempted and entering vehicles can should be avoided so as to provide a
move into the oncoming lane with consistently level of service and high
hazardous consequences. A median must operating speed along the motorway.
therefore be introduced through the In inner urban areas considerable
interchange. Chapter 16 sets out the restrictions on the possible alignment of
requirements for these conditions. In roads exist because development is intense,
addition the positioning and layout of property values are high and public opinion
ramps in each stage should take into often defines the limits within which
account, and make provision for, the layout development of transport corridors can
in the final stage. occur. In addition the nature of the built
environment can influence the desired
4.2.2 Design speed, desired
speeds of drivers. Consequently, in such
speed and target speed
circumstances, the adoption of a lower
target speed may be appropriate.
On motorways, drivers are not subject to
the same restrictions experienced by drivers In outer urban areas where development is
on other arterial roads. There are no at less intense, drivers would expect to be able
grade intersections and no property access to maintain a high speed unless the
and there is a reasonably large spacing surrounding environment (topography
December 2005
4-4
and/or development) dictated otherwise. surveys indicate that desired speeds are
Lower property acquisition costs in these often about 10km/h over the speed limit,
areas usually mean that fewer restrictions to refer to Chapter 6).
the alignment exist.
Table 4.1 sets out the recommended
minimum target speeds. (Note: Speed
Table 4.1 Speeds for design of motorways
Area Speed limit (km/h)

Recommended minimum target
speed (km/h)
4
Rural-level and rolling terrain 110 120
Rural-difficult terrain 100 110
Outer Urban 100 110
Inner Urban 80 90
Note:
For existing roads, the target speed would normally equal the roads desired speed (speed environment)
which should be measured in preference to using the figure extracted from Chapter 6. The target speed
for a new road, restoration project) or upgraded facility must take into account the proposed road width
and geometric standards. Whatever the target speed selected, it must be fully justified and documented.
In urban areas, it is desirable for the design

4.2.3 Level of service
Level of Service to be set at C but the
Level of Service is discussed in Chapter 5. demands could be such that this cannot be
For motorways, the assessment of Level of achieved and a minimum Level of Service
Service is undertaken using the of D would be acceptable in constrained
methodology of the Highway Capacity situations. In any case, the design of urban
Manual (TRB, 2000). This requires a motorways must be undertaken within the
detailed analysis of the conditions over the context of the transport strategy for the
length of the project and the adjoining whole system and their capacity and the
sections of motorway. Level of Service provided must be in
accordance with the role played by the
In rural areas, a design Level of Service of
motorway in the system. It is essential that
B is desirable but it should not be less than
the design of the motorway provide a
a Level of Service of C given the
proper balance in the lane numbers with
expectations of drivers. In rapidly
flexibility to meet changing circumstances
developing areas, it might not be feasible to
as the area develops.
provide for a high Level of Service over the
life of the facility and it is therefore Consistency of operating conditions is both
important that a well-designed balance of expected and efficient. The design should
lane numbers around a reasonable basic therefore provide consistency in the Level
number of lanes is achieved (refer to of Service at whatever level it is set. This
Chapter 16). requires a consistent basic number of lanes
with proper lane balance over the length of
December 2005
4-5
the facility with interchange capacities use the shoulder as another lane, leading to
designed to achieve that balance (refer to unsafe operation. (Note: A shoulder of
Chapter 16). 3.5m or more may be required in special
cases where regular law enforcement is
4.2.4 Alignment required - refer to Chapter 7. Care is
required in these instances and
The alignment design must be consistent
consideration must be given to the location
with the desired speed adopted for the
and extent of such shoulders. The relevant
facility and the operating speed (under free
agencies responsible for enforcement [e.g.
4 flow conditions) of each element. The
highest standards consistent with economy
Queensland Police Service, Queensland
Transport] should be consulted to determine
should be adopted where they can be
the location of wider shoulders for
achieved with minimal impact.
enforcement and whether a width greater
Given the style of road expected of a than 3.5m is required for enforcement.)
motorway, design criteria should be
Where the first stage construction includes
selected that are toward the upper bound of
only a single two-lane, two-way pavement,
the Normal Design Domain for each
the constructed pavement should have lane
parameter. For example, Table 4.2 sets out
widths of 3.5m and two fully paved and
desired design criteria for roads built to
sealed shoulders not less than 2.0m wide.
motorway standard on the assumption that a
Through the interchanges, a median is
speed limit of 110km/h is required. On a
required (refer to Chapter 16) to separate
new road with a speed limit of 110km/h, a
opposing traffic flows on the motorway.
target speed of 120km/h is required to
The design shall also take into account the
accommodate the observed behaviour of
future planning (e.g. radii suitable for
drivers and to meet the requirements given
adverse superelevation, crown applied to
in the MUTCD (Main Roads, 2003).
centre of lanes or shoulder as appropriate,
Proper alignment coordination in layout of ramps suitable for final stages
accordance with Chapter 10 is also layout, etc).
required.
For further information, refer to Chapter 7,
which defines the requirements for cross
4.2.5 Cross section
section elements and clearances; it also
Lane widths on motorways should not be contains typical cross sections for
less than 3.7m for lane locked lanes or less motorways.
than 3.5m for other lanes. Shoulder widths
should not be less than 2.0m on the near
side and 1.0m on the off (i.e. median) side.
In some cases, shoulder widths of 2.5m or
3.0m will be justified (e.g. to provide for
cyclists or to allow enforcement to take
place) but generally shoulders should not be
wider than 3.0m because some drivers will
December 2005
4-6
Table 4.2 Desirable design criteria for new rural motorways for a speed limit of 110km/h (i.e.
desired speed of 120km/h) for an element with a design speed of 120km/h
Design parameter General design criteria Preferred design criteria

Horizontal radius R=1,350m minimum R=4,000m minimum
# #
Sag curve R=15,000m minimum R>15,000m
Crest curve R=14,000m minimum R=18,000 minimum
Superelevation or crossfall 3% maximum superelevation *3% maximum crossfall
Grade 5% maximum 3% maximum
*To facilitate future widening and to reduce potential aquaplaning issues, it is preferable to adopt
horizontal alignments that do not need superelevation (i.e. adopt horizontal curve radii that are suitable
4
for adverse superelevation).
#
Smaller sag vertical curves may be acceptable where excessive earthworks would result from using the
value nominated in this table.
is as effective as possible and that a

4.2.6 Operations
consistent Level of Service is maintained
Efficient motorway operations depend on: over the length of the motorway. The
Highway Capacity Manual (HCM - TRB,
spacing interchanges appropriately;
2000) provides the methodology for this
providing properly designed merge and and must be used to determine the
diverge areas at interchanges; characteristics of the weaving section.
minimising weaving manoeuvres (and In most cases the overall Level of Service
providing adequate weaving lengths, if provided by a motorway system will
required); depend on the proper provision and use of
collector-distributor roads and frontage
providing for High Occupancy Vehicle
roads. These provide for the efficient
(HOV) and/or bus lanes where
collection and distribution of traffic
appropriate; and
between the local road system and the
providing appropriate facilities for motorway. Section 4.7 provides details of
handling disabled vehicles (e.g. break these roads.
downs, crashes).
Providing for disabled vehicles is an
This assumes that the geometry of the road important consideration in ensuring
is appropriately designed (refer to the efficient operation on a motorway. The
relevant Chapters of this Manual), including shoulder of the motorway is available for
design to an appropriate Level of Service. this purpose and the width required is
Chapter 16 provides details of the required designed for this purpose. Where there is
spacing of interchanges as well as the only a narrow shoulder (i.e. the width is
design of the merge and diverge areas. <2.0m), emergency-stopping bays should
Weaving should be minimised if possible. be provided at regular intervals to
Where weaving sections are included, they accommodate vehicles that have to stop.
require analysis to ensure that the operation Help telephones should be co-located with
December 2005
4-7
the emergency-stopping bays (refer to affect the departments ability to upgrade

Chapter 8 and the Traffic and Road Use other areas to an appropriate standard.
Management [TRUM] Manual, Main
The interim and vision standards in the
Roads, 2003). Details of the geometry
investment strategies focus on carriageway
required for these emergency stopping bays
and seal widths. Other requirements could
should be in accordance with this Manual
be contained in the link strategies. Where
and the TRUM Manual (Main Roads,
neither the investment nor link strategies
2003).
define standards, they should be derived
4 Due to the limited access opportunities on a

motorway, it is also important the designer
take into account the need to provide for
through an iterative process that examines
the entire road link, or at least consistent
sections that are selected from obvious
emergency vehicles (e.g. access to evacuate changes in character such as topography.
casualties, treat spillages, etc). Median Designers should pay particular attention to
crossovers should be provided in changes in character along the road to
accordance with Chapter 13. ensure suitable transitions between them
and to ensure no surprises to motorists.
Where an enforcement site is required on a
motorway, the dimensions of the site should Within the general term rural arterial, a
be as described in Chapter 20. Access to range of sub-categories is used to
the site must be by way of an exit ramp differentiate between the different functions
from the motorway carriageway to the site of the various parts of the network. These
and an entry ramp from the site to the are:
motorway. These ramps are to be designed
National Network Road Links (also
in accordance with the requirements set out
refer to Section 4.6 for requirements for
in Chapter 16. Lateral clearance to the near
these roads);
side of the enforcement site is to be not less
than the clear zone required (refer to the State Strategic Road (SSR)
Chapter 7), and desirably be not less than Network;
15m. It is also desirable that the site be Regional Roads (RRs); and
shielded from view from the motorway
Local Roads of Regional Significance
using appropriate planting to avoid
(LRRS).
congestion problems developing in heavy
traffic situations. The state strategic road network includes
the principal intra-state highways and major
4.3 Rural arterial roads developmental roads, providing intra-
regional links, and links to interstate and
4.3.1 General National Network Road Links. This
network is crucial to the efficient movement
Rural arterial roads make up the majority of
of people and goods throughout Queensland
the state controlled road network. The
and its performance impacts directly on the
departments investment strategies for these
economic performance of the State. This
roads are focused on maximising benefits
network requires an overall statewide
for all areas serviced by achieving
perspective catering to long distance
appropriate standards across the whole road
network. Over investment in any area will
December 2005
4-8
movements and linking major economic between obviously appropriate points of

regions within and external to Queensland. change in terrain, function, land use etc.
The selected design criteria should reflect
The regional road network caters for
the intent of the link strategies. Where no
movements that link economic areas within
link strategy exists, the standard of the link
the region to one another and to economic
should be consistent. Consistent means that
areas in adjacent regions. It is a network of
there are no surprises for the driver and the
roads essential for the development of the
road becomes self explaining (refer to
regional economy and is therefore planned
Chapter 2). This means that isolated
within a regional context.
The network of Local Roads of Regional
features that are below the standard of
the adjacent road should be considered
4
Significance makes up the rest of the for removal when restoration takes
system and completes access to major place. It also means that changes in the
commercial centres throughout Queensland. standard of the road should be located
These roads provide for movement between where the driver can see the change in
commercial centres within and adjacent to adequate time to make allowance for that
districts and provide access to the regional change. Designers must justify and
and state strategic road networks. There are document any decision to retain isolated
therefore a wide range of circumstances in lower standard features. This includes
which Local Roads of Regional features that are within the Extended design
Significance are located and consequently a Domain and features that are inconsistent
wide range of possible approaches to the with the contiguous road sections.
standard of road to be adopted depending
on its location and function. 4.3.2 Design speed, desired
The investment strategies together with the
link strategies will define the general
On the state strategic road network, high-
standard to be applied to specific projects in
desired speeds, and hence high target and
order to meet the defined objectives.
design speeds (of 110km/h or more), are
Investment strategies have been developed
common and appropriate in rural areas.
for:
Adoption of a lower target speed should
National Network Road Links; only be contemplated in cases of rough
terrain with associated low standard
State Strategic Roads (SSRs); and
horizontal geometry sections.
Regional Roads (RRs).
On most rural arterial roads, the desired
Suitable design criteria for the development speed, and hence target and design speed
and maintenance of links in the network are for elements, will be dictated by the
provided in the Statement of Intent (i.e. topography through which the road passes.
the Executive Summary of the Link The link strategy will specify the target
Strategy). These documents should be speed for the road and this should be used
consulted when establishing the as the basis of the design.
requirements for individual projects.
Chapter 6 provides the methodology to be
The primary issue is to provide a consistent used to establish the appropriate design
standard over significant lengths of road speed for each geometric element (also
December 2005
4-9
refer to Section 4.3.4 for further design for the conditions is required and
discussion). The design speed determined proper transitions between sections with
for any upgraded feature(s) must deliver different desired speeds will be necessary
consistency and must not result in an (refer to Chapter 6) consistency in the
isolated feature with a very high or low style of road over a link is also important.
design speed compared with the adjoining In the design of the alignment, it is very
road. The procedure described in Chapter 6 important to achieve a consistent standard
allows designers to determine a design of road over the length of the road or at
speed appropriate for the expected least over significant lengths of road
4 operating speed, which is estimated for
specific elements of the alignment.
between obvious points of change (e.g.
terrain).
Consistency means that there are no
surprises for the driver and the road
The Level of Service provided by a rural becomes self explaining (refer to Chapter
arterial can be judged using three 2). It also means that isolated inconsistent
parameters: features should be considered for removal
when restoration takes place. Further, in
traffic flow;
upgrading works, which might include
road closures; and substantial lengths of re-construction,
isolated sections of high standard road
efficiency of access.
should not be provided if these result in
The Level of Service to traffic may be surprises to the driver when the new section
assessed using Austroads Guide to Traffic connects to the existing road.
Engineering Practice Part 2 (Austroads,
The geometric analysis procedure in
1991) supplemented as required with the
Chapter 6 recognises that drivers adjust
Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2000).
their speed to the prevailing conditions and
Two major conditions exist and require
will operate at a speed (they judge to be)
separate consideration:
appropriate for those conditions. The
two lane, two-way roads; and operating, and hence design, speed for these
multi-lane roads. elements of the alignment can, therefore, be
different from the speed limit. If
These factors are dealt with in detail in
consistently higher operating speeds can be
Chapter 5. Appropriate Levels of Service
achieved at minimal cost, a higher design
to be adopted for these roads are also given
speed should be adopted.
in Chapter 5.
Crash records over many years should be
4.3.4 Alignment checked, as they often highlight road
alignment sections that do not meet driver
The alignment should be consistent with the expectations. Nevertheless, higher crash
desired speed and reflect the role of the rates might also be related to factors other
road in the network. It then follows that than alignment.
each element should be consistent with its
operating/design speed (refer to Section
4.3.2). Careful attention to appropriate
December 2005
4-10
State Strategic Road Network distances should still be checked to assess if

(excluding motorways) they are adequate.
As the state strategic road networks role is However in very rough terrain, these
to cater for high speed, long distance travel standards might not be attainable and might
at an adequate level of safety, generous not even be desirable.
horizontal and vertical alignments resulting
from high design speeds are typical Regional Road Network
characteristics. High desired speeds, and On the regional road network, some roads
hence high operating speeds, can be
expected and the design should reflect this
(i.e. target speed would normally be
will have similar characteristics to the State
Strategic Road Network, or even 4
motorways, and similar design speeds and
110km/h). horizontal curves are common. Where the
To assist the efficient movement of freight strategic vision and link strategies have
(and reduce the need for climbing lanes), been documented for these roads, the
the vertical alignment should be flat in general standard will usually be specified in
general (5% normal maximum grade but terms of discrete road sections with a target
6% to 7% could be acceptable in rough speed for each section. However as the
terrain - refer to Chapter 12 for further design develops, the operating speeds will
details such as maximum lengths for be determined using the methodology
various grades) with vertical curvature described in Chapter 6. The operating
appropriate for the operating speed of each speeds determined in this manner may or
element. The operating speed will be may not match the target or desired speed/s.
determined by the horizontal alignment If the operating design speeds do not match
(rather than the vertical curvature) and it is the target or desired speed/s, the design
therefore essential that the design of the must progress with the determined
vertical alignment reflect this fact. operating speeds, provided there is no
unacceptable inconsistency, or it will be
Horizontal alignments with large radius
necessary to refine the horizontal alignment
curves (i.e. with radii >750m 1000m) are
in order to get a better match between the
normal and where possible, larger radii are
operating speeds and desired speeds. The
desirable to avoid the need for
latter option should not be adopted without
superelevation. This is particularly so with
considering its impact on the link strategy
multi-lane roads where radii that do not
and the road system as a whole.
require superelevation can minimise
aquaplaning problems (refer to Chapter 11 Grades may be greater than those for the
and the Road Drainage Design Manual State Strategic Roads if required (refer to
[RDDM - Main Roads, 2002]). Curves Chapter 12) and vertical curvature should
with a radius that is >1500m also have the match the operating speed/s (determined
advantage that sight lines do not pass too using the methodology described in Chapter
far outside the edge of the carriageway and 6).
so may be less affected by lack of future
maintenance or construction of future safety
barriers. Nevertheless horizontal sight
December 2005
4-11
Local Roads of Regional on the type of project (e.g. new road or

Significance restoration of existing carriageway), traffic
volumes, topography and the interim and
For Local Roads of Regional Significance
vision standards consistent with the
there will be many cases where, when
optimum investment level (which should be
compared to design criteria appropriate for
reflected in the link strategy). Because a
roads that are part of the State Strategic
high percentage of travel on these roads is
Road and Regional Road Networks, it will
at high speed over long distances, driver
be satisfactory to adopt more modest design
error through lack of concentration is more
4 criteria. However, some Local Roads of
Regional Significance will be located in
areas with high desired speeds and design
likely and a forgiving roadside environment
is desirable.
in accordance with those desired speeds To assist in providing a forgiving roadside
will be appropriate (e.g. use a target speed environment, batters should be 1 on 3 or
of 110km/h). flatter and the full clear zone should be
provided wherever practical to allow for
In rural residential areas, the target speed
errant vehicles. Batters on embankments of
may be reduced to 90km/h for most cases
height less than 1.5m should be 1 on 4 or
but, in some cases, a lower target speed
flatter, with higher embankments being 1
might produce an appropriate context
on 3 or flatter for the cases normally
sensitive design (refer to Chapter 2).
encountered. Batters of 1 on 4 or flatter,
4.3.5 Cross section particularly batters of 1 on 6 or flatter, will
tend to compensate for reduced shoulder
Adopting an interim width for the and formation widths where these are
carriageway is a key strategy to deliver the required by the interim and vision
maximum benefits across the entire road standards.
network within the available funding.
Where multiple lanes in one direction are
Where link strategies nominate interim
required, 3.5m lane widths should be
standards, these should be the basic lane
adopted (in most cases) and appropriate
and shoulder widths for upgrading
shoulder widths applied (refer to Chapter
purposes. Nevertheless, there might be
7). If shoulders at the lower bound of the
locations where increased cross sectional
design domain are used, designers should
width can be justified (e.g. over crests that
consider providing stopping bays for
only provide for manoeuvre sight distance).
drivers at intervals of about 15km (refer to
Consistency of standard over long lengths
Chapter 20) and pull-off areas at more
of links in the network is required to
frequent intervals (e.g. at cut-fill transitions
establish a consistent driving pattern and
refer to Chapter 7). Medians should
driver expectancy of behaviour.
desirably be 15m or more wide with side
slopes into the median no steeper than 1 on
State Strategic Road Network
6 (1 on 10 preferred refer to Chapter 7).
(excluding motorways)
Median widths of more than 15m may be
Cross section elements on this network required to adequately cater for the future
should ultimately trend towards the upper (e.g. >15m required to cater for widening
bound of the design domain given in
Chapter 7. Specific dimensions will depend
December 2005
4-12
on the inside with a concrete safety barrier adopted in semi-rural areas where right of
separating the carriageways). way is limited. However, driving on a road
with a narrow median for long distances
Regional Road Network can be stressful for a driver and such
Lane and shoulder widths should be designs should be avoided if possible.
appropriate for the expected type and Medians wider than 7m should normally be
volume of traffic with carriageway widths depressed; raised medians would normally
(lanes plus shoulders) commensurate with be 5m to 6m wide and include route
the type of work proposed (e.g. restoration lighting.
project, new road or realignment refer to
Appendix 4D and Chapter 7). Restoration
Where the cross section provides shoulders
of limited width, it is important to provide
4
projects may be carried out on narrower suitable places for drivers to stop clear of
formations to keep costs down (refer to the through lanes (i.e. pull off the road) at
relevant investment strategies and Chapters reasonable intervals (refer to Chapter 7).
1 and 2). Chapters 2 and 7 and Section 4.9 Where the predicted/design Annual
provide a comprehensive discussion of the Average Daily Traffic (AADT) exceeds
appropriate design domain. 1000, pull off areas for passenger cars
Some Regional Roads are major roads should be approximately 1km apart and be
carrying significant volumes of traffic and a staggered at 0.5km intervals. Where the
few are multi-lane limited access facilities. predicted/design AADT is less than 1000,
Such roads should be treated accordingly the intervals between pull off areas may be
and the appropriate design criteria used. extended to 5km and be staggered at 2.5km
Where a multi-lane configuration in one intervals. Suitable pull off areas for heavy
direction is appropriate, medians are vehicles should be available at intervals of
normally depressed, 9m to 12m wide with 10km and be staggered at 5km intervals.
median cross slopes desirably 1 on 6 or An opportunity to stop clear of through
flatter (maximum 1 on 4). lanes (i.e. pull off area) may be provided by
Raised medians are normally inappropriate making use of cut/fill transitions and flat
on high and intermediate speed (i.e. roads batters on low fills in conjunction with
with desired speeds of 90km/h to 110km/h providing formal stopping places (refer to
speed limits of 80km/h to 100km/h) rural Chapter 20).
roads. Even at rural intersections on high
Local Roads of Regional
and intermediate speed rural roads, painted
Significance
medians are often preferred, especially if
the intersection is unlit (refer to Chapter The discussion of standards in this section
17). In very rugged terrain a narrow is based on the assumption that the Local
median with safety barrier might be Roads of Regional Significance function at
appropriate on higher speed roads (refer to the lower end of the functional hierarchy. It
Chapter 8). Shy-line requirements apply is the case that some Local Roads of
with any safety barrier (refer to Chapter 7). Regional Significance are major roads
Such treatments are sometimes used in carrying significant volumes of traffic and
steep sidelong country and on range in some cases can be limited access multi-
sections. Narrower medians may be lane facilities (i.e. they function as roads at
December 2005
4-13
the higher end of the functional hierarchy). stop their vehicle safely clear of the through
These types of roads should be treated lanes (refer to Section 4.3.5 and Chapter 7).
accordingly and the appropriate design
criteria applied. State Strategic Network (excluding
motorways)
For Local Roads of Regional Significance
that provide service at the lower end of the Highways often provide direct property
functional classification scale, lower traffic access. However, this is a minor function
volumes and tighter controls on right of for this type of road and should be
minimised or removed as traffic volumes
4 way will often dictate the cross section to
be used. It will be common for most
elements to be designed at the lower bound
increase. Removal of access improves the
traffic safety and level of service for
of the design domain to suit the conditions through traffic.
and the budget. Consistency of standard Where property access cannot be removed,
along significant lengths of road is still consideration may be given to widening and
important. sealing the shoulder to provide adequate
Where narrow shoulders are provided, it is space for a driver entering the access to
important to provide suitable places for decelerate clear of the through lane (refer to
drivers to stop clear of the through lanes at Chapter 13). A similar widening should be
reasonable intervals (as described in the considered to cater for the right turning
Regional Road Network section above). vehicles from the other direction. Vehicles
This may be achieved by making use of entering the road from an access are
cut/fill transitions and flat batters on low expected to select a suitable gap to allow
fills in conjunction with providing formal acceleration to the required speed.
stopping places (refer to Chapter 20). Similarly, side road access should be
rationalised and allowable manoeuvres
4.3.6 Operations
reduced as the traffic volumes increase. On
highways, intersections should not be closer
A critical issue affecting the operation of
than 5km apart, with a desirable minimum
rural roads is the question of access. The
spacing of 10km. In addition the
amount of access and the level of control of
intersections that remain should be to the
that access and the traffic volumes define
higher order or arterial roads. Intersections
the operational characteristics of the road.
should be highly visible, preferably with
As the traffic volumes increase, this issue
approach sight distance to the start of the
becomes more critical. Limiting the
intersection and safe intersection sight
amount of access will normally provide a
distance (refer to Chapter 13) to the
higher level of service over the life of a
intersection based on at least 3s of
road, which is generally much longer than
observation time plus an appropriate
the design life of any project.
perception/reaction time.
An issue related to operations is the
When a need to upgrade highways through
provision of adequate stopping
semi-rural areas to four lanes or more is
opportunities. On carriageways with
identified, designers should consider the
narrow shoulders, drivers should be
appropriateness of staging. For example,
presented with frequent opportunities to
removing direct property access to the road
December 2005
4-14
through use of service roads may be a cost intersections to connections with the arterial
effective first stage instead of immediately road system.
providing additional lanes on the through
Spacing of intersections on these roads
road. Construction of interchanges could
must be carefully considered and is affected
then be included in the second stage and
by:
additional highway lanes could be
constructed as part of the third stage (or visibility of the intersection sites;
second stage). operating speeds along the road;
When rural roads are upgraded to four lanes
or more, direct property access to the road
should be removed if possible. Planners
direction signing requirements, with
appropriate distance between decision 4
points (of at least 5s);
and designers should consider the
physical requirements of tapers;
possibility of providing interchanges on
high speed divided roads where major roads deceleration lengths;
intersect. If this is done, care will be
storage lengths;
needed to ensure that driver expectations
are not raised to the extent that the presence location of overtaking lanes and
of at grade intersections elsewhere create an adequate separation distances (refer to
undue hazard (because it is a perceived Chapter 15);
inconsistency) if all intersections are not potential for increase in crashes;
grade separated. Interchanges and
form of staggered T-intersections.
intersection locations should be rationalised
to provide an integrated road network with (Note: A staggered T-intersection is
full access to the SSR limited to the arterial considered a single intersection in assessing
road system where possible. separation distances spacing should be
measured from the individual legs to the
Chapter 16 discusses the spacing of
next intersection.)
interchanges.
Spacing of intersections on these roads
Regional Road Network should not be closer than 2km with a
Direct property access is common on the desirable minimum separation of 5km.
regional road network. For the major roads Priority controlled intersections are normal
in this network, this is a minor function and on rural arterial roads. Traffic signals,
should be minimised or removed, consistent where warranted, may be considered in
with the function of the road, as traffic cases where the speed limit does not exceed
volumes increase to improve safety and 80km/h.
level of service for through traffic. Side
Grade separations may be considered
road access should also be rationalised and
where:
allowable manoeuvres reduced as traffic
volumes increase. When these roads are traffic volumes are sufficiently high
upgraded to four lanes or more, it is (refer to Chapter 16);
desirable to remove any direct property
adjacent sections of road are grade
accesses if possible and rationalise
separated and providing an interchange
is consistent with that and necessary to
December 2005
4-15
maintain consistency of driver excluded from the definition of an urban

expectations; or arterial road.
grade and topography would make it Urban arterials are usually multi-function
more economical. facilities providing service to:
Spacing of interchanges is discussed in through traffic (primary function); and
Chapter 16.
local traffic (secondary function); and
Local Roads of Regional property access (tertiary function).
4 Significance
Direct property access is often a necessary
In some cases, the functions are separated
with a service road for the local traffic and
function of Local Roads of Regional property access functions. In other cases,
Significance although there are cases where the secondary function is severely restricted
the traffic functions overshadow the access and the tertiary function is completely
function and some rationalisation of suppressed with access points limited to
accesses is required. As traffic increases widely spaced intersections (e.g. a bypass
and subdivisions occur, direct property road). Even on bypass roads, the local
access roles tend to be removed where function often exists, the bypass often being
practicable to be replaced by service roads quicker and less congested than the local
or internal access linked to side roads in road system.
conjunction with relatively closely spaced
Roads are an integral part of the urban
intersections.
fabric providing services to a wide range of
Design of accesses should be in accordance users. Careful attention to the needs of all
with the principles set down in Chapter 13. users (e.g. car drivers, truck drivers,
cyclists, public transport operators,
Consideration of intersection spacing
pedestrians, Public Utility Plant [PUP]
should include the factors described for
owners/operators) is required. The impact
Regional Roads and similar conditions
on urban form (e.g. the impact the road has
adopted for roads with similar operating
on the aesthetics of the area, building styles,
characteristics. For lower operating speeds,
materials used, monuments, parks) and the
closer spacing of intersections might be
requirements of the Local Government
tolerable, particularly where the function of
planning schemes and many other issues
the road includes a high level of property
(refer to Chapter 3) must also be considered
access.
when developing a context sensitive design
4.4 Urban arterial roads (refer to Chapter 2).
4.4.1 General 4.4.2 Design speed, operating

Urban arterial roads are the major traffic
routes in urban areas. Urban motorways are Overall operating speeds on urban roads
a special type of urban arterial road and are vary considerably, depending on the
dealt with separately in Section 4.2. For the spacing of intersections, the type of
purposes of this section, motorways are abutting development and the time of day.
Off peak operating speeds of 30km/h to
December 2005
4-16
40km/h are common in sections heavily Roads with few delay producing
influenced by conflicting traffic movements characteristics exhibit little increase in
and pedestrians. Off peak operating speeds overall travel time until flows approach
of 60km/h to 70km/h are typical (for a zone saturation. Roads with many delay
with a speed limit of 60km/h) where local producing characteristics exhibit a marked
traffic is separated from the through traffic increase in travel time with increasing flow.
and intersections are reasonably widely Figure 4.1 illustrates typical traffic
spaced. flow/travel time relationships for typical
urban roads with different delay-producing
Depending on the speed limit, operating
speeds of 70km/h to 90km/h will occur
where the road has minimal property
characteristics. These curves can be used
for guidance in selecting operating speeds
4
in peak hours. Ideally, for a particular road,
access, the local function has been
a study should be undertaken to derive the
suppressed and intersections are widely
specific operating speed graph for that road.
spaced. Hence target speeds are typically
m70km/h but [90km/h and should reflect The variation of speed with traffic flow on
the road characteristics. The link strategy typical urban roads, exclusive of the effect
will specify the target speed for the road for of major intersections and with no parked
use in design. vehicles present, is illustrated in Figure 4.2.
The design speed for an element is the
expected operating (85th percentile speed)
of the traffic speed in free flow conditions. Austroads Guide to Traffic Engineering
Uniformity of design speed over long Practice Roadway Capacity (Austroads,
sections enhances safety by promoting 1991) sets out the approach to assessing
operational consistency, and transitions capacity and Level of Service in interrupted
between sections with different desired flow conditions. More detail can be
speeds should be properly designed (refer to obtained from the Highway Capacity
Chapters 6 and 11). Manual (TRB, 2000). The Level of Service
However, free flow conditions rarely occur to be provided in urban areas will often be
on urban arterial roads and some design guided by the regional polices for managing
elements (e.g. steep grades, start of growth, transport, etc. Where such policies
climbing lanes) require consideration of do not exist, it is desirable to aim for a
peak hour speeds to determine realistic Level of Service of C for off-peak travel,
solutions. The operating speed is affected accepting that peak hours will operate
by: closer to capacity conditions. It is
important to provide a design that has
traffic volume;
balance between the mid-block and
width of carriageway; intersection capacity so that the road
operates as an entity rather than as a series
grades;
of discrete segments.
the presence of parking;
intersections (e.g. types, spacing); and
the presence and spacing of property
accesses.
December 2005
4-17
Figure 4.1 Typical relationship of traffic flow to travel time on urban streets with varying delay
characteristics
Figure 4.2 Variation of speed with flow for typical two way urban streets
December 2005
4-18
The Level of Service is enhanced by significance of the many parameters used.

providing: While the default parameters will often be
appropriate, the user must understand when
lane widths of 3.5m (refer to Chapter
the particular circumstances prevailing
7);
require different parameters.
appropriate (numbers/layout of) stand
The aaSIDRA software provides extensive
up lanes at intersections;
output detailing the performance of the
right turn lanes at intersections and intersection, individual movements and
accesses where appropriate;
control or absence of crossing or
lanes using many parameters. It is
important for the user to be able to extract
the pertinent information for the case at
4
entering traffic at minor intersections;
hand from these results. The aaSIDRA
control or absence of parking;
User Guide provides these details.
control or absence of right turns by
Where it is required to analyse a series of
banning right turns at difficult
intersections, or where other intersections in
intersections;
the wider network can influence demand
good coordination of traffic signals; and flows at the intersection in question (e.g.
reassignment to a parallel route), other tools
good lighting of the road for night-time
might be more suitable for the analysis.
driving.
Table 4.3 provides guidance in the selection
Intersection analysis and level of service of appropriate tools to use. Planners and
assessment is usually undertaken using designers should seek specialist advice if
computer programs such as aaSIDRA (refer the more complex analysis tools are
to Chapter 13). This tool should not be required.
regarded as a black box that always gives
the right answer. Users must understand
the data input requirements and the
Table 4.3 Intersection analysis tools
Situation Analysis Tools

Single intersection aaSIDRA.
Series of intersections on single arterial TRANSYT to determine the coordination followed by
aaSIDRA to design the intersections.
Wider network with parallel routes Assignment packages with intersection analysis capabilities
(SATURN, TRIPS). For example, use SATURN or TRIPS to
determine the traffic volume and then use aaSIDRA for the
intersection design. In some cases, micro-simulation might
be appropriate (AIMSUM, PARAMICS, DRACULA),
particularly if visual representations are needed.
December 2005
4-19
4.4.6 Operations
4.4.4 Alignment
Operations on urban arterials are affected
The alignment of many urban arterials is
by:
determined by the constraints of
development adjacent to the road and the intersection spacing and control;
access requirements (both property and side
lane changing;
road). Design elements should reflect the
expected operating speeds, recognising that weaving;
the speed is governed more by the
4 horizontal alignment than the vertical.

merging;
spacing of median openings;
Where there is some freedom to move with
one-way streets;
the alignment, designers should ensure that
the desired speed created is in harmony reverse flow/tidal traffic flow;
with the type of road and its location.
pedestrians;
Curvature can be used to control the speed
to the level commensurate with the cyclists;
segment/area. This is a case of bigger (e.g. parking;
curves) not necessarily being better.
transit lanes (e.g. bus lanes and High
However, adequately designed transitions
Occupancy Vehicle [HOV] lanes);
should be provided.
bus stops;
It is important that the vertical alignment is
in harmony with the horizontal alignment in property access; and
terms of sight distance available and the
driveway spacing and their distance
operating speeds on grades. If grades are
from intersections.
significant, the capacity and Level of
Service are affected and analysis should be Intersection spacing and control
carried out to ensure that there is
The proximity of intersections on many
consistency in the operating characteristics
arterial roads creates operational problems,
over significant lengths of the facility.
and consideration of distances necessary for
Refer to Chapters 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and lane changing, merging, or weaving is
15 for details under various circumstances. necessary. Where adequate distances as
defined below cannot be achieved for the
4.4.5 Cross section
particular operation required, control
measures such as turn restrictions, signals
The cross section elements of urban
or the formation of cul-de-sacs could
arterials will depend on a range of factors
become necessary.
including available right of way. Chapter 7
provides guidance on the design domain
Lane changing
appropriate for the various conditions
encountered. Appendix 4D contains some Except when forced, lane changing
discussion regarding the application of the normally occurs at a rate of lateral
Extended Design Domain to cross sections. movement of 1.0m/s. Thus, for 3.5m lanes
lane change distance in metres can be taken
December 2005
4-20
as approximately equal to V, where V is Merging

speed in km/h (refer to Chapter 15).
Figure 4.3 illustrates some simple merging
As traffic density increases, the number of manoeuvres, as in the case of a transition
drivers wishing to change lanes increases, from two lanes to one.
and the opportunity to make the change
Chapter 15 includes details of the
decreases. Considerably longer distances
calculation of merging lengths for auxiliary
then become necessary, and the problems
lanes. The treatment of acceleration and
then become similar to those of merging
deceleration lanes is given in Chapter 13.
and weaving.
Weaving
Median openings 4
The control of the spacing of median
Analysis of weaving is usually only
openings is a means of balancing the local
applicable in motorway or near motorway
service function with the through traffic
conditions. The procedures described in the
function of an arterial road. Thus as the
HCM (TRB, 2000) are not applicable to
importance of the through traffic function
roads with interrupted flow conditions (e.g.
increases, so also does the desirability of
most at grade urban arterial roads).
increasing the median opening spacing.
A weaving section handles two classes of
On urban arterial roads with an important
traffic, viz:
local service function, and with medians
traffic entering, passing through, and sufficiently wide to accommodate right turn
leaving the section without crossing the lanes, a spacing of 120m will permit
normal path of other vehicles; and successive development of right turn lanes
when the operating speeds are [70km/h
traffic that must cross the paths of other
(Figure 4.4). Greater spacing is required
vehicles after entering the section.
where high storage demands or high desired
On a well designed but short weaving speeds occur. The minimum dimension of
section operating below capacity, the two 120m is a statement of the minimum
classes tend to separate themselves from physical space needed to generate the
each other almost as positively in practice minimum length of turning lane at both
as they do in theory for simple weaving intersections. This is applicable only in
configurations. However, most urban existing situations where there is limited
arterial roads have to function, on flexibility. Consequently such an
occasions, under forced flow conditions. arrangement has a limited storage capacity
Weaving operations in these cases become and may not be appropriate where turning
virtually impossible, and for this reason, volumes are high. Their operation and
weaving sections should, where practicable, capacity should be checked (e.g. using
be avoided in arterial road design. aaSIDRA) to determine if they are an
appropriate treatment.
December 2005
4-21
Figure 4.3 Typical median terminal treatments
December 2005
4-22
4.5 should be plotted to verify the adopted

spacing. Intervals of 350m to 450m, or
multiples of such, become necessary.
Specialist advice should be sought with
regard to the co-ordination of traffic
signals.
Figure 4.4 Minimum spacing of median
crossings for medians 3m and wider for
roads with operating speeds [70kmh
If traffic volumes are too high to allow

median openings to be provided at this
4
close spacing, some side road accesses will
have to be modified or closed (e.g. turn into
a cul-de-sac or a left-in/left-out only
intersection, ban right turns at specified
times, ban right turns completely).
However, this introduces additional vehicle
movements to allow drivers to achieve the
manoeuvres they require, and this can affect
the operation of other streets in the area.
Chapters 7, 8 and 13 provide detailed
information on the design of medians.
Chapter 13 also discusses median
crossovers for emergency or other access.
Figure 4.5 Determination of intersection
Where the through road and the intersecting spacing for co-ordinated signals using
road have a similar function but both have space-time diagram
narrow medians, median openings should
Many practical constraints exert major
be provided at intersections except
influences on the median spacing that can
intersections with minor streets. This
be achieved, particularly in the common
avoids the right turn demand being
case of reconstruction within an existing
concentrated at a small number of locations
right-of-way with an established street
and allows the turning vehicles to take
pattern. The location of openings is
advantage of the gaps that occur in the
normally obtained by the following
opposing traffic stream. This will also
procedure:
minimise the length of travel of drivers and
provide more ready access to the local area. 1. Rank the more important cross streets
A minimum demand of 20 vehicles per day in terms of those at which openings
is a reasonable starting point to consider must be provided, those where they
providing a median opening. However, as should be provided, and those where
with all conflict points, adequate sight they could be provided.
distance must always be available. 2. Examine the geometric constraints of
On arterial roads where coordination of alignment, cross section and visibility
signals will ultimately be adopted, a space- to ensure that these are compatible with
time diagram of the type shown in Figure
December 2005
4-23
providing openings at those locations loss of sight distance of vehicles

where they must be provided. approaching from the right occurs. In
addition, pedestrians who are strangers to
3. Select intermediate openings to provide
the locality might tend to step into the path
adequate local service, to comply with
of vehicles approaching from the left.
the functional requirements outlined
above, and to satisfy the geometric Increased travel distances caused by out of
design standards. direction movements result in increased
traffic densities (on other roads) and
One-way roads
4 Conversion of two existing two-way roads
personal inconvenience (and might also
affect customers accessing, and deliveries
to/from, businesses, etc), although the
to a one-way pair is an inexpensive method
of arterial road development, and for streets quality of flow (on the through one-way
carrying high traffic volumes, a road) may nevertheless be improved.
considerable improvement to the Level of The following design requirements should
Service often can be achieved by this be fulfilled:
technique. Crash rates at intersections are
the roads forming the one-way pair
reduced since the numbers of conflicts are
should desirably be not more than
reduced and head-on collisions from
150m apart and never more than 200m
opposing vehicles are virtually eliminated
apart (in the transverse direction);
(however, wrong way movements can
occur). Where signals are required, simple cross roads should be permitted to
two-phase systems rather than three phase intersect at intervals of 100m to 150m;
systems are normally adequate, thus and
reducing lost time and thereby increasing
transition roadways with easy curvature
the Level of Service. Progression through
should be provided at the ends of the
the signals along the arterial is also easier to
one-way system.
establish. (Note: Town planners consider
the conversion of streets to one way flow Reverse flow/tidal traffic
undesirable as it reduces the permeability of
Where the directional distribution of traffic
the area.)
in peak hours is greatly unbalanced
Lane marking is necessary, particularly maximum use of carriageway widths can be
with narrow pavements, to encourage achieved by allocating a greater number of
maximum lane use. There is evidence that lanes to the predominant traffic flows as
on relatively narrow, unmarked one-way shown in Figure 4.6.
roads, vehicles tend to queue in one lane
rather than develop tight two-lane
operation, and under these circumstances,
greater capacity could be achieved by
providing lane marking to facilitate two-
lane flow.
The disadvantages that accrue from one-
way operation are those of encouragement Figure 4.6 Reverse flow
of extra speed, while at the same time some
December 2005
4-24
Such a technique is often of value in stage [lane plus shoulder] should be provided
construction, and in other temporary works, in the direction of flow, and parking
but it is not normally to be used in the denied).
design of permanent projects.
Satisfactory terminal design such as in
The use of the reverse flow/tidal traffic Figure 4.7 can be implemented.
technique is more applicable to
carriageways with five or more lanes. Its
application to four lane roadways is
severely restricted. In this case, the
opposing traffic in peak periods is reduced
to one lane. Overtaking opportunities for
4
the one lane flow are therefore denied and
long queues can develop. Vehicle
breakdowns in the one lane will stop the
flow of traffic, unless special breakdown
provision is made.
Advance signing is necessary and it is
crucial that it be clear and unambiguous.
Control devices are normally in the form of
signals or illuminated signs over each lane
at approximately 300m intervals.
Because of the inherent danger of head-on
collision, all of the following warrants must
be satisfied:
The difference between the flows in the
two directions is substantial, being at Figure 4.7 Reverse flow terminals
least sufficient to justify an extra lane in
the direction of major flow and the ratio Pedestrians
of major to minor movements being at Pedestrian accidents are almost invariably
least 2:1 and preferably 3:1. of considerable severity. On heavily
Design controls and right of way trafficked roads, special facilities are
limitations are such that it is not necessary to promote pedestrian safety (e.g.
feasible to provide greater width or Figure 4.8). In addition, pedestrian
provide a parallel roadway. movements, especially when not
incorporated appropriately into a design,
Adequate Level of Service cannot be can act restrictively on roadway Level of
obtained by restricting parking, right Service.
turn traffic or other such means.
Pedestrians tend to take the shortest path to
Where only one lane is available for the their destination, thus often crossing in mid-
lesser flow, there should nevertheless block locations, and failing to stay within
be provision for a disabled vehicle to be the crossing itself. They tend also to avoid
overtaken (i.e. at least a 5.5m width changing grades when crossing roadways,
December 2005
4-25
and thus careful location of grade separated can be obtained by referring to the TRUM
pedestrian facilities to eliminate or reduce Manual (Main Roads, 2004).
this desire is a feature of good design.
Chapter 5 provides a more comprehensive
discussion of pedestrian characteristics and
requirements, with guidelines on the design
of pedestrian crossing facilities.
Cyclists
4 Planners and designers must provide

specifically for cycling on urban arterials in
accordance with Chapters 5 and 7. Specific
facilities for cyclists include off-road paths
(shared or segregated), on-road cycle (only)
lanes and shared lanes (e.g. transit lanes).
The provision of sealed shoulders may also
adequately provide for cyclists in some
instances (e.g. a rural highway). While off-
road paths may be preferred, designers must
consider many issues when developing a
context sensitive design (refer to Chapter 2)
and these will influence the decision about
*Refer to Chapter 7 for clearances.
#
what facility or provision for cycling is
Refer to Chapter 5 for these dimensions.
appropriate.
Figure 4.8 Examples of pedestrian crossings
Planners and designers must provide for
Where a signalised pedestrian crossing is bicycles as detailed in Main Roads
installed adjacent to an intersection, it is Policy for Cycling on State Controlled
essential that the intersection itself be Roads (Main Roads, 2004).
signalised. Otherwise, drivers of vehicles
Main Roads, in planning and delivering the
approaching the pedestrian crossing could
roads program, is to positively provide
interpret a green signal indication as
for cycling on identified cycling routes and
applying to the intersection also, and
make other routes cycle friendly where
disregard a vehicle approaching from the
appropriate (refer to the policy for full
cross road.
details).
Considerable care is required in taking
decisions on the need for, and type of, Parking
pedestrian facilities. Installing a grade The provision of parking on arterial roads
separated, zebra or signalised crossing is recognises the local service function of the
not always the best solution, and providing facility. However, as the through traffic
pedestrian refuges might be more function increases in its relative importance
appropriate. The warrants given in the over the local service function, so does the
MUTCD (Main Roads, 2003) provide the necessity to deny kerbside parking adjacent
basis for these decisions. Further advice to the through traffic flow.
December 2005
4-26
Kerbside parking on arterial roads 2004) and AS2890.2 (Australian

materially increases crash exposure, both Standards, 2002);
pedestrian and vehicular, and considerably
bicycle parking is dealt with in the
reduces the Level of Service to through
GTEP Part 14 (Austroads, 2000) and
traffic. Where alternative accommodation
AS2890.3 (Australian Standards, 1993);
for parking can be provided adjacent to
and
existing arterial roads, or where new arterial
road deviations are being designed, parking for the disabled is covered in
kerbside parking on the through DR04021 (Australian Standards, 2004).
carriageway should be avoided wherever
possible.
Bus stops 4
Careful consideration of the location and
However, where it is necessary to provide a
operation of bus stops is necessary to avoid
kerbside parking lane, recognition of
traffic hazards and delays.
possible future or peak hour usage of the
parking lane as a through lane requires that A spacing of not less than 400m is
a full lane width be provided (refer to necessary to maintain reasonable operating
Chapter 7). This width also aids operation speeds and minimise traffic interference,
as the greater the separation between parked but pedestrian access and passenger desires
vehicles and through traffic the lesser is the are the prime considerations in the
accident potential and the greater is the determination of bus stop spacing.
capacity. In addition, with full width
Removal of the buses from the through
parking lanes, disabled vehicles can find
lanes for embarkation and disembarkation
some shelter between parked vehicles and
purposes (e.g. indented bus bays) causes the
the through lanes, and cause only minor
least delays to following vehicles.
inconvenience to the through traffic flow.
However, unless special design precautions
Median parking is not a desirable feature of are taken, it may result in hazardous
urban arterial roads irrespective of whether situations as buses re-enter the through
it is parallel, angled or within the median lanes.
itself. It should be avoided in the design of
Where service roads are available bus stops
new arterial roads.
should, wherever possible, be provided only
Further details of parking requirements are on the service road. For more details on
dealt with in Chapter 7. bus stop considerations, refer to Chapter 20.
Both on-street and off-street parking are
Transit (HOV) lanes and bus lanes
dealt with in detail in Austroads Guide to
Traffic Engineering Practice (GTEP), Part Special purpose lanes (i.e. transit lanes) for
11 Parking (Austroads, 1998). In High Occupancy Vehicles (HOVs) and
addition: buses are discussed in Chapter 3. These
include lanes provided over long lengths of
on-street parking is also dealt with in
a road as well as queue-jump facilities at
AS2890.5 (Australian Standards, 1993);
appropriate intersections to assist bus
off-street parking is also dealt with in operation. Further details of these facilities
AS/NZS2890.1 (Australian Standards, are also provided in Chapter 7.
December 2005
4-27
Property access but care is required in negotiating the

crossing with a heavily loaded car; and
A major aspect of the detailed geometric
design of an urban roadway is providing a profile that will allow a vehicle with a
access to commercial, industrial, public and 3m wheelbase and 10 angle of
private/residential properties. departure to pass should be redesigned.
Each access point is a minor intersection Where driveway entrance speeds fall below
and thus the basic design features 15km/h, a rapid increase in interference to
applicable to intersections apply to property through vehicles occurs. Thus, except for
4 entrances (refer to Chapter 13). In some

cases a two way right turn lane (in the
minor entrances, the turning geometry
should be designed to encourage exit
centre of the road) may be an appropriate movement from the through traffic at
solution (refer to Chapter 13 for details). 15km/h to 25km/h. This can be achieved
by providing horizontal geometry allowing
Access levels at property boundaries should
curves of 10m to 15m radius to be
be maintained as near as possible to the
negotiated, and providing vertical geometry
existing level. Access grades desirably
suitable for this speed. Where practicable,
should not exceed 1 on 10 at commercial
tapers or (two or) three centred curves from
and industrial establishments, and 1 on 6 at
the through lane should be provided (refer
private/residential entrances. In addition, to
to Chapter 13 for details).
cater for pedestrians, accesses should
include a footpath at least 1.2m wide with a
Property access spacing and
slope not exceeding 2.5% (desirably 2%
intersection clearances
maximum, refer to Chapters 5 and 7).
Steeper access grades are possible and The location and spacing of driveways and
occasionally essential, but in such cases property accesses can have a significant
their effects on through traffic operations effect on the operation of an arterial road.
should receive special consideration. Care is required when assessing accesses;
Where an existing access is to be changed, ideally they would be located to minimise
all changes, including changes to the their effect on the through roads operation
proposed grade, must be discussed with the and provide a reasonable level of service to
relevant property owner. the user of the access. The impact of these
entrances may be assessed by assuming
Vertical curves are often necessary to
them to be intersections and analysing them
maintain vehicle clearance, and templates
in accordance with the methodologies set
are commonly used to check suspect cases
out in Chapter 13. The desired spacing and
(refer to Chapter 7).
location of the accesses can then be
An alternative rule of thumb that works determined by comparing the resulting
well at a footpath crossing is: traffic flow characteristics with the required
Level of Service for the road in question.
a vehicle template with a 3m wheelbase
and a 7 angle of departure will
4.5 National Highways
provide a fully acceptable entrance;
a profile with a 3m wheelbase and 10 Under the Commonwealths AusLink
angle of departure will be acceptable, framework the National Highway
classification no longer exists. Instead
December 2005
4-28
there is the AusLink National Network 4.6.2 Commonwealth

which is a Commonwealth responsibility. Government requirements
It is important to note that not all roads
previously under the former National The Commonwealth does not specify any
Highway classification are part of the new minimum design values for National
AusLink National Network. Network Road Links. Rather any solution
should aim to comply with the following,
4.6 AusLink National listed in order of precedence:
Network - National 1. Austroads Normal Design Domain
Network Road Links design criteria (refer to Chapter 2) and
Australian Standards;
4
4.6.1 General
2. State Normal Design Domain (refer to
Roads included in the AusLink National Chapter 2) design criteria (e.g. those
Network are called National Network Road within the Normal Design Domain of
Links. The nomination of a road as a this Manual) where national design
National Network Road Link does not criteria do not exist; and
imply that the road performs a particular
3. Where the above design criteria do not
function; such road links can perform the
exist, other design criteria as is
function of a motorway, a rural arterial or
appropriate.
an urban arterial. Generally national (e.g.
Austroads) design criteria that are Notwithstanding the above the primary
commensurate with the road function requirement is for the designer/s to
should be used (e.g. refer to Sections 4.2, produce a context sensitive design (refer
4.3, 4.4 and 4.6.2). to Chapter 2). To this end the use of design
criteria lower than say Austroads Normal
When planning and designing National
Design Domain design criteria may be
Network Road Links it is desirable to:
appropriate. However, in these cases, their
maintain a degree of uniformity for use must be fully documented and justified
National Network Road Links, and this must be presented to the
irrespective of administrative (e.g. Commonwealth for its consideration. Such
state) boundaries; a design solution is only acceptable if
Commonwealth approval is received.
provide the appropriate facilities and
Level of Service so that users may
4.7 Other roads
move safely and efficiently on National
Network Road Links; and This section deals with a range of roads,
enable National Network Road Links to which do not fall readily into the categories
be modified when necessary to already discussed. Such other roads
accommodate changing circumstances. include:
service roads ;
collector-distributor roads;
frontage roads; and
temporary roads.
December 2005
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4.7.1 Service roads the design elements should be derived from

Chapter 7.
Service roads are roadways parallel to, and
Table 4.4 Minimum service road lane widths
separated from, an arterial road to service
for roads with low traffic volumes
adjacent property; they are usually
continuous. Minimum single lane width (m)
for a service road that primarily
Service roads are used to provide access to Lane Type provides:
abutting property from an arterial road, or Residential Industrial
to control access to the arterial road from
4 the abutting property. They also often
connect local streets and thus maintain
One-way,
through traffic
access
3.4
access
3.4
traffic circulation without requiring the use Two-way

4.4 5.5
of the main through carriageway (i.e. the through traffic
arterial). Parallel parking 1.8 2.5
Both one-way and two-way service roads Table 4.5 Minimum service road carriageway
are used. Problems with one-way operation widths for roads with low traffic volumes and
are those of increased travel distance and low parking demand
traffic density. Problems with two-way #
Road width (m) for a
operation are those of confusion and glare service road that
to arterial road drivers when used with primarily provides:
narrow outer separators, and an increase in Parallel Residential Industrial
Traffic
the number of conflicting movements at parking access access
cross streets. These problems diminish One-way,
One side 5.5 5.9
single lane
with increasing outer separator widths.
One-way,
With narrow outer separators, the glare Both sides 7* 8.4
single lane
problems and confusion may be alleviated
Two-way,
by using: One side 6.2 8
two lane
dense planting; Two-way,
Both sides 8 10.5
two lane
level differences; or #
Widths are measured between kerb and channel
anti-glare screens lips/kerb faces (refer to Chapter 13).
*5.5m for staggered parking
Figure 4.9 illustrates methods of reducing
conflicts at cross streets when service roads The required outer separator width and
are present. desirable treatments of it are discussed in
detail in Chapter 7.
Minimum lane widths for service roads
with low traffic volumes are shown in In most cases, the operating speed on
Table 4.4. service roads will be similar to that of local
streets (i.e. 50km/h to 60km/h) and they
Combining the lane widths given Table 4.4 should be designed accordingly. At high
gives the minimum service road traffic volumes, the service road can be
carriageway widths shown in Table 4.5 for performing a significant traffic function and
roads with low traffic volumes and low the operating speeds could be higher. In
parking demands. For other circumstances, these cases, it might not be appropriate to
December 2005
4-30
allow parking on the service road. Such encouraging ribbon development along the
service roads will usually be confined to major road. It also probably represents the
rural or semi-rural areas. best use of resources, avoiding the
construction of additional road
In rural areas, it is preferable that the local
infrastructure.
road network provides the service road
function. This will avoid the service road
Figure 4.9 Methods of reducing conflicts at cross streets when service roads are present
December 2005
4-31
Figure 4.10 illustrates the use of a collector-

4.7.2 Collector-distributor roads
distributor road in conjunction with a
Collector-distributor roads are a special motorway to gain the benefits described
type of service road used in conjunction above.
with motorways and roads that perform a
Access control
motorway function.
On motorways, collector-distributor roads
General could require complete control of access if
high volumes and complex manoeuvre
4 Collector-distributor roads consist of
carriageways parallel to the main through
carriageways of a road but separate from
patterns occur on the roadways. In these
cases, the collector-distributor is an integral
them. Their function is to enhance the part of the motorway. This is a
capacity of the road by providing: distinguishing feature of collector-
distributor roads.
extra road space; and
an area for manoeuvres such as Design criteria
weaving, away from the main traffic For collector-distributor roads elements
flow. should be designed using the same design
As their name indicates, these roads collect criteria as those of the main through
traffic from the local street system and carriageways except that the design speed
distribute it to the major road, which is in general will be lower than that of the
usually a motorway, in such a way that the major road. A design speed of 75% of that
operations of the major road are optimised. of the through carriageways may be
adopted although in some cases it might be
By using collector-distributor roads, one
necessary to adopt a design speed equal to
can achieve a desirably long spacing of
that of the through carriageways. In
interchanges on the major road while
addition the transitions (e.g. ramps)
providing a high standard connection to the
between the main road and the collector-
major road from local roads at a much
distributor road must be designed to
closer spacing. In addition, the judicious
account for the transition in speed and built
use of collector-distributor roads can
environment.
minimise weaving manoeuvres on the
through pavements of a motorway.
Figure 4.10 Collector-distributor road
December 2005
4-32
The transverse distance between the Functions

through lanes of the major road and a
Frontage roadways are those contiguous
collector-distributor roadway is in general a
with, and running generally parallel to, a
function of the height difference between
motorway or other major road. They serve
the two roads and the batter slope.
at least one of the basic functions shown in
However where transfer roadways between
Figure 4.11 and the geometric standard
the two are required, sufficient distance to
varies greatly in accordance with these
permit appropriate exit and entrance ramp
respective functions (illustrated in Figure
geometry is necessary. In addition the
transverse distance between the roads
should not be less than that given in
4.12, Figure 4.13, Figure 4.14, Figure 4.15
and Figure 4.16). At higher traffic
volumes, these roads have similar functions
4
Chapter 7 for outer separators.
to service roads and the same conditions
apply to them (refer to Section 4.7.1).
4.7.3 Frontage roads
Frontage roads are service roads used in

conjunction with motorways and other
major roads.
Figure 4.11 Functions of frontage roads
December 2005
4-33
4 Figure 4.12 Continuity of frontage roads
the attractiveness of the route can be

Continuity
minimised through the use of local area
Where continuity of a frontage road traffic management devices
connected to a motorway exists over a
This is to ensure a reasonable level of
reasonably long distance, the operational
amenity and safety for residents. In
flexibility of the motorway is improved as
industrial areas, a frontage road with some
traffic may be bypassed to the frontage road
traffic flow function could be acceptable,
following an accident on the motorway or
provided the basic access functions are not
during maintenance operations (Figure
compromised.
4.12).
If continuity or the capability to serve as Design considerations
a supplementary route is required the
Maintain local traffic circulation in
geometric and pavement design must
residential areas
take this into account (e.g. provide access
points across the outer separator, allow for Linkages between successive pairs of
extra design traffic in the pavement design). severed roadways reduce trip lengths for
many delivery and service vehicles while
However, continuity also bestows on the
avoiding the undesirability of traffic
frontage road the capability of serving as a
attraction of continuous frontage roads in a
supplementary through route, and carrying
residential environment (Figure 4.13).
the motorway (or major road) overloads
during peak periods. Such over usage is
disadvantageous in the case of a frontage
road whose prime function is that of
residential property access. In such
circumstances, to avoid this over usage:
continuity should not be provided or be
limited;
the attractiveness of the route can be
minimised through the use of geometry; Figure 4.13 Local traffic circulation can be
and/or improved by the use of frontage roads
December 2005
4-34
Footpath linkages between the frontage satisfactory, provided adequate capacity

road segments should be generally provided and clearance to ramp junctions or other
unless there are very strong reasons why intersections is available and the Level of
this should not be so (Figure 4.13). Service remains acceptable. Such clearance
should be greater than the queue length of
Where the residual number of dwellings in
arterial road vehicles at the ramp junction
a severed roadway is less than six, the
where possible.
roadway would normally be formed into a
cul-de-sac. Frontage roads that serve as property access
Use of lower order values (for the Normal
Design Domain) for design criteria
roads only are normally two-way. When
serving the functions previously described,
frontage roads are commonly one way, as
4
normally suffice (refer to the relevant
outlined in the next section.
Chapters of this Manual). Footpaths should
be provided on both sides of the frontage Collect traffic destined for a motorway
road and at least one of these should be of or other major road and distribute traffic
adequate width to accommodate PUP from a motorway or other major road
installations (refer to Chapter 7).
The traffic collection and distribution
Provide access to properties fronting a function for a motorway is almost always
motorway or other major road. combined in a frontage road with the
provision of property access (Figure 4.15).
Often the property access function is
This is also desirable for other major roads.
combined in one frontage roadway with
other functions such as collection or
distribution of major road traffic, or for
crossing traffic (Figure 4.14).
Figure 4.15 Frontage roads can collect and

distribute motorway or other major road
Figure 4.14 Frontage roads can provide
traffic
access to properties
Ideally a separate facility providing solely Their design standard varies widely with
for property access should be provided. In the extent and relative importance of the
such a case, design priority should be given collection and distribution functions.
to the entrance geometry of accesses, Frontage roads fulfilling these functions
property drainage, and longitudinal range from a simple two-way roadway to a
geometry of the frontage road, in that order. multi-lane signal-controlled one-way
The frontage road should terminate in a roadway.
local street where this is convenient. The basic design decision is whether the
Otherwise, connection to an arterial road should operate as a one-way or two-
roadway crossing the major road is way road. One-way frontage roads enhance
December 2005
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traffic efficiency on the frontage road and and the structural strength (or design life) of
simplify traffic operations at conflict points. their pavement need only reflect that
However greater trip lengths and greater requirement. Roads, or parts of roads, that
densities on the total road network result. are to remain after construction and are
One-way frontage roads normally require required to connect a permanent stage of
less right-of-way than two-way frontage construction back to the existing road
roads. should be considered as a permanent road
forming part of a stage of construction and
Collect and distribute traffic crossing a
not a temporary road. Such roads should be
4 motorway or other major road
Where practicable the motorway or other
designed as an integral part of the stage to
ensure proper long-term safety and
major road location is determined such that operation.
the existing street pattern can fulfil the
collect and distribute traffic crossing Construction sequencing
function (Figure 4.16) provided that in so
In some cases, the temporary road will be
doing the volume of diverted traffic is not
used for a relatively short time to assist
sufficiently great to adversely affect the
with the sequencing of construction as the
neighbourhood. Otherwise separate
traffic is progressively moved to cater for
roadways parallel to the motorway or other
the construction program. Even so the
major road should be developed. Such new
geometry will have to be satisfactory for the
roadways should normally be two-way.
operating speeds expected and the
pavement design adequate for the expected
design traffic.
In other cases, the traffic may be placed on
part of the final pavement structure as a
temporary measure. In these cases, the
design of the pavement will need to take
into account both the temporary and
permanent trafficking. Delineation of travel
Figure 4.16 Frontage roads can collect and paths through the job will be needed, even
distribute crossing traffic where temporary traffic is to run on the
finished surface (level) of the permanent
4.7.4 Temporary roads pavement. Once again, it will be necessary
(including sidetracks) to ensure that the geometry of the travel
path is satisfactory for the expected
Temporary roads are those used for
operating speed.
construction purposes to facilitate the
movement of traffic during construction; Safety of operation
they are normally removed once
A prime consideration in the design of
construction has been completed. (This
temporary roads and connections for
section includes sidetracks in the definition
construction sequencing is safety of traffic
of a temporary road.) Consequently
operation. The geometry of the connections
temporary roads will have only a relatively
to the temporary road should be in keeping
short life (one to three years at the most)
December 2005
4-36
with the approach road sections and the preferably it should be visible for at least 5s
design of these connections must be in of travel before the transition in width. The
accordance with the requirements of this design should deliver no surprises to
Manual. motorists.
These connections should be designed as
Design considerations
transitions between the approach road and
the temporary road, using the principles The length of the temporary road and its
enunciated in Chapter 6. If the speed proximity to the works will have a
significant effect on the design criteria to be
differentials cannot be kept within the limits
given in Chapter 6 signing should be used
(perhaps in conjunction with other passive
used. Long temporary roads separated from
the works by some form of buffer will
4
measures) with the aim of achieving the require a higher standard of design than a
required reduction in speed. short length temporary road that is adjacent
to the works. The required speed limit on
In all circumstances, particular care is
the temporary road will also affect the level
required in the design of the delineation of
of detail required in its design.
the approaches to the temporary road and
the signing required. The layout of the road The geometric design of all temporary
and the associated signing must be clear for roads should be undertaken with the same
night conditions and adequate warning of care and to the same level of detail expected
changes in features is required. A realistic for the permanent features of the road.
assessment of the actual desired speed must Because of the temporary nature of the
be made (as per Chapter 6) and the road work, it might be appropriate to use
designed for the resultant operating speed geometry that safely results in a lower
a speed limit sign will not necessarily operating speed for the temporary road but
control the speeds to the value on the sign. the designer must be confident that the
operating speed thus created will be
Cross section perceived as appropriate by the driver.
The cross section elements of the temporary The minimum operating speed (and hence
road should be in accordance with Chapter design speed) for a temporary road should
7 but values selected for each of the be based on a design speed of 70km/h (i.e.
elements may be at the lower bound of their for a speed limit of 60km/h), unless the
Design Domain for the volumes and speeds considerations discussed in this section
applicable. Narrower cross sections will justify a higher or lower speed. Specific
help to create a lower desired speed and be minimum criteria for the design of a
less costly. Notwithstanding this, designers temporary road should be developed from
must also select an overall carriageway the following:
width and cross section configuration for
horizontal curvature as per Chapters 10
the temporary road that suits its operation
and 11 but the superelevation, if
(e.g. allow for curve widening, allow for
required, should not exceed 5%;
heavy vehicles, allow for cyclists if
required). crest curve radii must at least provide
stopping that complies with Extended
Drivers must receive adequate warning of
Design Domain Base-case stopping
the narrowing of the cross section and
December 2005
4-37
for cars to a 0.2m high object (refer to The general approach to restoration projects
Appendix 4B); will be set out in the investment strategy for
that road. In developing the strategy for the
sag vertical curves radii should be
road, there must be an assessment of the
designed to at least the comfort
acceptability of the existing geometry in the
criterion of 0.1g given in Chapter 12;
light of current expectations and economy
and
of construction. This should not be done on
the desirable minimum carriageway the basis of cost alone; it should also
width is 9m for an AADT 3000 or 8m include a risk assessment and consideration
4 for an AADT <3000, however narrower
widths may be appropriate where they
of what minimum capability (viz. standard)
is acceptable. Since it is not a green field
can be justified. site, there will be cost advantages in
Temporary roads on all major roads with adhering to the existing geometry if it can
more than 1000 vehicles per day (vpd) must be justified.
be paved and sealed. Temporary roads with At the project level there should be a full
volumes less than 1000vpd, or temporary analysis of the geometry which will include
roads of short length that are also in use for an assessment of speeds in accordance with
only a short time, should be paved but they Chapter 6. The results should then be used
might not require sealing, depending on the to ascertain what capability each
conditions. Design criteria similar to those (geometric) element of the existing road
used for approach roads should be adopted provides and what design criteria are
for such a temporary road. In all cases, the acceptable.
safety of operation is the paramount
It may be possible to adopt different design
objective.
values for some of the elements of the road
4.8 Restoration projects while still adhering to the basic tenets of
design. The detailed chapters of this
4.8.1 Introduction Manual provide the basic reasoning applied
to the development of the design criteria set
For projects where the intention is to restore out in this Manual and these basic
the existing road essentially on the existing parameters should be used to develop the
alignment the use of design criteria within design for the road in question. The
the Normal Design Domain can be following general considerations should
uneconomic from a network perspective. In guide the designer.
such cases the use of the Extended Design
Domain concept (refer to Chapter 2) may Consistency
be required. As will be seen later the The road standard should reflect the
Extended Design Domain does not involve expectations of the users and not provide
the simple use of tables and diagrams. any surprises to the driver - it should be
Sometimes, where there is no Extended self-explaining (refer to Chapter 2).
Design Domain, an even more fundamental Isolated sub-standard elements should be
approach starting from first principles will removed, and isolated sections of new road
be required. constructed to a high standard, which may
December 2005
4-38
lead to surprises when the road re-joins without a proper analysis and calculation
the existing road, should be avoided. that is fully documented (refer to Appendix
4A).
Fundamental parameters
Existing crash history
The physical realities of, and limitations to,
side friction, centripetal force, vehicle The existing crash history must be
dimensions, and vehicle performance must evaluated and appropriate action taken
be accommodated. where higher than normal crash rates can be
attributed to low standard elements.
Human factors
The way drivers perform in practice cannot
4.8.2 Essential requirements
4
and documentation
be ignored. All designs must take the real
performance of representative drivers, who
Where a decision to vary from the
take reasonable care for their actions, into
recommended values of a parameter is
consideration and provide for that
taken, it is essential that the reasoning
performance. Consistency of expectation is
behind the decision is sound and is properly
a predominant requirement, and when the
recorded (refer to Appendix 4A). The
expectation cannot be met, some special
decision must be robust and defensible. To
design feature is required to ensure that the
be so, it must be based on sound
driver can respond adequately (e.g.
engineering principles and evidence. It is
providing extra reaction time for the
unlikely that convenient tables and graphs
unexpected feature - preferably at least 5s).
will be adequate for such an analysis.
Combination of design elements The designer therefore requires a thorough
knowledge of the theory (and practical
No design should use lower order design
application of it) underpinning the
values for all parameters in combination for
parameter being varied, as well as its design
any one element. Where one of the design
intent. In addition the principles espoused
values is less (or more) than is desirable,
in this Manual must be consistently applied.
design values for the other parameters need
The analysis of the existing alignment, the
to be greater than the desirable minimum
factors considered and the reasons for the
(or lower than the desirable maximum) to
final decision must be documented and
compensate (e.g. provide wider pavement
recorded (refer to Appendix 4A). This must
over crests where the radius of the vertical
be a robust procedure using acceptable,
curve is of a low standard).
established technical data and practice.
Economy Because the design of these types of
The principal reason for adopting lower projects requires a thorough analysis of the
order values for design criteria, rather than situation and considerable attention to the
desirable values, is one of economy. It is details of the design based on first
necessary to demonstrate objectively that principles, design costs will be higher than
adopting these lower design criteria is equivalent projects that have geometry
necessary - it is not sufficient to assume that within the Normal Design Domain. This is
a particular change is too expensive a small amount compared to the significant
savings that will be achieved in the cost of
December 2005
4-39
the project. In addition, it is a very small it is easy to do so if the remainder of the

investment to make to provide proper road is to retain a lower operating speed.
documented evidence of the validity of the Conversely, it is sensible to improve the
decisions made. geometry of an isolated section in order to
match the operating speed of the adjoining
It is also recommended that the
sections to establish continuity of
performance of the road be monitored and
expectations along the route.
assessed regularly after the project has been
completed.
4.8.4 Cross section
4 4.8.3 Design speed, operating
Chapter 7 sets out the desired lane and
shoulder widths for all road types. There is
some flexibility in shoulder width as well as
The link strategy will specify the target
lane width (refer to Appendix 4D)
speed for the road for use in design.
depending on the vehicle types expected.
Establishing the design speed for each
The slope of embankment batters is also a
geometric element is fully discussed in
consideration, together with the available
Chapter 6, which contains a detailed
clear zone. The location of lateral
process for analysing the alignment to
obstructions and the space available to
estimate the realistic operating speed on
provide safety barrier must also be
each element. Proper application of this
considered (Chapter 8).
procedure will provide an objective
assessment of the likely speed of travel on The combination of elements will have a
the road, giving a basis for the design speed significant bearing on the acceptability of a
adopted and subsequent analysis of the each total cross section. Flat batters (1 on 4 or
geometric elements capability. Adopting flatter) will provide additional space for
anything less than the speed calculated by vehicles to pull off the road and would
using the procedure described in Chapter 6 compensate for a narrower carriageway
will: width where formations are low and it is
necessary to retain the existing carriageway
not represent the reality of the situation;
width (refer to Appendix 4D). This effect
and
is more pronounced if the batters are even
make any future defence of the flatter (1 on 6 or flatter); flatter batters are
geometric issue much more difficult. preferable.
Improving the width, ride quality and
4.8.5 Horizontal alignment
quality of surface will inevitably change the
operating speed with a consequent change
Chapter 11 sets out the requirements for the
in the required design speed of some, or
design of horizontal curves and the factors
many, elements.
that must be considered in their design.
The purpose of the road, as well as its type Desirable values for side friction, radius,
and function, must be considered as well as superelevation and transitions are provided.
the consistency of the operating speed along Consistency of operation and proper
the road. There is no need (and it is not coordination of the vertical and horizontal
desirable) to increase the operating speed of alignments is desired (refer also to Chapter
an isolated section of a road merely because 10).
December 2005
4-40
Where an existing horizontal alignment is is the provision of adequate sight distance

to be retained, it should be assessed using and the basis of the approach is explained.
the techniques provided in Chapters 6 and There is also some discussion on the design
11 before adopting it without change. domain that can be used when considering
Isolated inadequate or inconsistent curves the existing vertical alignment. In addition,
can then be identified and the extent of Appendix 4B sets out the Extended Design
reconstruction defined. Note that for Domain for sight distance. Generally these
horizontal alignment design there is only an are the minimums that should be achieved
Extended Design Domain for sight distance for restoration projects (refer to Section
around horizontal curves and for adverse
superelevation in urban areas (refer to
4.9). Similarly Appendix 4C sets out the
Extended Design Domain for sight distance
4
Appendix 4F). Apart from the latter there at intersections. Proper coordination of the
is no Extended Design Domain for the vertical and horizontal alignments is desired
horizontal curve size. This is because the (refer to Chapter 10).
absolute maximum side friction factors
In many cases, the standard of the vertical
given in Chapter 11 have been established
alignment of an existing road was
though empirical research as being what
considered satisfactory when the road was
drivers travelling at the operating speed
first built but, compared to todays design
(refer to Chapter 6) are prepared to use, and
requirements for new roads it is not
a strong link between crash rates and
satisfactory for current operating
horizontal curve radius exists. The primary
conditions. Reconstruction of the entire
goal should be to ensure that the geometry
vertical alignment is often too expensive to
adopted is consistent with the future
contemplate and it is necessary to consider
operating speeds and consistent along the
how best to use the existing construction.
route with no surprises. This might be
However, it should not be assumed that the
achieved with minimal changes at
existing alignment should be accepted
reasonable cost with significant benefits if
regardless of its geometry. It is necessary
the proper analysis is undertaken and
to provide consistency and adequate safety
implemented.
along the route which might require the
The operating speed of elements along the reconstruction of isolated crests.
road will primarily be established by the
Geometric consistency is just as
horizontal alignment. Chapter 6 provides
important a requirement for restoration
the information on how to use this to
projects as it is for new road projects.
control operating speeds to suit the
After all, most end users will not
conditions.
distinguish a restored road from a new
road.
4.8.6 Vertical alignment
The erection of a sign after the road has
Chapter 12 sets out the normal design been upgraded does not provide sufficient
criteria and Normal Design Domain for the guidance to the driver. (Note: Currently the
design of vertical alignment. While most of MUTCD does not allow the use of advisory
an existing road should comply with the speed signs for crest curves in any case.)
Normal Design Domain, some crest curves There is a body of research that shows, for
may not. The primary control on the design rural highways, the speed of operation over
December 2005
4-41
crest curves is dictated primarily by the 4.8.7 Intersections

horizontal alignment and that the vertical
alignment has little to no effect on Appendix 4C sets out the Extended Design
operating speeds. Topography has some Domain for sight distance at intersections
effect on the perceptions of drivers about a and Appendix 4E sets out the Extended
suitable speed (i.e. it can affect operating Design Domain for unsignalised
speeds) but the horizontal alignment will be intersection layouts.
the major determinant of operating speeds.
4.8.8 Other parameters
4 Where crest curves with a radius that is less

than the lower bound of the Normal Design
Domain are to be retained, analysis will be
Careful selection of side friction factors,
crossfalls, reaction times, visibility criteria,
necessary to determine if additional width etc for restoration projects can significantly
(for manoeuvring) to compensate (for the reduce reconstruction requirements and
reduced stopping capability is required their extents. However, it is essential that
refer to Appendix 4B and Chapter 12). the values chosen provide a realistic
This allows additional space for a driver to assessment of the situation that will exist on
avoid objects and oncoming vehicles which completion of construction. For example,
thereby provides benefits for safety of not providing safe intersection sight
operation. (Note: Additional width is only distance (refer to Chapter 13) to a property
beneficial for lanes that are not lane locked. access on the basis that there is no
If an overtaking lane exists over a crest discernable safety impact based on accident
curve, providing additional width will not records and research into this parameter
necessarily help). could be acceptable on a particular road.
However, in determining the desired speed
It is also necessary to ensure that a number
and/or operating speed using a speed survey
of design values below the Normal Design
of an existing very rough and narrow road
Domain are not used at the same place (i.e.
will be difficult to justify when drivers
on the one geometric element). Thus if a
expectations may change after completion
tight crest curve is retained it must not be
of the restoration project (e.g. when the
associated with a tight radius horizontal
restoration project comprises widening of
curve or narrow cross section. Similarly,
the formation/carriageway and pavement
small radius crest curves must not be
overlay). (Refer also to Cox 2002 and Cox
associated with an intersection or property
2003.)
access designers should relocate the
intersection or access or change the crest The factors selected, and the reasons for
curve to suit. that selection must be fully documented and
approved before completing the design
Designers should be alert to the potential to
(refer to Appendix 4A).
achieve the desired design criteria at little to
no extra cost by making appropriate
4.9 Requirement for
adjustments to the vertical alignment.
geometric assessment
Good design will take advantage of all of
the techniques available to produce the best
and choice of Domain
result.
Generally, with the exception of the
Extended Design Domain design criteria,
December 2005
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the design criteria quoted in this Manual are those given above. Examples include a
for the Normal Design Domain (refer to significant re-alignment of very low volume
Chapter 2) and so are generally applicable road in hilly terrain and a new road in
to: extremely constrained conditions (e.g. sight
distance around median barriers on
new construction (i.e. green field
horizontal curves). Designers must not use
sites);
values within the Extended Design Domain
horizontal and/or vertical re-alignment values in these situations unless directed by
where more than a few isolated the relevant road authority; the business
elements require re-alignment (unless it
is a very low volume road); and,
case and brief should reflect this
requirement. If values within the Extended
4
for the new carriageway of a Design Domain are to be used it is critically
duplication. important that well documented
justification be provided (refer to Section
Preferably, the normal minimum design
4.9.1).
criteria or design values in this Manual
would only be applied in constrained Table 4.6 lists situations where a geometric
situations. assessment is required and whether use of
the Normal Design Domain and/or the
In general it is recommended that the
Extended Design Domain is appropriate.
Extended Design Domain design criteria
Figure 4.17 illustrates the process that
detailed in this Manual be considered for:
should be used to make this decision.
the assessment of existing roads;
4.9.1 Guides for the Extended
improving the standard of existing
Design Domain
roads in constrained situations;
the new carriageway of a duplication in Guides for the application of the Extended
constrained situations; Design Domain are included in the
Appendices of this Chapter. Refer to:
a major re-alignment of an existing low
volume road; and Appendix 4A for guidance in relation to
the process that should be followed
a road section where the desired speed
when using the Extended Design
and operating speeds will be reduced
Domain, and how its use may be
due to a change in the built
documented;
environment, because of development,
within ten years (e.g. design an element Appendix 4B for the Extended Design
now for 110km/h using the Extended Domain for sight distance on roads;
Design Domain criteria which will Appendix 4C for the Extended Design
achieve Normal Design Domain criteria Domain sight distance at intersections;
for a future design speed of 90km/h
Appendix 4D for guidance in relation to
[due for example to a future 80km/h
evaluating cross sections using the
speed limit]).
Extended Design Domain;
Sometimes, road authorities may elect to
use values within the Extended Design
Domain in constrained situations other than
December 2005
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Appendix 4E for the Extended Design

Domain for short length right turn slots;
and
Appendix 4F for the Extended Design
Domain for adverse superelevation on
horizontal curves in urban areas.
December 2005
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Table 4.6 Warrants for geometric assessment and guidelines for selecting the appropriate area of
the design domain
1
Suggested area of design
Geometric domain to use
2
assessment Activity Normal When Extended Comments
warranted? Design Design Domain
Domain may be applied
Restoring the wearing course, no
alterations to geometry, pavement (in
the structural context), or formation
Re-seal - -
width. Therefore, it is unlikely that
there will be a change in the drivers
perception.
4
Minor repairs, no alterations to
geometry or formation width, nor most
Routine
of the seal or pavement (in the structural
maintenance - -
context). Therefore, it is unlikely that
(e.g. patching)
there will be a significant change in the
drivers' perception.
Intention is to improve safety by slightly
increasing the sealed width. However, it
is unlikely that there will be a change in
Part shoulder
- - the drivers' perception unless the
seal
appearance of the rest of the shoulder is
changed through repaving (in which
case a geometric analysis is desirable).
Intention is to restore road to previous
No level of service and safety. However
Re-sheet of In constrained
Preferred geometric assessment should be
unsealed road situations.
undertaken for at least the first
occurrence or if formation is altered.
Intention is to restore road to a level of
service and safety that is similar to its
former state. However geometric
assessment should be undertaken for
at least the first occurrence or if
formation is altered. (Roughness of
the road likely to be significantly
Asphalt reduced, especially if overlaying a seal,
In constrained
overlay of a Preferred leading to a possible change in speed.
situations.
sealed road The first overlay of a seal frequently
includes trimming and reformation of
shoulders. The overlay may also alter
superelevation and crossfall. The
former two may change the drivers'
perception; the latter may affect the
acceptability of a horizontal curves
design.)
Intention is to improve safety by
Full shoulder In constrained substantially increasing the sealed
Desirable Preferred
seal situations. width. It may change the drivers'
perception.
Intention is to improve service and
Sealing of an In constrained
Yes Preferred safety. It may change the drivers'
unsealed road situations.
perception.
December 2005
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1
Suggested area of design
Geometric domain to use
2
assessment Activity Normal When Extended Comments
warranted? Design Design Domain
Domain may be applied
Shoulder In constrained safety by substantially increasing the
Preferred
widening situations. pavement width and the sealed width. It
may change the drivers' perception.
safety by substantially increasing the
Overlay and In constrained
4 widening
Preferred
situations.
sealed width and strengthening the
pavement. It may change the drivers'
perception.
Rehabilitation
safety by substantially increasing the
(e.g. In constrained
Preferred sealed width and strengthening the
stabilisation) situations.
pavement. It may change the drivers'
and widening
perception.
In constrained
situations where a
Yes few, in relative
Horizontal terms, isolated
and/or vertical elements are
safety by improving the geometry of the
re-alignment Preferred constrained.
road. It is likely to change the drivers'
of an existing Extended Design
perception.
road Domain should
only be applied to
the constrained
elements.
In constrained Intention is to improve service and
situations for the safety by adding a new carriageway and
existing possibly treating the existing
Duplication of
carriageway. carriageway. It is likely to change the
an existing Preferred
For new drivers' perception.
carriageway
carriageway only if (N.B. If the new and existing
extremely carriageways are close, the geometry of
constrained. one may influence that of the other.)
Any of the
above
Applicable where meeting Extended
activities In constrained
Design Domain criteria in the present
Desirable/ where situations, where
Preferred will result in Normal Design Domain
Yes geometric speeds will reduce
criteria being met when speeds reduce in
assessment is within ten years
the future.
warranted or
desirable.
Notes:
1. Normal Design Domain minimum criteria or better are highly desirable in all cases. Values better than
"desirable minimum" are preferred. However, where it is not possible to achieve this standard the
application of the Extended Design Domain may be considered as detailed in the table above.
2. A driver's expectations may increase due to a perceived increase in the standard of the road, irrespective
of whether the geometric standard of the road has actually been improved or not.
December 2005
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Figure 4.17 Guideline for selecting the appropriate design domain
December 2005
4-47
Commonwealth Department of Transport

References
and Regional Services (1998): Australian
Arndt, O (2004): Relationship Between Land Transport Development (ALTD) Act
Unsignalised Intersection Geometry and National Highway and Roads of National
Accident Rates Doctoral thesis submitted Importance - Notes on Administration.
to the School of Civil Engineering, (The current URL is:
Queensland University of Technology http://www.dotars.gov.au/transprog/road/no
(QUT). tes_admin/notes_admin.aspx)
4 Australian Standards: AS/NZS2890.1:2004,

Parking facilities - Off-street car parking.
Cox R. L. (1995): Analysing Traffic and its
Effect on Level of Service for the
Justification of Overtaking Lanes and
Australian Standards: AS2890.2:2002, Future Road Duplication Technology
Parking facilities - Off-street commercial Transfer Forum, Queensland Department of
vehicle facilities. Main Roads.
Australian Standards: AS2890.3:1993, Cox R. L. (2002): Two Sight Distance
Parking facilities - Bicycle parking Models for Road Design (But I dont need
facilities. to see that far! Do I?) - Main Roads
Australian Standards: AS2890.5:1993, Technology Transfer Forum.
Parking facilities - On-street parking. Cox R. L. (2003): Reduced sight distance
Australian Standards: DR04021, Parking on existing rural roads: how can we defend
facilities - Off-street parking for people it? 21st Australian Road Research Board
with disabilities. (ARRB) Transport Research Conference;
11th Road Engineering Association of Asia
Austroads (1988): Guide to Traffic
and Australasia (REAAA) Conference.
Engineering Practice Part 5 Intersections
at Grade. Cox R (2004): Process for using Extended
Design Domain on a Restoration Project
Presentation at Main Roads Extended
Engineering Practice Part 11 - Parking.
Design Domain Training course.
Cox R (2005): Fitness for Purpose and
Engineering Practice Part 2 - Roadway
Extended Design Domain Training Cross
Capacity.
Sections, presentation at Main Roads
Austroads (1999): Guide to Traffic Extended Design Domain Training course.
Engineering Practice Part 15 Motorcycle
Cox R and Arndt, O (2005): Using an
Safety.
Extended Design Domain Concept for Road
Austroads (2000): Guide to Traffic Restoration Projects - A paper prepared for
Engineering Practice Part 14 - Bicycles. the 3rd International Symposium on
Highway Geometric Design in Chicago,
USA.
December 2005
4-48
Fambro D, Fitzpatrick K and Koppa R Queensland Department of Main Roads

(1997): Determination of Stopping Sight (2004): Main Roads Policy - Cycling on
Distances - Report 400, National State Controlled Roads, Queensland
Cooperative Highway Research Program, Department of Main Roads, Brisbane.
Transportation Research Board,
Queensland Department of Main Roads
Washington DC, USA.
(2002): Roads Connecting Queenslanders.
Fuller, Ray & Jorge A. Santos (2002):
Transportation Association of Canada
Human Factors for Highway Engineers -
(TAC) (1999): Geometric Design Guide
Pergamon (Elsevier Science Ltd, Oxford,
UK).
for Canadian Roads.
Transportation Research Board (TRB)
4
Haldane, M. J. (2002): Assessing the
(2000): Special Report 209 Highway
impacts of multi-combination vehicles on
Capacity Manual.
traffic operation, Thesis submitted as a
requirement of the Master of Engineering
(Research) Degree, Queensland University
of Technology.
Hauer, E (1998): Literature Review and
Analysis on Collision Rates on Vertical
Alignment - University of Toronto (reported
in Geometric Design Guide for Canadian
Roads, TAC, 1999).
McLean, J (2000): Study on Cross Sections
for National Highways - Report for the
Commonwealth Department of Transport
and Regional Services.
Olsen P, Cleveland D, Fancher P,
Kostyniuk L and Schneider L (1984):
Parameters Affecting Stopping Sight
Distance - Report 270, National
Cooperative Research Program,
Transportation Research Board,
Washington DC, USA.
Potter (2002): Burke Developmental Road
Strategy - 89A.
Queensland Department of Main Roads,
(2003): Manual of Uniform Traffic Control
Devices.
Queensland Department of Main Roads
(2004): Traffic and Road Use Management
(TRUM) Manual, Queensland Department
of Main Roads, Brisbane.
December 2005
4-49
Relationship to Other
Chapters
This Chapter relates to all Chapters of this
Manual but in particular it relates to:
the principles espoused in Chapters 1
and 2 for the overall approach to
design;
4 the chapters which follow this Chapter

and which provide the detail for
application of the principles espoused
and design criteria given in this
Chapter;
issues which arise in several of the
other Chapters, in particular:
o Chapter 5;
o Chapter 7;
o Chapters 10, 11 and 12;
o Chapters 13, 14, 15 and 16; and
o Chapter 20.
December 2005
4-50
data indicates that there is no evidence of

Appendix 4A: Process to
crashes related to the relevant sub-
follow when using the
Extended Design Domain parameter/s.
Extended Design Domain
Assess the effect of any change in
This Appendix details the process that
cross section
designers should follow when applying the
Extended Design Domain concept and Restoration projects often incorporate a
Extended Design Domain design criteria change to the cross section of the existing
road. If the change is significant the road
(Cox, 2004).
Analyse crash data

users perception of the road may change
and consequently:
4
Analysis of the crash data for an element or vehicle speeds may increase;
road link may indicate problems with the
there may be higher variation in vehicle
element or road link. Such an analysis is
speeds;
likely to indicate problems associated with:
deception/distraction may increase;
horizontal curves;
and/or
intersections;
visual cues/backdrops may be affected.
accesses;
In addition the change may also:
events the driver may not anticipate
result in a change in safety barrier
such as;
requirements;
o the onset of fatigue (e.g. in a
mean larger vehicles will use the route;
fatigue zone);
and/or
o deception and/or distraction from
attract more traffic or other types of
the driving task;
drivers (e.g. tourists).
o aquaplaning of the vehicle; and
Designers therefore need to consider what
o encountering inconsistent design (or affect any change in cross section will have
geometry, e.g. sudden increase in on road use and, where appropriate, take
side friction demand [i.e. account of it (e.g. undertake geometric
unexpected tight horizontal analysis and upgrade elements below the
curve], isolated raised island). Extended Design Domain).
However crash data analysis is less likely to
Undertake a geometric assessment
indicate problems associated with sight
using the Extended Design Domain
distance deficiencies (on vertical and/or
where appropriate
horizontal curves). If problems with sight
distance can be identified from the analysis Where appropriate (refer to Section 4.9,
it usually means there are significant sight Table 4.6 and Figure 4.17) a geometric
distance related problems. assessment of the road should be
undertaken. This should include:
An element with a standard below that of
the Extended Design Domain should not be a speed assessment; and
considered for retention unless the crash
December 2005
4-51
an assessment of available sight Identify any geometric deficiencies

distance.
Geometric deficiencies include:
A speed assessment, in accordance with
tight horizontal curves (which may or
Chapter 6, will estimate realistic operating
may not have an crash history);
(i.e. design) speeds for each element; the
adequacy of elements and the available sight distance below the Normal Design
sight distances can then be assessed using Domain for:
the operating speeds along the road. o intersections (and accesses);
4 Assessment of the available sight distance

along the road may be aided by:
o
o
vertical curves; and
horizontal curves;
setting target Extended Design Domain
the potential for vehicles to aquaplane;
capabilities;
the potential for water and gravel to be
using plans and diagrams to document
directed onto the road.
capabilities (e.g. Figure 4.18);
local width constraints (e.g. due to
using plans and diagrams to document
presence of drainage structures, right of
design intent (e.g. Figure 4.19);
way);
using sight distance profiles and tables
other width issues such as presence or
(e.g. Table 4.7, Table 4.8 and Table
need for:
4.9).
o pull off areas;
Sight distance profiles may be constructed
using varying eye heights (e.g. 1.15m for a o run off areas;
car and 2.4m for a truck) and object heights
o clear zones;
(e.g. 0.2m, 0.4m, 0.6m, and 1.15m). These
available sight distances along the road o traversable width (viz. the Extended
section in question can then be assessed Design Domain);
against the target capabilities. o safety barriers; and
When setting target capabilities designers o curve widening to suit any larger
should determine the acceptable minimums vehicles.
for the:
minimum manoeuvre time (to say a
0.2m hazard also refer to Chapter 9);
minimum stopping capability (for cars,
trucks, if applicable, and to what object
height also refer to Chapter 9); and
minimum stopping capability at
intersections (and accesses - refer to
Chapter 13).
December 2005
4-52
Table 4.7 Example tabulation of available sight distance and sight distance deficiency
110km/h S.D. 190m 110km/h S.D. 165m 110km/h S.D. 165m 110km/h S.D. 165m
(2 second reaction time, cars)
Observer Observer Observer Observer

1.15m 1.15m 1.15m 1.15m
Ht Ht Ht Ht
Target Ht 0.2m Target Ht 0.2m Target Ht 0.6m Target Ht 1.15m
Chainage
Visibility
Distance
Deficit (m)
Visibility
Distance
Deficit (m)
Distance
Visibility
Deficit (m)
Distance
Visibility
Deficit (m)
4
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
83720 190 0 165 0 165 0 165 0
83730 190 0 165 0 165 0 165 0
83740 187.272 -2.728 165 0 165 0 165 0
83750 173.277 -16.723 165 0 165 0 165 0
83760 165.341 -24.659 165 0 165 0 165 0
83770 157.975 -32.025 158.015 -6.985 165 0 165 0
83780 146.333 -43.667 146.366 -18.634 165 0 165 0
83790 139.218 -50.782 139.268 -25.732 165 0 165 0
83800 133.224 -56.776 133.256 -31.744 155.490 -9.510 165 0
83810 129.670 -60.330 129.671 -35.329 148.682 -16.318 165 0
83820 119.506 -70.494 119.509 -45.491 148.411 -16.589 165 0
83830 119.811 -70.189 119.906 -45.094 137.519 -27.481 159.149 -5.851
83840 112.495 -77.505 112.581 -52.419 135.344 -29.656 157.154 -7.846
83850 100.000 -90.000 100.000 -65.000 130.003 -34.997 150.004 -14.996
83860 100.012 -89.988 100.012 -64.988 130.017 -34.983 150.018 -14.982
83870 100.019 -89.981 100.019 -64.981 130.026 -34.974 165 0
83880 100.028 -89.972 100.028 -64.972 165 0 165 0
83890 110.044 -79.956 110.044 -54.956 165 0 165 0
83900 190 0 165 0 165 0 165 0
December 2005
4-53
Table 4.8 Example of assessment summary stopping capability
Cars Trucks
Length Length
Lowest
Lowest below below
Extended
Start Operating Extended target Operating target Is lowest
Length Design
chge1 speed Design Extended speed Extended capability
(m) Domain
(m) (V85) Domain sight Design (V85) Design reasonable?5
sight
(km/h) distance Domain (km/h) Domain
distance
capability2 capability capability
capability3
(m) (m)
4 Norm-Day-
2.0s-Wet-
6.7s
Zero -
with
visibility
Yes - with
visibility
88000 190 110 0.5m 0 105 bench on
Manoeuvre bench on
Stopping. 4.5s horizontal
horizontal
Manoeuvre. curve.
curve
Norm-Day-
Probably
2.0s-Wet- Truck-Day-
(minimum of
0.8m, Norm- 2.0s-0.4m
4.0s of car
88420 120 110 Day-1.5s- 0 100 Stopping. 0
manoeuvre
Wet-0.5m 5.7s
time for this
Stopping. 3.9s Manoeuvre
road).
Manoeuvre.
Zero -
Norm-Day- Yes - with
with
2.0s-Wet- visibility
6.0s visibility
89020 240 110 0.6m 0 105 bench on
Manoeuvre. bench on
Stopping. 4.3s horizontal
horizontal
Manoeuvre. curve.
curve
Norm-Day- Truck-Day-
2.0s-Wet- 2.0s-0.5m
89520 220 110 0.6m 0 100 Stopping. 0 Yes.
Stopping. 4.3s 6.1s
Manoeuvre. Manoeuvre.
Norm-Day-
0.9m, Norm- 2.0s-0.8m
89880 250 110 Day-Wet- 0 105 Stopping. 110 Probably.
1.5s-0.6m 5.7s
Stopping. 4.1s Manoeuvre.
Manoeuvre.
Norm- Day- Design
2.0s-Wet- stopping
90480 70 110 0 105 0 Yes.
0.2m for 0.2m
Stopping. object.
Norm-Day-
91820 180 110 0.6m 0 105 2.0s-0.4m 0 Yes.
Stopping. 4.3s Stopping.
Manoeuvre.
December 2005
4-54
Cars Trucks
Length Length
Lowest
Lowest below below
Extended
Start Operating Extended target Operating target Is lowest
Length Design
chge1 speed Design Extended speed Extended capability
(m) Domain
(m) (V85) Domain sight Design (V85) Design reasonable?5
sight
(km/h) distance Domain (km/h) Domain
distance
capability2 capability capability
capability3
(m) (m)
Norm-Day-
92590 270 110 0.6m
Stopping. 4.6s
0 103 2.0s-0.4m
Stopping.
0 Yes.
4
Manoeuvre.
Norm-Day-
2.0s-Wet- Yes (but
1.0m, Norm- horizontal
Design
Day-1.5s- curvature no
stopping
Wet-0.6m, longer
93490 350 110 0 95 for 0.2m 0
Norm-Day- ensures
object on
1.5s-Dry-0.2m alertness
+4% grade
Stopping. beyond this
3.9s zone).
Manoeuvre.
Notes:
1. A zone starts where the sight distance falls below 190m design stopping distance for a car operating speed (V85) of
110km/h or falls below the truck design stopping distance for the truck operating speed (V85) at that point.
2. The label for the lowest car Extended Design Domain stopping/manoeuvring capability is in accordance with the
Extended Design Domain guide in Appendix 4B. A perception-reaction time of 2.0s is used for some "Norm"
capabilities; 1.5s is used for some other "Norm" capabilities. The latter case is only applicable if the driver is
constantly/continuously alert (refer to the Extended Design Domain guide in Appendix 4B). In order of decreasing
Extended Design Domain stopping capability for sight distance restricted in the vertical plane, these are:
Norm-day-2.0s-wet-0.2m gives normal daytime stopping in wet conditions for a 0.2m high object;
Norm-day-2.0s-wet-0.4m;
Norm-day-2.0s-wet-0.6m Also, Norm-day-2.0s-dry-0.2m;
Norm-day-1.5s-wet-0.6m Also, Norm-day-1.5s-dry-0.2m Norm-day-2.0s-wet-1.15m; and
Norm-day-2.0s-dry-1.15m.
3. The label for the lowest truck Extended Design Domain stopping capability is in accordance with the Extended
Design Domain guide in Appendix 4B. A perception-reaction time of 2.0s is used. In order of decreasing Extended
Design Domain stopping capability, these are:
Truck-day-2.0s-0.2m gives daytime stopping in wet and dry conditions for a 0.2m high object, braking torque
limits do not give any further advantage for dry conditions;
Truck-day-2.0s-0.4m;
Truck-day-2.0s-0.6m; and
Truck-day-2.0s-1.15m.
4. Within a zone of sight distance deficiency, sight distance usually reduces progressively below the design sight
distance to a value that is then maintained for some length to a point where the design sight distance is quickly
regained.
5. EDD = Extended Design Domain
December 2005
4-55
Table 4.9 Example of assessment summary effect of improving crests (110km/h design speed)
(Courtesy of Main Roads Western Australia)
Effect of increasing crest to meet:

EDD Norm-Day-2.0s- EDD Norm-Day-1.5s-
Austroads Rural
Crest location Dry-0.2m and Norm- Dry-0.2m and Norm-
Road Design Guide
Day-2.0s-Wet-0.6m Day-2.0s-Wet-0.6m
(R=9,800m)
(R=4,200m) (R=2,600m)
Max. Max. Max.
4
Vertical Length of Length of Length of
depth of depth of depth of
Intersection Chainage cutting cutting cutting
cut cut cut
Point (VIP) (m) required required required
required required required
No. (m) (m) (m)
(m) (m) (m)
2 153,425 1.0 220 0.3 130 0.1 80
8 153,675 0.1 160 0.1 80 0 0
10 153,940 3.8 500 1.4 240 0.4 150
151 154,480 3.8 440 1.2 240 0.6 160
25 155,770 0.1 120 0 0 0 0
32 156,675 0.1 160 0 0 0 0
2
41 157,250 0.6 220 0.1 130 0 0
3
47 157,745 2.5 400 0.8 250 0.3 110
64 159,085 5.0 750 0.1 200 0.1 100
4
72 159,775 0.2 200 0.1 100 0 0
80 160,400 7.4 620 3.8 360 1.8 240
885 161,030 0.1 120 0.1 60 0 0
99 161,935 2.2 280 1.0 200 0.5 180
102 162,180 1.0 240 4.0 160 0.1 140
104 162,485 0.1 180 0.1 60 0.1 20
108 162,980 0.2 160 0.1 80 0.1 40
6
122 164,420 3.8 540 0.8 280 0.1 120
7
130 165,275 0.4 240 0.1 100 0 0
137 166,050 0.1 180 0 0 0 0
Notes:
1. Note that there is an access adjacent to VIP No. 15.
2. Note that VIP No. 41 lies within a section where it is recommended that realignment be undertaken to improve
the horizontal geometry. There is also an access within the vicinity of VIP No. 41.
the horizontal geometry.
4. Note that an unsealed side road intersects the through road near VIP No. 72.
5. Note that VIP No. 88 lies at the end of a section where it is recommended that realignment be undertaken to
improve the horizontal geometry.
the horizontal geometry.
7. Note that VIP No. 130 lies at the end of a section where it is recommended that realignment be undertaken to
improve the horizontal geometry.
December 2005
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Figure 4.18 Example of diagrammatic representation of assessment of stopping capability
(Courtesy of Main Roads Southern District)
December 2005
4-57
Figure 4.19 Example of plan showing intent of widening
December 2005
4-58
Geometric deficiencies can be identified as Elements within the Extended Design

a result of the geometric assessment. It Domain
may also reveal concealed dangers, or
An element can be considered to be within
identify something that may not currently
the Extended Design Domain (i.e. in Area
be a problem but will be after the project
2, refer to Chapter 2) if a reasonable
has been completed. The latter may arise
capability is identified for that element. An
due to a change in:
example of this is where the assessment
road users perception of the road; reveals that the element has a reasonable
the expectations of road users (e.g.
drivers unlikely to distinguish between
combination of stopping and manoeuvring
capabilities appropriate for: 4
a restoration project and a new road the roads function;
project);
the road type;
operating conditions (e.g. increase in
the characteristics of the present and
operating speed);
future traffic (e.g. volume, percentage
tracking position of vehicles; and heavy vehicles, vehicle type); and
pavement type/area. future operating conditions (e.g.
increased operating speeds).
Assess any geometric deficiencies,
If a reasonable capability is not identified
using Extended Design Domain
then the element can be considered to be
where appropriate
outside the Extended Design Domain (i.e.
Where elements for the road section under outside the design domain/in Area 3,
consideration are below the Normal Design refer to Chapter 2).
Domain for a new road (i.e. in Area 2 or
Elements outside the Extended Design
Area 3, refer to Chapter 2), the road
Domain/Design Domain the design
section should be assessed using the
exception
Extended Design Domain. In so doing it is
important to note that, for the element If an element is outside the Extended
concerned: Design Domain/Design Domain the road
authority is relying on there being a low
there should be nothing present, either
probability of road users encountering a
now or in the future, that will deceive
hazard. If the assessment reveals an
and/or distract road users;
element is outside the Extended Design
designers should avoid situations where Domain/Design Domain the road authority
other deficiencies or minima are should consider local realignment (i.e.
combined (with the Extended Design upgrade to Extended Design Domain or
Domain); greater standard) or address the greater
existing traversable areas/widths should potential for legal liability. If local
not be reduced in size; and realignment is not possible then the
potential for legal liability MAY be reduced
the assessment should be fully
by:
documented, filed and retained over a
long time period for future reference.
December 2005
4-59
designing and installing mitigating Monitor continually and review

devices (e.g. signage in accordance regularly
with the MUTCD);
If Extended Design Domain is utilised for a
providing adequate clearance to hazards road restoration project, the performance of
(e.g. traversable width); the affected length of road should be
monitored over time (e.g. increase or
reducing the likelihood of road users
changes to accident rate and accident type);
encountering certain hazards (e.g.
its performance should also be reviewed
install fences to catch rocks, install
4 fences/grids to prevent stock wandering

onto the road, etc);
regularly. If the roads performance is
unsatisfactory measures may have to be
taken that aim to improve it to an
demonstrating, using the crash data, acceptable level (e.g. improve the geometry
that there is no crash history related to of the road via a realignment).
the relevant sub-Extended Design
Domain criteria/parameter; Documentation to cover potential
liability
considering if there are any fatigue
related accidents; The justification of the geometric standard
adopted or retained for a road link is
using risk management principles (e.g.
ultimately contestable in court. For this
assess the magnitude, probability and
reason documentation that justifies the
consequence of each risk);
decisions, and retention of those records, is
identifying the competing priorities that essential. Such records should document:
result in no funds being available for
all of the alternatives investigated and
local realignment;
costed;
identifying any environmental
any major constraints (e.g. based on
constraints that may prevent local
social or community grounds,
realignment; and
environmental grounds, geotechnical
calculating supporting BCRs where grounds, presence of major PUP
possible. installations);
It is important to note however that a BCR the competing priorities within the road
in itself may not justify the retention of a system;
design exception. This is because some
the available funding;
safety issues are likely to be considered so
basic that a court is unlikely to find the a risk analysis;
retention reasonable.
supporting BCR calculations (if these
Irrespective of whether the element is are possible);
outside or within the Extended Design
the crash history;
Domain it is essential that the assessment of
all elements along the road link under any special needs (e.g. of road users
consideration be documented. and/or vehicles, special events, etc);
any trade-offs made in the
assessment/design; and
December 2005
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why the end result is a context sensitive Examples of documentation

design.
Figure 4.18, Table 4.7, Table 4.8 and Table
Elements within the Extended Design 4.9 are all examples of some of the
Domain documentation that may be included in the
records of the assessment of a road section.
In the case of an element being within the
Figure 4.19 is an example of how the intent
Extended Design Domain (i.e. in Area 2,
of works can documented for construction
refer to Chapter 2) the documentation
purposes and for the long term record.
should also record:
the capabilities provided and why they
are likely to be reasonable;
4
the extent to which the intents of design
criteria have been achieved, such as:
o how well the intents have been met;
o how relevant the intents are to the
situation; and
o if the consequences of the adopted
solution are acceptable.
Elements outside the Extended Design
Domain/Design Domain the design
exception
In the case of an element being outside the
Extended Design Domain/Design Domain
(i.e. a design exception which equates to
being in Area 3, refer to Chapter 2) the
documentation should also record:
the capabilities provided;
any safety benefits (due to the
capabilities provided);
any mitigating devices or measures that
can be used;
any hazard reduction or prevention
measures or works that can be
constructed;
what can be done in the long term if a
problem occurs; and
any experience with similar cases.
December 2005
4-61
the traffic volume increases.

Appendix 4B: Guide for the
Extended Design Domain for This also ensures greater manoeuvring
stopping sight distance capability.
Application of the Extended Design
Intent of this guide
Domain involves identification and
In line with the intent of the sight distance documentation of capability. Ultimately,
requirements for a new road, application of the capabilities that are accepted may have
the Extended Design Domain for sight to pass the test of what is reasonable
4 distance is all about ensuring that a

reasonable and defendable combination of
capability. Note: A reasonable capability
is the capability that a court decides a
stopping and manoeuvring capability is motorist can reasonably expect when they
provided on roads at all locations; are taking reasonable care for their own
approaches to intersections have additional safety.
requirements. For intersections refer to
The use of the Extended Design Domain
the Guide for the Extended Design
allows and requires a detailed assessment of
Domain for sight distance at
sight distance capabilities on the upgraded
intersections in Appendix 4C.
road, including intersections, in line with
the predicted operating (i.e. 85th percentile)
Application of the Extended Design
speeds at all points along the road. It is
Domain
essential to gain a full understanding of the
The Extended Design Domain is primarily sight distance capabilities and the extent to
for assessing sight distance on existing which the intents of normal sight distance
roads, including intersections. However it criteria are achieved. The effects of grade
can be applied to improvements to existing and coincident horizontal curves are more
roads (and intersections) - refer to Section critical. It also involves a careful
4.9 for a discussion of this issue. What is a assessment for cases of possible driver
reasonable combination of stopping distraction or deception since these may
capability and manoeuvring capability preclude the use of the Extended Design
depends upon the probability and type of Domain at these locations, or require
hazard as well as traffic volume, traffic increased stopping capability.
characteristics and road function. For
example, a greater traffic volume will Use of this guide
warrant the provision of a greater
Using the Extended Design Domain, the
manoeuvre sight distance capability.
minimum capability that can reasonably be
A fundamental objective of this guide is to defended should satisfy ALL of the
provide increased stopping capability (e.g. following conditions:
provide stopping to 0.2m high object rather
1. It must be at least equal to the
than stopping to a 0.4m high object) as:
maximum value derived from the
the probability of encountering a hazard following:
increases;
i. The appropriate Manoeuvre Sight
the size of the most likely hazard Distance (MSD) base case given in
decreases; or Table 4.10; and
December 2005
4-62
ii. The appropriate Stopping Sight standard horizontal curvature in

Distance (SSD) cases given in Table conjunction with minimum standard
4.11. vertical crest radius it can not be
justified);
2. When an object height of greater than
0.4m is used for the SSD base cases ii. Future arrangements/planning must
(i.e. Table 4.11), the SSD check cases be satisfied. (For example allow for
in Table 4.13 should also be checked future planning layouts, fencing,
for satisfactory performance. For safety barriers, noise barriers, etc as
borderline cases, SSD checks can also
be undertaken using Table 4.14.
Similarly the additional checks
appropriate. This includes taking
account of their effects on sight
lines/distances [e.g. a noise barrier
4
described above should also be may reduce horizontal visibility].)
undertaken when several minima are
iii. Geometric features and other
being combined (e.g. RT=2s with dry
features of the road do not distract
conditions with 1.15m eye height to
drivers;
1.15m object height).
iv. Crash data indicates that there are no
3. The minimum shoulder/traversable
sight distance related crashes; and
width criteria given in Table 4.12.
v. If an intersection exists the Guide
4. The General considerations and
for the Extended Design Domain for
Notes for horizontal curves (given
sight distance at intersections,
below in this Appendix)
contained in Appendix 4C, must be
Note that for convenience of documentation used in conjunction with this guide
of the use of the Extended Design Domain to determine the minimum
within project reports etc, Table 4.11, Table acceptable standard.
4.13 and Table 4.14 provide the
2. Horizontal curves and vertical curves
nomenclature for concisely defining the
should not be considered in isolation.
available stopping capability.
Check sight distances/lines in both the
vertical and horizontal planes taking
General considerations
into account both the horizontal and
The following must be considered vertical curvature.
whenever the Extended Design Domain is
3. Particular attention must be given to
applied to roads, including intersections:
checking truck requirements on routes
1. The minimum stopping capability with high proportions of heavy
calculated from the criteria given above vehicles. Some capability for trucks
and below can only be justified should be provided on any road.
provided it meets the following
Designers and planners should note that for
conditions:
drivers travelling at the operating (85th
i. It is not combined with any other percentile) speed it is reasonable to assume
lower order values for the same that they are conscious of their speed
element (i.e. only one lower order (commonly around 10km/h above the speed
value per element is justifiable, e.g. limit when not constrained by horizontal
if an element only meets minimum
December 2005
4-63
curvature). Consequently it is likely they Allowance must be made for the height
will be prepared to brake harder in of vegetation, including grass, on
emergencies. benches, in table drains, etc that results
from the maintenance strategy).
Designers and planners should also note
that providing stopping capability for 4. Cars and trucks require different offset
drivers travelling at the operating (85th values for horizontal sight distance due
percentile) speed will usually cater for less to differences in:
capable drivers (e.g. mean-day). This
i. stopping sight distances; and
4 should not be assumed however;

calculations and checks should always be
undertaken for all relevant cases.
ii. the eye position of drivers.
5. The offset required for trucks will be
In addition, providing stopping capability affected by the direction of the curve
for the Norm-day-wet-0.6m high object (i.e. a left turning curve requires a
case will often cater for the Norm-day-dry- different offset to a right turning curve).
0.2m high object case. This should not be 6. The adequacy of horizontal curves
assumed however; calculations and checks should also be assessed as discussed in
should always be undertaken for all relevant Chapters 6 and 11 (e.g. in terms of side
cases. friction demand, geometric consistency,
etc).
Notes for horizontal curves
Whenever the Extended Design Domain is How to apply widening to provide
applied to roads and a horizontal curve manoeuvre/traversable width
exists, whether it be in isolation or in Widening to provide manoeuvre/traversable
combination with a vertical curve, the width should be applied as depicted in
following must be considered: Figure 4.20.
1. Where sight distance is only restricted
Spreadsheet tool
in the horizontal plane, the height of the
object has no effect. A spreadsheet tool has also been developed
to assist in the assessment of geometry
2. For any horizontal curve with a side
against Extended Design Domain standards.
friction factor greater than the desirable
A copy may be obtained by contacting the
maximum (i.e. fdes max given in Chapter
Principal Engineer (Road Engineering
11 for the operating speed), the co-
Standards).
efficient of deceleration used to
calculate any of the stopping sight
distance cases should be reduced by
0.05.
3. Consider the likely maintenance
strategy and make allowance for it.
(For example, if grass is allowed to
grow up to the edge of seal the
available offset for horizontal sight
distance may be only about 3m.
December 2005
4-64
**Point where Norm-day

Extended Design Domain
**Point where Norm-
Stopping Sight Distance for a
day Extended Design
0.2m object is regained
Domain Stopping Sight
Distance for a 0.2m
object is lost Continue widening
Distance without/below for at least Extended
Norm-day Extended Design Domain
Design Domain Norm-day stopping
Stopping Sight Distance
for a 0.2m object
sight distance for
0.2m high object 4
Taper 1:15
Taper 1:15
# * #
Through lane Direction of travel
*Extended Design Domain manoeuvre/traversable width.

**Other parameters (e.g. value for RT and wet or dry conditions) as per Norm-day base case.
Refer to notes and tables in Appendices 4B and 4C for nomenclature.
#
Normal width.
Figure 4.20 Application of widening to provide Extended Design Domain manoeuvre/traversable
width
Computer Aided Drafting and Design

Formulae
(CADD) packages (rather than formulae).
Chapter 9 provides formulae for the
calculation of manoeuvre and stoping sight
distances.
calculation of offsets required to obtain
stopping sight distance around horizontal
curves. It also has a graph that can be used
to determine this offset.
calculation of vertical curve radii required
to obtain stopping sight distance for a crest
or sag curve.
Where horizontal and vertical curves
overlap or coincide it is usually necessary
for the designer to determine and check
stopping sight distance via plots or
December 2005
4-65
4
4-66
December 2005
Road Planning and Design Manual

Department of Main Roads
Table 4.10 Manoeuvre sight distance base cases for the Extended Design Domain
Minimum manoeuvre time,

Typical h1 (m) h2 (m)
Type of restriction Condition t (s)
AADT
Car Truck Car Truck Car Truck
- > 4000 4.0 4.0
1
Vertical curve only. - 400 to 4000 3.5 3.5
- < 400 3.0 3.5
3
Horizontal curves with > 4000 4.5 4.5
side friction demand 400 to 4000 4.5 4.5 1.15 - eye height
0.6 tail
1 greater than desirable for driver 2.4 - eye height
Horizontal curve 0.2 - standard light/
maximum given in < 400 4.0 4.0 of for driver of
only or a case of a object. reflector
Chapter 11. passenger truck.
horizontal curve of car.
3
Horizontal curves with > 4000 4.0 4.0 car.
overlapping a
side friction demand less 400 to 4000 4.0 4.0
vertical curve.
than or equal to the
desirable maximum given < 400 3.5 3.5
in Chapter 11.
Application of Design Principles and Guidelines

Notes to Table 4.10:
1. Manoeuvre sight distance cannot be applied to lane locked lanes, as the possible presence of vehicle in adjacent lanes means it must be assumed that there
is no width/room available for safe manoeuvring.
2. It is unlikely drivers will have the option to manoeuvre in urban situations (e.g. due to reduced widths, use of lane plus kerbing and footpath instead of lane plus
shoulder, etc). Therefore designers/engineers should not rely on a manoeuvre capability in an urban situation unless:
a. there is sufficient width and length to manoeuvre; and
b. there are no other constraints to manoeuvring (e.g. due to presence of pedestrians, pedestrian crossings, parked vehicles, etc).
3. The side friction must be checked for each design vehicle considered, using their respective operating (85th percentile) speed. It must be a value that is appropriate
for the vehicle, the vehicles speed and the surface to be checked (as the side friction limits for cars, trucks and unsealed surfaces vary as do their speeds).
4. The manoeuvre times given in Table 4.10 provide some stopping capability (for some driver/vehicle combinations).
5. When the sight distance is restricted in the vertical plane, 3.5s manoeuvre time for cars is usually approximately equivalent to 4.6s manoeuvre time for trucks at the
Chapter 4
same speed. However, in each case, this equivalency should always be checked when truck stopping capability is being assessed.
Table 4.11 Stopping sight distance base cases for the Extended Design Domain
3
Case Speed, V Coefficient of 2
Case Code Reaction Times RT (s) h1 (m) h2 (m)
description (km/h) deceleration, d
2.5 - isolated element where V
Normal car >70km/h. 0.2 - standard object.
0.61 - predominantly
driver travelling th 2- normal cases for roads with V 1.15 - eye height 0.4 - dead animal.
Operating (85 dry area with
at the operating >70km/h. for driver of 0.6 - tail
Norm-day. percentile) car low traffic
(85th percentile) 1.5 - normal cases for roads with V passenger light/reflector of
speed. volumes.
speed in daylight 70km/h car. car.
4 0.46 - all other cases.
hours. 1.5 - roads with alert driving 1.15 - top of car.
conditions and V >70km/h
Use speed of
2- normal cases for roads with V
average laden 1
>70km/h. 0.29 - all cases 0.6 - tail
design prime- 2.4 - eye height
1 Truck in daylight 1.5 - normal cases for roads with V (except Type 1 light/reflector of
Truck-day. mover and semi- for driver of
hours. 70km/h and 2 road- car.
trailer in free 4 truck.
1.5 - roads with alert driving trains). 1.15 - top of car.
flowing
conditions.
1. These cases cover design single unit trucks, semi-trailers and B-doubles. The deceleration rates given above allow for the brake delay times associated with the air
braking systems used on these vehicles. Where it is necessary to check for the operation of Type 1 road-trains, use a coefficient of deceleration rate of 0.28. Where it is
necessary to check for the operation of Type 2 road-trains, use a coefficient of deceleration rate of 0.26.

2. For a car in a lane locked lane an object height of 0.2m should be used. For a truck in a lane locked lane an object height of 0.6m should be used. Otherwise the choice
of object height depends on:
a. the probability of the object occurring on the roadway; and
b. the traffic volume.
3. Refer to Note 2 above (in Notes for horizontal curves section in Appendix 4B) for the effect of horizontal curves.
4. Must only be used where Designer/Engineer is confident that drivers will be constantly/continuously alert and that there is nothing unusual present that will deceive or
distract the driver. For this case the physical and/or built environment should increase drivers expectation that they will have to react quickly/stop. For example:
a. a road in a rural area with a horizontal alignment that requires the driver to maintain a high level of awareness due to the presence of a continuous series of
curves with a side friction demand > fdes max; or
b. a road in a heavily built up urban area with many direct accesses and intersections.
December 2005
5. For convenience, a stopping distance case (or capability) can be described in terms of the following nomenclature: Case Code-RT-wet/dry-h2 (For example, Norm-day-
2-wet-0.4 describes the capability corresponding to a normal car driver travelling at the operating [85th percentile] speed in daylight hours with an RT of 2s when
Chapter 4
stopping in wet conditions for a 0.4m high object.)
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4
4
4-68
December 2005

Table 4.12 Minimum shoulder/traversable widths when the Extended Design Domain is used
For cars For trucks
Type of 1,4 1,4
Minimum Shoulder / Minimum Shoulder /
restriction Case Case
Traversable Width (m) Traversable Width (m)
Norm-day stopping sight distance base Truck-day stopping sight
case in Table 4.11 with an object height Normal. distance base case in Table 4.11 Normal.
of 0.2m. with an object height of 0.6m.
Norm-day stopping sight distance base
Vertical
case in Table 4.11 with an object height 1.5 (on each side). Truck-day stopping sight
curve only.
of 0.4m. distance base case in Table 4.11
3.0 (on each side).
Norm-day stopping sight distance base with an object height greater
case in Table 4.11 with an object height 2.5 (on each side). than 0.6m.
greater than 0.4m.
Norm-day stopping sight distance base Truck-day stopping sight
Normal. Normal.
case achieved. distance base case achieved.
3
Horizontal 2.5 on inside of curve (i.e. on side 3.0 on inside of curve (i.e. on side
curve only. Norm-day stopping sight distance base towards the centre of the curve). Truck-day stopping sight towards the centre of the curve).
case not achieved. 1.0 on outside of curve (i.e. on side distance base case not achieved. 1.0 on outside of curve (i.e. on side
away from the centre of the curve). away from the centre of the curve).
3
Horizontal Inside of curve (i.e. the side towards Inside of curve (i.e. the side towards the
curve the centre of the curve) as for centre of the curve) as for horizontal
overlapping horizontal only only
All All
a vertical Outside of curve (i.e. the side furthest Outside of curve (i.e. the side furthest
curve. from the centre of the curve) as for from the centre of the curve) as for

vertical only vertical only
1. Manoeuvre sight distance cannot be applied to lane locked lanes, as the possible presence of vehicle in adjacent lanes means it must be assumed that there is no
width/room available for safe manoeuvring.
2. The minimum traversable/shoulder width given in this table is for a two lane, two way road. For other road types an equivalent minimum traversable/shoulder width is to be
used.
3. The side friction must be checked for each design vehicle considered, using their respective operating (85th percentile) speed. It must be a value that is appropriate for the
vehicle, the vehicles speed and the surface to be checked (as the side friction limits for cars, trucks and unsealed surfaces vary as do their speeds).
4. The width of seal on the shoulder must be at least 0.5m to avoid edge drop-off. The minimum widths are based on a minimum lane width of 3.5m. Where the proposed lane
width is less than 3.5m, the minimum shoulder/traversable width must be increased by an amount equal to the difference between the proposed lane width and 3.5m (e.g. if
3m wide lanes are proposed, the minimum widths must be increased by 0.5m).
5. It is unlikely drivers will have the option to manoeuvre in urban situations (e.g. due to reduced widths, use of lane plus kerbing and footpath instead of lane plus shoulder,
etc). Therefore designers/engineers should not rely on a manoeuvre capability in an urban situation unless:
Chapter 4
a. there is sufficient width and length to manoeuvre; and
b. there are no other constraints to manoeuvring (e.g. due to presence of pedestrians, pedestrian crossings, parked vehicles, etc).
Table 4.13 Stopping sight distance checks for the Extended Design Domain
3
Case Coefficient of 2
Case Code Speed, V (km/h) Reaction Times RT (s) h1 (m) h2 (m)
description deceleration, d
2- normal cases for unlit roads 0.6 - tail light/reflector
Normal car 0.75 - height of car
with V >70km/h. 0.61 - predominantly of car.
driver travelling headlight.
Operating (85th 1.5 - normal cases for unlit roads dry area with low 1.15 - top of car.
Norm-night. at the operating
percentile) car speed. with V 70km/h traffic volumes. 1.15 - eye height for
(85th percentile) 4 0.6 - tail light/reflector
1.5 - unlit roads with alert driving 0.46 - all other cases. driver of
speed at night. of car.
conditions and V >70km/h passenger car.
2- normal cases for unlit roads 0.6 - tail light/reflector
Use speed of average 1.1 - height of truck
with V >70km/h. 1 of car.
laden design prime- 0.29 - all cases (except headlight.
1 Truck travelling 1.5 - normal cases for unlit roads 1.15 - top of car.
Truck-night mover and semi-trailer Type 1 and 2
at night. with V 70km/h
in free flowing 4 road-trains). 2.4 - eye height for 0.6 - tail light/reflector
1.5 - unlit roads with alert driving
conditions. driver of truck. of car.
Car driver 0.2 - standard object.
0.51 - predominantly
travelling at the Mean car speed 0.85 2.5 - isolated element with V 1.15 - eye height for 0.4 - dead animal.
dry area with low
Mean-day mean free speed times operating (85th >70km/h. driver of 0.6 - tail light/reflector
traffic volumes
in daylight percentile) car speed. 2 - all other cases. passenger car. of car.
0.41 - all other cases
hours. 1.15 - top of car.
0.6 - tail light/reflector
0.75 - height of car
Car driver 0.51 - predominantly of car.
Mean car speed 0.85 headlight.
travelling at the dry area with low 1.15 - top of car.
Mean-night times operating (85th 2- all cases.
mean free speed traffic volumes 1.15 - eye height for

percentile) car speed. 0.6 - tail light/reflector
at night 0.41 - all other cases driver of
of car.
passenger car.
1. These cases cover design single unit trucks, semi-trailers and B-doubles. The deceleration rates given above allow for the brake delay times associated with the air braking systems used on these vehicles.
Where it is necessary to check for the operation of Type 1 road-trains, use a coefficient of deceleration rate of 0.28. Where it is necessary to check for the operation of Type 2 road-trains, use a coefficient of
deceleration rate of 0.26.
2. For a car in a lane locked lane an object height of 0.2m should be used. For a truck in a lane locked lane an object height of 0.6m should be used. Otherwise the choice of object height depends on:
4. Must only be used where Designer/Engineer is confident that drivers will be constantly/continuously alert and that there is nothing unusual present that will deceive or distract the driver. For this case the
physical and/or built environment should increase drivers expectation that they will have to react quickly/stop. For example:
December 2005
a. a road in a rural area with a horizontal alignment that requires the driver to maintain a high level of awareness due to the presence of a continuous series of curves with a side friction demand > fdes
max; or
Chapter 4
5. For convenience, a stopping distance case (or capability) can be described in terms of the following nomenclature: Case Code-RT-wet/dry-h2 (For example, Norm-night-2-wet-0.4 describes the capability
4-69
corresponding to a normal car driver travelling at the operating [85th percentile] speed at night with an RT of 2s when stopping in wet conditions for a 0.4m high object.)
4
4
4-70
December 2005

Table 4.14 Stopping sight distance, optional checks for borderline cases for the Extended Design Domain
2
Speed, V Reaction Times Coefficient of deceleration, 1
Case Code Case description h1 (m) h2 (m)
(km/h) RT (s) d
0.2 - standard object.
Skilled car driver
0.71 - predominantly dry area 0.4 - dead animal.
travelling at the Operating (85th 1.15 - eye height for
with low traffic 0.6 - tail
Skill-day operating (85th percentile) car 1.5 - all cases. driver of
volumes. light/reflector of
percentile) speed in speed. passenger car.
0.56 - all other cases. car.
daylight hours.
1.15 - top of car.
0.6 - tail light/reflector
Skilled car driver 0.75 - height of car
0.71 - predominantly dry area of car.
travelling at the Operating (85th headlight.
with low traffic 1.15 - top of car.
Skill-night operating (85th percentile) car 1.5 - all cases.
volumes 1.15 - eye height for
percentile) speed in speed. 0.6 - tail light/reflector
0.56 - all other cases driver of
daylight hours. of car.
passenger car.
1. For a car in a lane locked lane an object height of 0.2m should be used. For a truck in a lane locked lane an object height of 0.6m should be used. Otherwise the

choice of object height depends on:
3. For convenience, a stopping distance case (or capability) can be described in terms of the following nomenclature: Case Code-RT-wet/dry-h2 (For example, Skill-day-
1.5-wet-0.4 describes the capability corresponding to a skilled car driver travelling at the operating [85th percentile] speed in daylight hours with an RT of 1.5s when
stopping in wet conditions for a 0.4m high object.)
Chapter 4
Road Planning and Design Manual Application of Design Principals and Guidelines
motorist can reasonably expect when they

Appendix 4C: Guide for the
are taking reasonable care for their own
Extended Design Domain for
safety.)
sight distance at
intersections The use of the Extended Design Domain
allows and requires a detailed assessment of
Intent of this guide sight distance capabilities on the upgraded
road, including intersections, in line with
In line with the intent of the sight distance
the predicted operating (i.e. 85th percentile)
requirements for a new road, application of
the Extended Design Domain for sight
distance at intersections is all about
speeds at all points along the road. It is
essential to gain a full understanding of the
sight distance capabilities and the extent to
4
ensuring that a reasonable and defendable
which the intents of normal sight distance
sight distance capability is provided for all
criteria are achieved. The effects of grade
approaching, entering, crossing and turning
and coincident horizontal curves are more
vehicles. For the Extended Design Domain
critical. It also involves a careful
stopping capabilities on all roads, including
assessment for cases of possible driver
through intersections, refer to the Guide
distraction or deception since these may
for the Extended Design Domain for
preclude the use of the Extended Design
stopping sight distance in Appendix 4B.
Domain at these locations, or require
Application of the Extended Design increased stopping capability.
Domain
Use of this guide
The Extended Design Domain is primarily
Using the Extended Design Domain, the
for assessing sight distance on existing
minimum stopping capability that can
roads, including intersections. However it
reasonably be defended should satisfy ALL
can be applied to special cases of new road
of the following conditions:
and/or intersection projects, or to
improvements to existing roads and 1. It must be at least equal to the
intersections - refer to refer to Section 4.9 maximum value derived from the
for a discussion of this issue. What is a following:
reasonable sight distance capability at i. Approach Sight Distance (ASD)
intersections depends upon the traffic base cases given in Table 4.15 for
volume, traffic characteristics and road any one of the following
function. For example, a traffic stream with circumstances:
a high proportion of heavy vehicles will
warrant the provision of a greater sight a. important intersections;
distance capability. b. complex intersection layouts;
Application of the Extended Design c. in situations where drivers may
Domain involves identification and be distracted by other features; or
documentation of capability. Ultimately,
d. where adequate perception of the
the capabilities that are accepted may have
intersection is not provided
to pass the test of what is reasonable
through means other than ASD.
capability. (Note: A reasonable capability
is the capability that a court decides a
December 2005
4-71
ii. Minimum Gap Sight Distance can only be justified provided it meets
(MGSD) as per Chapter 13. the following conditions:
iii. Safe Intersection Sight Distance i. It is not combined with any other
(SISD) base cases given in Table lower order value for the same
4.16. element (i.e. only one lower order
value per element is justifiable, e.g.
2. When a Decision Time (DT) of less than
if an element only meets minimum
four (4) seconds is used for the SISD
standard horizontal curvature in
base cases (i.e. Table 4.16), the SISD
4 cases in Table 4.17 should also be

checked for satisfactory performance.
conjunction with minimum standard
vertical crest radius it can not be
justified);
For borderline cases, checks can also be
undertaken using Table 4.18. ii. Future arrangements/planning must
be satisfied. (For example allow for
3. The criteria given in the Guide for the
future planning layouts, fencing,
Extended Design Domain for stopping
safety barriers, noise barriers, etc as
sight distance in Appendix 4B.
appropriate. This includes taking
4. The General considerations and account of their effects on sight
Notes for horizontal curves (given lines/distances [e.g. a noise barrier
below in this Appendix). may reduce horizontal visibility].)
Note that for convenience of documentation iii. Geometric features and other
of the use of the Extended Design Domain features of the road do not distract
within project reports etc, Table 4.15, Table drivers;
4.16, Table 4.17 and Table 4.18 provide the
iv. Crash data indicates that there are
nomenclature for concisely defining the
no sight distance related crashes;
available stopping capability.
and
General considerations v. The Guide for the Extended
The following must be considered Design Domain for stopping sight
whenever the Extended Design Domain is distance, contained in this
applied to intersections: Appendix 4B, must be used in
conjunction with this guide to
1. Zones clear of obstructions, defined by
determine the minimum
sight triangles for each of the
acceptable standard.
appropriate sight distance models, are
required at intersections and must be 3. Horizontal curves and vertical curves
maintained (e.g. resumptions, grass should not be considered in isolation.
mowing practice/schedule, vegetation Check sight distances/lines in both the
maintenance strategy, interference by vertical and horizontal planes taking
signage, effect of installation of noise into account both the horizontal and
barriers, etc are all taken into account). vertical curvature.
2. The minimum stopping capability 4. Particular attention must be given to

calculated from the criteria given above checking truck requirements on routes
with high proportions of heavy
December 2005
4-72
vehicles. Some capability for trucks distance cases (for ASD and SISD)
should be provided on any road. should be reduced by 0.05.
Designers and planners should note that for 3. Consider the likely maintenance
drivers travelling at the operating (85th strategy and make allowance for it.
percentile speed) it is reasonable to assume (For example, if grass is allowed to
that they are conscious of their speed grow up to the edge of seal the
(commonly around 10km/h above the speed available offset for horizontal sight
limit when not constrained by horizontal distance may be only about 3m.
curvature). Consequently it is likely they
will be prepared to brake harder in
emergencies.
Allowance must be made for the height
of vegetation, including grass, on
benches, in table drains, etc that results
4
from the maintenance strategy.)
Designers and planners should also note
that providing stopping capability for 4. Cars and trucks require different offset
drivers travelling at the operating (85th values for horizontal sight distance due
percentile) speed will usually cater for less to differences in:
capable drivers (e.g. mean-day). This
i. stopping sight distances; and
should not be assumed however;
calculations and checks should always be ii. the eye position of drivers.
undertaken for all (relevant) cases. 5. The offset required for trucks will be
Finally, it should be noted that only affected by the direction of the curve
stopping for wet conditions is included in (i.e. a left turning curve requires a
this guide. This is because at intersections different offset to a right turning curve).
there is increased exposure and therefore an 6. The adequacy of horizontal curves
increased probability that a hazard will be should also be assessed as discussed in
encountered during wet conditions. Chapters 6 and 11 (e.g. in terms of side
friction demand, geometric consistency,
Notes for horizontal curves
etc).
Whenever the Extended Design Domain is
applied to roads and a horizontal curve Spreadsheet tool
exists, whether it be in isolation or in A spreadsheet tool has also been developed
combination with a vertical curve, the to assist in the assessment of geometry
following must be considered: against Extended Design Domain standards.
1. Where sight distance is only restricted A copy may be obtained by contacting the
in the horizontal plane, the height of the Principal Engineer (Road Engineering
object has no effect. Standards).
2. For any horizontal curve with a side Formulae

friction factor greater than the desirable
maximum (i.e. fdes max given in Chapter
calculation of manoeuvre and stoping sight
11 using the operating speed), the co-
distances.
efficient of deceleration used to
calculate any of the stopping sight Chapter 11 provides formulae for the
calculation of offsets required to obtain
December 2005
4-73
stopping sight distance around horizontal

curves. It also has a graph that can be used
to determine this offset.
calculation of vertical curve radii required
to obtain stopping sight distance for a crest
or sag curve.
4 calculation of stopping sight distance

required at intersections, and accesses
(where appropriate).
Where horizontal and vertical curves
overlap or coincide it is usually necessary
for the designer to determine and check
stopping sight distance via plots or
Computer Aided Drafting and Design
(CADD) packages (rather than formulae).
December 2005
4-74
Table 4.15 Approach sight distance base cases for the Extended Design Domain
1
Speed, V Coefficient of deceleration,
Case Code Case description Reaction Times RT (s) h1 (m) h2 (m)
(km/h) d

>70km/h.
Normal car driver 2- normal cases for roads with 0.61 - predominantly dry
Operating
travelling at the V >70km/h. area with low traffic 1.15 - eye height
(85th
ASD. operating (85th volumes. of passenger 0.0- road surface.
percentile) car 1.5 - normal cases for roads with
percentile) speed car.
speed. V 70km/h 0.46 - all other cases.
in daylight hours.
2
1.5 - roads with alert driving
1. Refer to Note 2 above (in Notes for horizontal curves section in Appendix 4C) for the effect of horizontal curves.

2. Must only be used where Designer/Engineer is confident that drivers will be constantly/continuously alert and that there is nothing unusual present that will deceive or
distract the driver. For this case the physical and/or built environment should increase drivers expectation that they will have to react quickly/stop. For example:
3. For convenience, an ASD case (or capability) can be described in terms of the following nomenclature: Case Code-RT-wet/dry (For example, ASD-2-wet describes
December 2005
the capability corresponding to a normal car driver travelling at the operating [85th percentile] speed in daylight hours with an RT of 2s when stopping in wet
conditions for a 0m high object.)
Chapter 4
4-75
4
4
4-76
December 2005

Table 4.16 Safe Intersection Sight Distance base cases for the Extended Design Domain
2
Speed, V 3 Coefficient of
Case Code Case description Decision Times DT (s) h1 (m) h2 (m)
(km/h) deceleration, d
>70km/h.
Normal car driver
Operating 3.5 - normal cases for roads with 1.15 - eye height
travelling at the
(85th V >70km/h. for driver of
Norm-day. operating (85th 0.46 - all cases. 1.15 - top of car.
percentile) car 3.0 - normal cases for roads with passenger
percentile) speed in
speed. V 70km/h car.
daylight hours. 4
Use speed of
1
average laden 0.29 - all cases
design prime- (except 2.4 - eye height
1 Truck in daylight
Truck-day. mover and 3.5 - all cases. Type 1 and for driver of 1.15 - top of car.
hours.
semi-trailer in 2 road- truck.
free flowing trains).
conditions.
1. These cases cover design single unit trucks, semi-trailers and B-doubles. The deceleration rates given above allow for the brake delay times associated with the air

braking systems used on these vehicles. Where it is necessary to check for the operation of Type 1 road-trains, use a coefficient of deceleration rate of 0.28. Where it
is necessary to check for the operation of Type 2 road-trains, use a coefficient of deceleration rate of 0.26.
3. DT = decision time (s) = observation time (s) + reaction time (s).
4. Must only be used where Designer/Engineer is confident that drivers will be constantly/continuously alert and that there is nothing unusual present that will deceive
or distract the driver. For this case the physical and/or built environment should increase drivers expectation that they will have to react quickly/stop. For example:
5. For convenience, a stopping distance case (or capability) can be described in terms of the following nomenclature: Case Code-DT (For example, Norm-day-4
describes the capability corresponding to a normal car driver travelling at the operating [85th percentile] speed in daylight hours with an DT of 4s when stopping in
Chapter 4
wet conditions for a 1.15m high object.)
Table 4.17 Safe Intersection Sight Distance checks for the Extended Design Domain
2
3 Coefficient of
Case Code Case description Speed, V (km/h) Decision Times DT (s) h1 (m) h2 (m)
deceleration, d
Normal car driver 7
0.75 - height of
travelling at the operating Operating (85th percentile) 4
7
1.15 - top of
Norm-night 2.5 - all cases 0.46 - all cases car
(85th percentile) speed at car speed car
headlight
night
1
Use speed of average 0.29 - all cases
1 1.1 - height of
Truck- laden design prime-mover 4 (except Type 1.15 - top of
Truck travelling at night 2.5 - all cases truck
night and semi-trailer in free 1 and 2 road- car
headlight
flowing conditions. trains).
>70km/h.
3.5 - normal cases for roads with 1.15 - eye height
Car driver travelling at the Mean car speed 0.85
V >70km/h. for driver of 1.15 - top of
Mean-day mean free speed in times operating (85th 0.41 - all cases
3.0 - normal cases for roads with passenger car
daylight hours percentile) speed
V 70km/h car
5
7
Mean car speed 0.85 0.75 - height of 7
Car driver travelling at the 1.15 - top of
Mean-night times operating (85th 3.5 - all cases 0.41 - all cases car
mean free speed at night car
percentile) speed headlight

1. These cases cover design single unit trucks, semi-trailers and B-doubles. The deceleration rates given above allow for the brake delay times associated with the air braking
systems used on these vehicles. Where it is necessary to check for the operation of Type 1 road-trains, use a coefficient of deceleration rate of 0.28. Where it is necessary to
check for the operation of Type 2 road-trains, use a coefficient of deceleration rate of 0.26.
4. In reality, this is a check to ensure that a vehicle on the through road can see and stop for a stalled vehicle.
5. Must only be used where Designer/Engineer is confident that drivers will be constantly/continuously alert and that there is nothing unusual present that will deceive or distract
the driver. For this case the physical and/or built environment should increase drivers expectation that they will have to react quickly/stop. For example:
a. a road in a rural area with a horizontal alignment that requires the driver to maintain a high level of awareness due to the presence of a continuous series of curves
with a side friction demand > fdes max; or
December 2005
Chapter 4
6. For convenience, a stopping distance case (or capability) can be described in terms of the following nomenclature: Case Code-DT (For example, Mean-day-4 describes the
capability corresponding to a car driver travelling at the mean free speed in daylight hours with an DT of 4s when stopping in wet conditions for a 1.15m high object.)
4-77
7. This also achieves stopping for an eye height of 1.15m (the eye height for driver of passenger car) to an object height of 0.75m (height of car headlight).
4
4
4-78
December 2005

Table 4.18 Safe Intersection Sight Distance, optional checks for borderline cases for the Extended Design Domain
2 1
Speed, V Decision Times Coefficient of
Case Code Case description h1 (m) h2 (m)
(km/h) DT (s) deceleration, d
Skilled car driver

travelling at the Operating (85th
Skill-day operating (85th percentile) car 3.0 - all cases 0.56 - all cases 1.15 - passenger car 1.15 - top of car
percentile) speed in speed
daylight hours
Skilled car driver

travelling at the Operating (85th 4
0.75 - height of car
Skill-night operating (85th percentile) car 3.0 - all cases 0.56 - all cases 4
1.15 - top of car
headlight
percentile) speed at speed
night

3. For convenience, a stopping distance case (or capability) can be described in terms of the following nomenclature: Case Code-DT (For example, Skill-day-3
describes the capability corresponding to a skilled car driver travelling at the operating [85th percentile] speed in daylight hours with an DT of 3s when stopping in
wet conditions for a 1.15m high object.)
4. This also achieves stopping for an eye height of 1.15m (the eye height for driver of passenger car) to an object height of 0.75m (height of car headlight).
Chapter 4
preferable to reduce turn lane widths before

Appendix 4D: Guide to
through lanes widths are reduced.
evaluating cross sections
using the Extended Design Careful consideration is required before
Domain adopting lane widths below 3m. Adopting
a traffic lane width of less than 3m requires
The information provided in this section is the designer to consider aspects such as:
consistent with the current version of the characteristics of the traffic stream
Chapter 7. It does not in any way conflict in the lane (e.g. proportion of heavy
with Chapter 7 but it does provide
additional information with regard to

vehicles using the lane concerned);
the characteristics of the (predominant)
4
projects that retain or improve the
carriageway of existing formations. driver (type, e.g. regular commuter
versus tourist, refer to Chapter 5);
There are a number of existing roads in the
state controlled road network that have a the lane type (e.g. if designated as an
total carriageway width in the order of 7.9m exclusive HOV/bus lane, or simply if
to 8.6m whereas a 9m or wider carriageway the lane has a high proportion of these
would be justified if it were a new road. vehicles such as a kerbside lane on a
The following discussion pertains to designated bus route);
existing carriageways with widths in the the degree of shared use (e.g. if the lane
order of 7.9m to 8.6m widths. It is is highly used by cyclists or if it is on a
appropriate to keep such carriageway priority cycling route [refer to Main
widths where the primary intention is to Roads Cycling Policy]);
improve the seal width on existing
whether the lane is locked;
formations.
the length of lane less than 3m wide;
(This section is based on a cross section
presentation given at an Extended Design the lane use (e.g. right turn only versus
Domain training course [Cox, 2005]). through);
whether there is adequate clearance
Traffic lane widths below the Normal
from vehicles (including their external
Design Domain
mirrors) in the lane to:
Currently there is no Extended Design
o adjacent vehicles;
Domain for traffic lane widths on new
roads. Lane widths of less than 3m have o adjacent footpaths, particularly
not been used in rural areas. In urban areas, where pedestrian use is high; and
road authorities have used lane widths of o road furniture (e.g. gantries, sign
less than 3m, principally on existing roads. faces, safety barriers).
An absolute lower limit for lane width has
not been developed. However, lane widths (Note: The above list is not
of down to 2.7m have been used in urban comprehensive.)
areas in Sydney. In addition, the Guide to The designer should consider relevant
Traffic Engineering Part 5 (Austroads, factors before deciding the reasonableness
1988) notes turn lanes may reduced to a of adopting a lane width of less than 3m.
minimum of 2.5m and further that it is Normally a 2.7m wide lane is not suitable
December 2005
4-79
for designated bus or HOV lanes, kerbside There are low current and predicted
lanes on bus routes, kerbside shared use traffic volumes since:
lanes on designated cycling routes or
o road train drivers tend to straddle
kerbside lanes adjacent to high volume
centre line to reduce steering effort;
pedestrian footpaths.
and
Shoulder widths o unused seal deteriorates on low
volume roads (so providing width
Lower bound for restoration works
that will not be used may be
4 While wider shoulders are often necessary

or preferred, Chapter 7 does recognise that

inappropriate or wasteful).
Safety is better when compared to no
shoulder widths of 0.5m to 1.0m may be
shoulder.
appropriate, but usually only for restoration
projects when widening of the It provides some pavement support.
carriageway/formation is not warranted
It allows for occasional mistracking of
(refer to the link strategy). Factors
heavy vehicles (although not as well as
supporting the lower bound for restoration
practical lower limit).
works include:
Sealing of the existing shoulder may
It allows continued use of many
partially:
existing carriageways that are 7.9m to
8.6m wide by: improve the structural life of a
pavement (e.g. by reducing the amount
o avoiding impractical sliver
of water that reaches the outer wheel
widening (where the existing
path of the through lane);
shoulder is full depth pavement, e.g.
it avoids a 0.5m widening to bring provide a structurally suitable area for
carriageway width up to 9m) until truck jacks (from anecdotal industry
widening to a carriageway width feedback); and
m10m is warranted and practical promote safe operation of heavy
(refer to the link strategy); vehicles (as described above).
o avoiding changes to cross drainage Factors to consider when retaining
structures (although the safety of existing carriageways
these need to be assessed, refer to
When contemplating the retention of
Chapter 8);
existing shoulders designers should
o reducing the environmental impact consider the following:
of a restoration project by not
Vehicles may track closer to centre line
changing batters, roadside
when there is no oncoming traffic,
vegetation (viz. canopy
especially if there is no centre line
connectivity), etc; and
marking.
o supporting the achievement of
Pavement life may be affected, for
network priorities contained in
example:
investment strategies (i.e. affordable
interim standards). o life may be reduced as the wheel
distribution may be concentrated
December 2005
4-80
into a narrower wheel path when Keeping existing carriageway widths

combined with narrow lanes; and
In addition to the reasons discussed in the
o life may be higher as the outer preceding sections, it often appropriate to
wheel path may be further from the retain an existing carriageway for the
edge of the seal. following reasons:
Anecdotally 1m (sealed) is the To make maximise the investment
minimum shoulder width preferred by made in the existing asset.
the heavy vehicle industry.
Operation is acceptable (i.e. widths are
Shy line effects. reasonable and fit within the design
domain, e.g. for a low volume road).
4
Widening (e.g. to achieve a
carriageway width of 9m or 12m) may More benefit can be gained by sealing a
be required for elements where the longer length of existing carriageway.
Extended Design Domain for sight
To provide consistency across the road
distance requires manoeuvre capability.
network.
Designers should consult a pavement
To provide consistency along the road
specialist to ascertain the consequences of
link.
retaining the existing shoulder and its
effects in relation to pavement life (e.g. to There are higher network priorities.
check whether water ingress into outer Sliver widening of <2m is not a cost
wheel path will cause rutting and/or a effective treatment. It is difficult and
reduction in pavement life) and how the expensive to construct a widening of
location of longitudinal pavement joins may <2m. However, if the pavement
affect the design of a cross section (e.g. material in the shoulder is not suitable
dimensions, location of transverse line to form part of the restored pavement
marking). (e.g. can not be stabilised due to
insufficient depth, unsuitable type of
Total carriageway width
material) for trafficking, then widening
Restoring existing carriageways to say 9m in the first instance may be
appropriate.
For such carriageways a context sensitive
design is often achieved by retaining the In addition a risk management approach
existing carriageway width. If a context needs to be taken where cross drainage
sensitive design requires widening the structures and other hazards exist (refer to
justification for it and the benefit/s resulting Chapter 8 for detailed discussion).
from it must documented. Irrespective of
Sealing existing carriageways
the above it important to note that the use of
the Extended Design Domain may require When sealing existing carriageways, the use
local widening on some elements (e.g. of lane widths of between 3m and 3.5m
widening to allow for manoeuvre on over a (inclusive, i.e. at the lower bound) in
tight crest, refer to Appendix 4A). conjunction with a wider shoulder may be
required:
December 2005
4-81
to account for the transverse position of Extended Design Domain stopping is not
longitudinal pavement joints (e.g. if available to a 0.2m high object).
possible avoid marking the pavement so
Existing seals
that wheel paths concentrate on
longitudinal pavement joints); Some existing carriageways only have a
single lane seal or a narrow two-lane seal
for maintenance (e.g. reduces edge
(i.e. seal width <6m), but these have proved
break and edge drop off); or
to be problematic on road train routes as
to minimise the ingress of water into evidenced by Figure 4.24. In this example
4 the pavement under the outer wheel

path of the through lane.
road trains using the route do not move off
the sealed pavement. As a consequence
there is excessive edge wear and edge drop
Designers should seek advice from relevant
off which is caused by vehicles having to
personnel (e.g. pavement specialists,
frequently move off the seal to allow
maintenance personnel) when designing the
approaching road trains to pass, and then
cross section and line marking.
move back onto it. Providing a wider seal
MCVs and caravans can alleviate this problem (Figure 4.25).
Carriageways with single lane seals are also However the batter slopes need to be flat
unlikely to be appropriate for road train when the retention of existing carriageways
routes where tourist vehicles with caravans with widths in the order of 7.9m to 8.6m is
are also common. Unlike with most other contemplated (see below).
vehicles, drivers of cars towing caravans, Road trains drivers operating vehicles on
and even many drivers of four wheel drives, very low volume roads with narrow seals
want to pull off and stop well clear of will tend to drive only on the sealed
passing road trains (provided the shoulders pavement and not move off the seal when
are in suitable condition - Figure 4.21). other vehicles approach [Figure 4.26]. This
This is to avoid problems with the vehicle is an operational necessity as moving one
becoming unstable due to the wind effect of side of vehicle off the seal can cause the
the passing road train. road train to become unstable. In wet
Examples conditions the problem is even worse and it
can have disastrous consequences it the
Figure 4.22 and Figure 4.23 illustrate what
shoulder is slippery or is not able to take the
can be done with existing carriageways.
wheel loads.
Suitability of existing carriageway widths
Existing lanes
for Multi-Combination Vehicle (MCV)
routes Tests on a sealed, rough, straight road show
MCVs, including Type 2 road trains, can
Some existing carriageways with widths of
track (i.e. stay) within lanes 3m wide (to
7.9m to 8.6m can be used by MCVs and
3.5m wide, refer to Figure 4.27 - Haldane,
anecdotal industry feedback supports this
2002). This is supported by observations in
notion. However they are only suitable for
the field where there is a clear lack of edge
MCVs in appropriate circumstances. In
wear where lanes 3.5m wide have been
addition it is imperative that widening with
used (Figure 4.25 and Figure 4.28).
full pavement be provided where necessary
However it is important to note that
to allow for manoeuvre (e.g. where
December 2005
4-82
shoulders provide operating clearance for

MCVs and so provision of some width of
shoulder is always preferred.
Batter slopes
When the side slope of the batter is steeper
than 1 on 4 designers need to assess the
need for local widening, safety barriers and
environmental problems, etc. This should
include calculation of the costs and benefits
of maintaining the status quo versus
4
constructing various treatments (e.g. using
the Roadside Impact Severity Calculator,
refer to Chapter 8). Engineering judgement
should then be applied in determining the
final solution (which may be to maintain
the status quo); the Cost/Benefit Ratios
calculated should be considered when
making this decision (refer to Chapter 8).
Suitable cross sections widths for MCVs
On low volume roads with full width seals,
carriageways 7.9m to 8.6m wide (with flat
batters) will result in acceptable two way
operation on routes with a high proportion
of both Type 2 road trains and cars towing
caravans.
On National Network Road Links or routes
with higher traffic volumes wider cross
sections may be required (refer to Section
4.6 and Chapter 7).
Cross sections suitable for MCV operation
on existing roads are given in Table 4.19.
These details are based on long-term
experience and are consistent with current
investment strategies.
December 2005
4-83
Table 4.19 Minimum carriageway and seal widths in rural areas for MCV routes
Existing alignments
4 Forecast
Absolute
minimum widths
(m)
Desirable minimum widths (m)
Limited tourist
Prolonged periods
with > 5%
New alignments (for
comparison purposes
only)
AADT traffic
caravans
Carriage- Carriage- Carriage-
Seal Carriage- Seal Seal Seal
way width way width way width
width way width width width width
(m) (m) (m)
6.03 8.0
<150 -2 8.0 6.0 8.0 8.0 8.0
9.0 9.0
150 to
6.0 8.0 7.04 8.0 8.0 8.0 9.0 9.0
500
>500 to
6.5 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.0
1000
>1000 - - - - 9.0 9.0 9.0 10.0
Notes:
1. The available seal and carriageway width on horizontal curves (i.e. what curve widening has been
provided) will determine the suitability of the route for a particular type or types of MCV.
2. A sealed pavement is not mandatory for this traffic volume. In practice, many existing roads will
have a 3.7m wide (or greater) single lane seal. Some roads may have a 6.0m seal which may
function as a single lane (see Note 3) or two-lanes if marked with a centre line.
3. The 6.0m seal is not marked and operates as a single 4m lane with partially sealed shoulders. An
8.0m seal provides acceptable two-lane operation.
4. Preferably 7.4m to reduce maintenance.
5. Carriageway widths <9.0m on two-lane roads must be accompanied by embankment and table drain
slopes 1 on 4 or flatter together with clear areas to prevent shying towards the centre of the road.
However, some short local exceptions (<200m long) are possible.
6. Carriageway widths <10.0m on roads with a single-lane seal must be accompanied by embankment
and table drain slopes of 1 on 6 or flatter so smaller vehicles can move over to clear an oncoming
MCV that stays on the seal. However, some short local sections are possible where visibility allows
drivers of smaller vehicles to move over and stop prior to the restricted width section if there is an
oncoming MCV.
December 2005
4-84
4
Cattle
Road
Train
520mm 520mm
2.2m 2.5m 2.4m
720mm 720mm
4x4 Caravan
1.8m 2.1m
3.6m
Min 300mm Min 300mm
4m
Figure 4.21 A heavy vehicle operating on route with a single lane seal with caravans (Potter, 2002)
December 2005
4-85
4 Shoulder
2.4
L.H. Lane
1.85 to1.9
R.H. Lane
1.85 to1.9
Shoulder
2.4
1.5 to 1.2 2.75 to 3.05 2.75 to 3.05 1.5 to 1.2
Shoulder L.H. Lane R.H. Lane Shoulder

0.75 3.5 3.5 0.75
0.85 3.4 3.4 0.85
Figure 4.22 What can be done with existing 8.5m or 8.6m carriageway
December 2005
4-86

2.1 1.85 to1.9 1.85 to1.9 2.1
4
1.2 to 1.0 2.75 to 3.0 2.75 to 3.0 1.2 to 1.0

0.5 3.45 to 3.5 3.45 to 3.5 0.5
0.6 3.4 3.4 0.6
Figure 4.23 What can be done with existing 7.9m or 8m carriageway
December 2005
4-87
Figure 4.24 Example of inadequate single lane (5.6m) seal on a Type 2 road train route (AADT of
400 with 30% heavy vehicles)
Figure 4.25 Example of Type 2 road train operating on a 7.9m carriageway with full width seal on a
low formation
December 2005
4-88
Figure 4.26 Example of road train operation on a single lane seal - Type 2 road trains remain
wholly on the seal - approaching vehicles must therefore move off the seal
Figure 4.27 Testing the tracking characteristics of a MCV on a rough surface and narrow formation
with 3m to 3.5m lanes (Haldane, 2002)
December 2005
4-89
Notes to Figure 4.28:

1. Note the lack of shoulder wear, edge wear and edge drop off.
2. Note how the low formation with flat batters obviates shying effects and provides flat run-out areas.
Figure 4.28 Example of two-lane, two-way road with narrow formation and seal on a Type 2 road
train route (AADT of 550 with 15% MCVs and 15% other heavy vehicles)
December 2005
4-90
available to introduce a turn-slot with

Appendix 4E: Guide for the
dimensions as per the Normal Design
Domain.
Intersection Turn Treatments
The following three turn treatments are
This Appendix contains the current guide provided in this guide.
for short length left and right turn lanes for
Minimum Extended Design Domain
the Extended Design Domain.
Channelised Right-turn Treatment for
Intent of this guide Roadways without Medians
The intent of this guide is to maximise the
use of Channelised Right-turn (CHR) and
Figure 4.29 shows a minimum Extended
Design Domain CHannelised Right-turn
4
Auxiliary Left-turn (AUL) treatments at treatment for roadways without medians.
existing intersections. The study titled
The primary intent of this treatment is to
Relationship Between Unsignalised
enable an AUR turn treatment to be
Intersection Geometry and Accident Rates
linemarked as a CHR turn treatment. This
(Arndt, 2004) has shown that these turn
is only possible if full depth pavement
types are considerably safer than other
exists under the original auxiliary lane and,
types of turn treatments, namely BAR,
if required, the shoulder. In this treatment,
AUR and BAL (refer to Chapter 13 for
the through road deviates by the width of
details). This is especially true for the
the turn lane. The dimensions of the lateral
right-turn treatments.
movement length A are deemed suitable
Use of this guide for horizontal straights and larger radius
horizontal curves. On smaller curves, A
This guide presents Extended Design
will need to be increased above the lengths
Domain dimensions for CHR and AUL turn
given in Figure 4.29 so that the resulting
treatments that are smaller than the
alignment of the through lane means that no
minimums used for the Normal Design
decrease in speed is required as drivers,
Domain (i.e. those used for a new
who are continuing through, negotiate the
intersection). In general, these treatments
curve and intersection layout.
are intended to replace lower order turn
types (e.g. linemarking an existing AUR Minimum Extended Design Domain
turn treatment to form a CHR turn Channelised Right-turn Treatment for
treatment). The Extended Design Domain Roadways with Medians
dimensions have been found to operate
effectively in practice, providing a higher
Design Domain Cannelised Right-turn
level of safety than any of the lower order
treatment for roadways with medians.
treatments.
This treatment can be used at intersections
The treatments shown in this guide are
on existing roads where sufficient area of
predominantly for application to existing
pavement already exists to introduce a
intersections, where sufficient area of
right-turn slot. Alternatively, the treatment
pavement exists for them to be
may be applied as new construction where
incorporated. Sometimes, they may be
insufficient length is available to introduce
applied to existing intersections for new
construction, where insufficient length is
December 2005
4-91
a right-turn slot with dimensions as per the provided they meet the following
Normal Design Domain. conditions:
Minimum Extended Design Domain 1. They are not combined with other
Auxiliary Left-turn Treatment minima (e.g. tight horizontal curves,
limited visibility, steep downgrades);
Design Domain Auxiliary Left-turn 2. Future arrangements/planning must be
treatment. satisfied (e.g. allow for future traffic
growth, which may well affect storage
This treatment can be used at intersections
4 on existing roads where sufficient area of
pavement already exists to introduce a left-
lengths);
3. Geometric features and other features
turn slot. Alternatively, the treatment may of the road do not distract drivers; and
be applied as new construction where
4. Accident data indicates that there is not
insufficient length is available to introduce
a high crash rate related to the use of
a left-turn slot with dimensions as per the
the shorter dimensions eg not a high
Normal Design Domain.
rear-end crash rate at the start of the
General considerations turn slots.
The use of the Extended Design Domain
turn treatments can only be justified
December 2005
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4
1
Design speed of Minimum lateral Desirable radius, 2
Taper length, T (m)
approach road (km/h) movement length, A (m) R (m)
3
60 40 175 10
3
70 50 240 15
3
80 55 280 15
90 60 350 15
100 70 425 20
110 75 500 20
120 80 600 20
1. Based on a diverge rate of 1.25m/s and a turn lane width of 3.0m. Increase lateral movement length if
turn lane width >3m. If the through road is on a tight horizontal curve, increase lateral movement
length so that a minimal decrease in speed is required for the through movement.
2. Based on a turn lane width of 3.0m.
3. Where Type 2 road trains are required, Am60m.
W= Nominal through lane width (m), including widening for curves.

WT = Nominal width of turn lane (m), including widening for curves based on the design turning
vehicle); WTm2.8m.

E= Distance from start of taper to 2.0m width (m); E = 2.0 A

WT
S= Storage length (m), greater of:
1. The length of one design turning vehicle; or
2. (Calculated number of car spaces 1) x 8m (refer to Appendix 13A or use a computer
program, e.g. aaSIDRA).
0.2 V WT
T= Taper length (m); T =
3.6
V= Through operating speed (km/h).
X= Distance based on design vehicle turning path, typically 10m to 15m.
Note: Diagram shown for a rural intersection layout. The dimensions shown are also suitable for an
urban intersection layout, except that the shoulder width criterion does not apply.
Figure 4.29 Minimum Extended Design Domain channelised right-turn treatment for roadways
without medians
December 2005
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1
Design speed of Minimum diverge/deceleration 2
Taper length, T (m)
approach road (km/h) length, D (m)
50 15 10
60 20 10
70 25 15
80 35 15
90 45 15
100 55 20
110 65 20
120 80 20
1. Based on a 30% reduction in through road speed at the start of the taper to a stopped
condition using a value of deceleration of 3.5m/s2. Adjust for grade.
2. Based on a turn lane width of 3.0m

vehicle); WTm2.8m.
B= Total length of auxiliary lane (m), including taper, diverge/deceleration and storage.
S= Storage length (m), greater of:
1. The length of one design turning vehicle; or
2. (Calculated number of car spaces 1) x 8m (refer to Appendix 13A or use a computer program,
e.g. aaSIDRA).
0.2 V WT
3.6
X= Distance based on design vehicle turning path, typically 10m to 15m.
urban intersection layout.
Figure 4.30 Minimum Extended Design Domain channelised right-turn treatment for roadways with
medians
December 2005
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1
Design speed of Minimum diverge/deceleration 2
Taper length, T (m)
approach road (km/h) length, D (m)
50 15 10
60 20 10
70 25 15
80 35 15
90 45 15
100 55 20
110 65 20
120 80 20
1. Based on a 30% reduction in through road speed at the start of the taper to a stopped
condition using a value of deceleration of 3.5m/s2. Adjust for grade.
2. Based on a turn lane width of 3.0m

vehicle); WTm2.8m.
0.2 V WT
3.6
urban intersection layout, except that the shoulder width criterion does not apply.
Figure 4.31 Minimum Extended Design Domain auxiliary left-turn treatment
December 2005
4-95
absolute maximum value of side

Appendix 4F: Guide for the
friction for cars (refer to Chapter 11) at
the operating speed of cars (refer to
horizontal curves with Chapter 6).
adverse superelevation
Its use must support truck operating
This Appendix contains guidance on speeds. That is, the side friction
application of the Extended Design Domain demand on the geometric element
concept to horizontal curves with adverse concerned is not excessive for trucks
4 superelevation.
The practice of limiting the side friction
(refer to Chapter 11) at the operating
speed of trucks (refer to Chapter 6).
Note also that the static roll threshold
demand on adverse horizontal curves to half
for trucks is 0.35 and that this is
the relevant absolute maximum of side
numerically equivalent to the co-
friction factor given in Chapter 11 is
efficient of side friction. This means
considered to be good working practice
the side friction demand must not
rather than a reflection what side friction
exceed 0.35 for trucks when tested at,
drivers use in practice. Limiting the side
say, the truck operating speed plus
friction demand on a curve in this way
10km/h, and preferably should not
means that it is less likely the curve will be
exceed the absolute maximum side
overdriven. However when negotiating a
friction value for trucks given in
curve, drivers can, and often do, use a side
Chapter 11.
friction factor up to the design maximum
for their speed of travel irrespective of the The road surface must be capable of
superelevation. Consequently there is providing a high degree of skid
scope to use the Extended Design Concept resistance.
for some horizontal curves with adverse The adverse superelevation must not
superelevation. exceed 3% and preferably not exceed
The Extended Design Domain for 2.5%.
horizontal curves with adverse It use must be supported by crash data
superelevation must comply with all of the at the site and possibly other similar
following conditions: sites. This review would have to show
It is only applicable to a restoration or an absence of crashes related to the
widening project on an existing road in presence of adverse superelevation,
an urban area. particularly single vehicle crashes.
It is only applicable to geometric It should not be used in conjunction

elements where the operating speed with other minima (e.g. with a vertical
(85th percentile speed) is less than or curve that provides for Extended
equal to 80km/h. Note that this would Design Domain stopping) or
preclude it from being used on most undesirable geometric features (e.g.
roads with a speed limit of 80km/h or compound curves).
higher. It should be noted the presence or use of
Side friction demand on the geometric adverse superelevation can be problematic
element concerned does not exceed the for some road users who are unfamiliar
December 2005
4-96
with the road (e.g. motorcyclists, refer to

Chapter 5 and the Guide to Traffic
Engineering Practice Part 15, Motorcycle
Safety - Austroads, 1999).
December 2005
4-97

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Department of Main Roads Chapter 4

4.7.3 Frontage roads 4-33

Chapter 4 AmendmentsDecember 2005

4 1 - First Issue. Steering

Issue/ Reference Description of Revision Authorised Date

Issue/ Reference Description of Revision Authorised Date

Issue/ Reference Description of Revision Authorised Date

Issue/ Reference Description of Revision Authorised Date

Generally, any new road on a new

Table 4.1 Speeds for design of motorways

Area Speed limit (km/h)

In urban areas, it is desirable for the design

Design parameter General design criteria Preferred design criteria

is as effective as possible and that a

the emergency-stopping bays (refer to affect the departments ability to upgrade

4 Due to the limited access opportunities on a

movements and linking major economic between obviously appropriate points of

State Strategic Road Network distances should still be checked to assess if

Local Roads of Regional on the type of project (e.g. new road or

maintain consistency of driver excluded from the definition of an urban

4.4.1 General 4.4.2 Design speed, operating

The Level of Service is enhanced by significance of the many parameters used.

Table 4.3 Intersection analysis tools

Situation Analysis Tools

as approximately equal to V, where V is Merging

Figure 4.3 Typical median terminal treatments

4.5 should be plotted to verify the adopted

If traffic volumes are too high to allow

providing openings at those locations loss of sight distance of vehicles

4 Planners and designers must provide

Kerbside parking on arterial roads 2004) and AS2890.2 (Australian

Property access but care is required in negotiating the

4 entrances (refer to Chapter 13). In some

there is the AusLink National Network 4.6.2 Commonwealth

4.7.1 Service roads the design elements should be derived from

traffic circulation without requiring the use Two-way

Figure 4.10 illustrates the use of a collector-

Figure 4.10 Collector-distributor road

The transverse distance between the Functions

Frontage roads are service roads used in

Figure 4.11 Functions of frontage roads

4 Figure 4.12 Continuity of frontage roads

the attractiveness of the route can be

Footpath linkages between the frontage satisfactory, provided adequate capacity

Figure 4.15 Frontage roads can collect and

the project. In addition, it is a very small it is easy to do so if the remainder of the

Where an existing horizontal alignment is is the provision of adequate sight distance

crest curves is dictated primarily by the 4.8.7 Intersections

4 Where crest curves with a radius that is less

Appendix 4E for the Extended Design

Figure 4.17 Guideline for selecting the appropriate design domain

Commonwealth Department of Transport

4 Australian Standards: AS/NZS2890.1:2004,

Fambro D, Fitzpatrick K and Koppa R Queensland Department of Main Roads

4 the chapters which follow this Chapter

data indicates that there is no evidence of

Analyse crash data

an assessment of available sight Identify any geometric deficiencies

4 Assessment of the available sight distance