9

MINE VENTILATION SYSTEMS

Ventilation is the control of air movement, its amount, and direction. Although it contributes noth-
ing directly to the production phase of an operation, the lack of proper ventilation often will cause
lower worker efficiency and decreased productivity, increased accident rates, and absenteeism.

Air is necessary not only for breathing but also to disperse chemical and physical contaminants
(gases, dusts, heat, and humidity). In the U.S., as well as in the rest of the world, mine ventilation
practice is heavily regulated, especially in coal and gassy (noncoal) mines, and other statutes relate
to air quantities required to dilute diesel emissions, blasting fumes, radiation, dusts, battery
emissions, and many other contaminants.

To ensure adequate ventilation of a mine, provision is made for suitable paths (airways or
aircourses) for the air to flow down the mine to the working places and suitable routes out of the
mine when it has become unsuitable for further use. The primary ventilation system thus consists
of an intake or intakes (or downcasts) through which the fresh air passes, the mine workings, and
an exhaust or exhausts (or upcasts) where the air passes after having ventilated the working places
of the mine. Mine fans can be installed on intake airshaft, return airshafts, or both, either on the
surface or underground (Figure 9-1).

Mine Fan
Downcast Shaft

Upcast Shaft

Mined out Area

D
1
R
2
R
Main Levels 3
D

Figure 9-1. Basic ventilation system underground where D is a ventilation door or airlock,
R is a mine regulator and 1, 2, 3 are working places with a surface exhaust fan.

To maintain adequate ventilation through the life of a mine, careful advance ventilation planning
is essential. Advance ventilation involves the consideration of two principal factors: (1) the total
volume flow rate of air required by the mine, and its satisfactory and economic distribution, and
(2) the pressure required by the mine fan(s). A well designed ventilation system should be

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effective, flexible, and economical.

1 . Mine System and Control Devices

A well designed and properly implemented ventilation system will provide beneficial physiological
and psychological side effects that enhance employee safety, comfort, health, and morale. In
planning a ventilation system, the quantity of air it will be necessary to circulate to meet all health
and safety standards must be decided at the outset. Once the quantity required has been fixed, the
correct size of shafts, number of airways, and fans can be determined. As fresh air enters the
system through the intake airshaft(s) or other connections to the surface, it flows along intake
airways to the working areas where the majority of pollutants are added to the air. These include
dust and a combination of many other potential hazards, such as toxic or flammable gases, heat,
humidity, and radiation. The contaminated air passes back through the system along return
airways. In most cases, the concentration of contaminants is not allowed to exceed mandatory
threshold limits imposed by law. The return (or contaminated, exhausted) air eventually passes
back to the surface via return airshaft(s), or through inclined or level drifts.

Air always flows along the path of least resistance, but this may not be where it is required for
use. To direct the air where it is needed, ventilation devices are necessary; the primary means of
producing and controlling the airflow for the entire system are mine fans (either in the form of
single fan installation or multiple fans). In addition, many other control devices also are necessary
for effective underground air distribution:

1. Stoppings - Temporary or permanent

Stoppings are simply air walls made of masonry, concrete blocks, pre-fabricated steel, gob
walls, fire-proofed timber blocks, or any other material used to channel airflow for effective air
distribution. Depending on the size of mining entries, stopping sizes range from as small as 4-ft
by 20-ft in low coal to as large as 30-ft by 40-ft in limestone mines.

2. Overcast/undercast
Overcasts are air bridges where intake and return airways are required to cross each other.
They could be constructed of masonry, concrete blocks, or pre-fabricated steel.

3. Regulator
Regulators commonly are used to reduce the airflow to a desired value in a given airway or
section of the mine. Depending on its permanency and the pressure differential to be
experienced across the regulator, materials used in the construction of regulators range from a
simple brattice sheet blocking the airway to a sliding shutter in a stopping.

4. Man-doors
These generally are steel access doors mounted in stoppings between intake and return
airways.

5. Air locks
When access doors between intake and return airways are necessary and their pressure
differential is high, man-doors generally are built as a set of two or more to form an air-lock.
This prevents short-circuiting when one door is opened for passage of vehicles or personnel.
The distance between doors should be capable of accommodating the longest train of vehicles
required to pass through the air-lock.

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6. Line Brattice/Vent Tubing

As a short term measure, fire-resistant line brattices may be tacked to roof, sides, and floor
in underground coal mines to provide temporary stoppings where pressure differentials are low
in and around working areas. For metal and non-metal mines, vent tubing is generally used in
and around working areas to channel fresh air to operating faces. Vent tubing also is commonly
used in combination with auxiliary fans.

7. Booster fans
When the airflow in a section of the mine must be adjusted to a magnitude beyond that
obtainable from the open system, a booster fan may be used to enhance the airflow through a
part of the mine. When they are used, they should be designed into the system in order to help
control the leakage, without causing undesirable recirculation in either normal or emergency
situations. In the U.S., booster fans are prohibited in underground coal mines.

8. Machine-mounted watersprays and scrubbers

These are devices used to enhance the flow of fresh air in face areas. Scrubbers are "vacuum
cleaners" used for dust suppression, while watersprays, when strategically located on
machines, have been used successfully to act as a "booster fan" to re-direct airflow in certain
directions in face areas.

2 . Major Ventilation Systems

The objective of any ventilation system is twofold. First, the primary ventilation must course air
through the main airways to the immediate working area outby the working faces, thus making
fresh air available for face ventilation, and then return the contaminated air through return (exhaust)
airways to the surface. Second, the face ventilation system must be designed to effectively utilize
the available air in the immediate working area to sweep the working face, to capture and remove
dust, and to dilute and carry away gas, if any, emitted during mining activities. Without a properly
designed ventilation system, an efficient production cycle would not be possible. The system
should provide the required air volumes and quality at reasonable pressure losses, perform with
minimum interference and cost to production, and do so in the most cost-effective way possible.
Furthermore, the primary ventilation system may be well designed, but if the available air brought
to the working area is not properly utilized for ventilating the faces where most workers are
located, the total system has failed (Bossard, et al., 1982).

Depending on the type of mine and disposition of local geology, ventilation layouts can be
divided into two broad classifications; either a U-tube system or a through-flow arrangement
(Figure 9-2, McPherson, 1993). Figure 9-2a shows a basic U-tube configuration where air flows
towards and through the working area then returns along adjacent airways, often separated from
intakes by long pillars and/or stoppings. Access doors in the stoppings facilitate traffic between
intake and return airways. The variation of this arrangement would be room-and-pillar and
longwall type mining methods. The other arrangement is shown in Figure 9-2b, where intakes and
returns usually are separated geographically from adjacent airways, which are either all intakes or
returns. Although less stoppings and airways are needed because of the geographical separation,
which often results in less air leakage, air current regulations and boosters may be required for
airflow control in work areas (McPherson, 1993). Parallel flows between intake and return
airshafts across the multilevel metal mines and the bleeder system in a longwall panel would be
typical examples of this type layout.

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Workings
Workings

Intakes
Intakes

Returns
(a) (b)

Figure 9-2. Basic ventilation systems (a) U-tube and (b) through-flow (McPherson, 1993).

Actual layouts underground could be variations of any one system or a combination of the two
arrangements.

For Stratified Deposits

The vast majority of underground mines extracting tabular forms of orebodies (coal, potash, salt,
limestone, etc.) normally use one of two methods, longwall or room-and-pillar mining. While ac-
tual layouts can vary significantly from mine to mine and region to region according to local
geological conditions, the basic design for these two methods remains the same. The following
sections describe the airflow distribution system usually employed.

a) Longwall systems

Two factors that have significantly influenced the design of the longwall ventilation systems are the
control of methane or other gases that accumulate in the gob area (den Drijver, et al., 1997;
Diamond, 1997; Dziurzynski and Nawrat, 1997; Haake, et al., 1985; Highton, 1980; McPherson,
1993) and the increasing high rate of rock breakage on heavily mechanized longwalls that has
exacerbated the production of dust, gas, heat, and humidity ( Uchino and Hirago, 1984; Battino
and Mitchell, 1985; Organiscak and Jankowski, 1996; Colinet, et al., 1997; Stokes and Tuck,
1997).

Figure 9-3 depicts some of the commonly used ventilation layouts used on longwall sections.
In the U.S., a minimum of two entries is used, while single entry longwalls primarily are
employed in European coal mines (Fuller, 1989; McPherson, 1993). Refer to Chapter 17 for
details.

System layouts become more complex when mining under inclined, thick, and gassy coal
seams with frequent faults. Narrower and shorter panels are necessary to cope with these difficult
conditions. There also have been other type of layouts to accommodate specific geological
conditions (Fuller, 1989 and Tien, 1995).

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+
+
+
+

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 9-3. Classifications of longwall ventilation systems (a) single-entry advancing; (b)
single-entry retreating; (c) single-entry retreating with back bleeder; (d) double-
entry retreating with back bleeder (after McPherson, 1993).

(e) (f) (g)

Figure 9-3a. Classifications of longwall ventilation systems (e) Y-system; (f) double-Z
system; (g) W-system. (after McPherson, 1993).

b) Room and pillar systems

Figure 9-4 shows the two methods of ventilating a room and pillar development panel in a coal
mine where multiple entries are driven. Figure 9-4a is the directional, or W-system, in which
intake air courses are airways in the central portion of the panel, with return airways on both sides,
often referred to as the fish-tail method. The method in Figure 9-4b is the unidirectional system in
which intake and return are located on both sides of neutral airway (belt and track).

In both cases, the conveyor belt and/or track are located in the middle, with a brattice curtain at the
end to regulate the airflow. In U.S. coal mines, air in these entries is not supposed to be used to
ventilate working areas, so they are directed directly to the return airway through a regulator.
Advantages of this system include: the airflow splits at the end of the panel, with each airstream
ventilating the operational rooms sequentially over one half the panel only, resulting in less leakage
due to less pressure differential across the stopping; and any gas emission will be flowing
automatically to return airways. An obvious disadvantage is that the number of stoppings required
is double that of the uni-directional system. The air leakage also is twice as much due to the extra
stoppings (McPherson, 1993).

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Return Air
Return Air

Return Air
Intake Air

Intake Air

Intake Air
(a) (b)

Figure 9-4. Room and pillar development with line brattices to regulate airflow in conveyor
belt entry: (a) bi-directional system; (b) uni-directional system.

For a uni-directional system, it should offer a higher volumetric efficiency at the face because
of the reduced number of stoppings. A disadvantage is that the higher volume also has a higher
ventilation pressure, which in turn offers higher leakage.

c) Mine with Large-size Entries

Typically, mines with large-size entries (e.g., limestone, salt, and oil shale) require large volumes
of ventilating air (between 350,000 to 500,000 cfm, depending on specific conditions) to
adequately ventilate underground workings. In trying to meet this requirement, two major
problems usually are encountered: (1) air leakage through stoppings and (2) local air recirculation,
both of which are caused by improperly constructed (and maintained) stoppings, or the lack of
stoppings in many cases, and both can adversely affect the underground working environment.
Oftentimes, mine management are reluctant to construct an adequate number of stoppings, either
because of technical problems or the associated expenses.

Air is used to dilute diesel exhaust and to maintain a minimum air velocity in large-dimension
airways in order to avoid air stratification, and every reasonable measure has to be taken to ensure
that fresh air is effectively delivered to working places where air is needed. The cost of not
maintaining adequate ventilation results in a poor working environment that not only is in violation
of federal and state regulations, but can adversely affect worker performance and morale. To
deliver fresh air to working places over large distances, control devices are required. They can
either be: (1) conventional large-scale stoppings using pipes with metal sheeting, brattice and wire,
a muckpile, etc. or (2) adopting a modular type pillar layout.

Constructing air-tight stoppings in large openings is not only time-consuming and expensive, it
often is difficult, if not impossible, to be 100% effective (Adam, et al., 1987; Thimons, et al.,
1987). The precise cost of constructing conventional metal-frame stoppings in a 35-ft wide by 20-

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ft high entry is difficult to obtain because of the many variables involved, e.g., ranging from
$20,000 to $24,000 per stopping in a limestone operation in Iowa (in 1996 dollars).

Oftentimes, brattice curtains are the only practical materials for use underground; the cost of
which ranges from $1,500 to $3,000 per stopping (1997 dollars). This includes the cost of labor
and materials. However, stoppings such as these are subjected to much higher leakage between the
strips of brattice and around the peripherals. Leakage varies depending on many factors, such as
workmanship, maintenance, mining practices (stoppings too close to working areas will suffer
frequent blasting damage), and, to a lesser extent, geological conditions (roof sagging and bottom
heaving can damage stoppings). A salt mine in Ohio with 20-ft x 40-ft entry sizes showed a
leakage rate of 5,100 to 5,500 cfm per stopping.

Some mines have hung a continuous brattice line along the pillars, which stops most the
leakage around the peripherals (Figure 9-5).

Continuous Brattice Line

Airflow

Pillar line

Figure 9-5. A continuous brattice line will reduce leakage around peripherals.

Although the exact impact on power cost due to leakage is difficult to quantify, it is known to
be significant. Since any leakage through a stopping has to be compensated for by "pumping"
more air underground to meet safety requirements, it will dramatically increase energy
requirements at the fan because fan power and air quantity have a cubic relationship. For example,
a 26% increase in air flow would double the air power cost. Costs of other types of stoppings also
can be estimated roughly in today's dollars using published information (Adam, et al., 1987;
Thimons, et al., 1988).

A modular configuration provides an alternative. In this layout, it intentionally leaves long

barrier pillars at four sides of a pre-planned mining block so air can be effectively coursed over
longer distances. The following diagram (Figure 9-6) shows a hypothetical mine working with a
modular configuration.

There will be small losses in percentage extraction. However, this loss can be reduced to a
minimum by leaving only the last round of mining in a cross-cut (Figure 9-6). The reduction in air
leakage, plus the savings created by replacing brattice and providing effective ventilation, will
offset the cost associated with a lower extraction ratio. The following diagrams show the extraction
ratio calculations. Figure 9-7a and 9-7b show 40-ft by 40-ft pillars mined on 70-ft centers.
Calculations show that the difference in production is approximately 6%. But a more realistic
figure would be around half that, or 3%, because only a fraction of the partial pillars are left on
four sides within this block. Figure 9-7c and 9-7d show a similar 70-ft center pillar pattern,

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however, 35-ft by 35-ft pillars are left. The difference caused by leaving a partial pillar is around
3.5%.

Intake
Return Fresh Air
Return Air

Mining Module

Mining Boundary

Figure 9-6. A hypothetical underground limestone mine where a module system is used in
lieu of stoppings to channel air to working areas.

30' 40' 30' 40'

40' 40'
70' 70'
30' 30'

70' 60' 10'

70'
Full extraction: 1 40 x 40 = 67.3% Leaving partial pillar: 1 35 x 35 + 35 x 10 = 67.9%
70 x 70 70 x 70
(a) (b)

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35' 35' 35' 35'

35' 35'
70' 70'
35' 35'

60' 10'
70'
70'
(c) (d)

Figure 9-7. Extraction ratio calculations.

Full extraction: 1 35 x 35 = 75.0%

70 x 70

Leaving partial pillar: 1 35 x 35 + 35 x 10 = 67.9%

70 x 70

For demonstration purposes, in a 6-pillar by 6-pillar block with 20-ft high by 35-ft entry
widths, partial pillars will be left in 16 places (Figure 9-8). Assume the stones has a density of 165
lb/ft3 , total unmined rock in this system amounts to:

35' x 20' x 10' (height) = 7,000 ft3 per working place

Total tons lost per working place = (7,000 ft3 x 165 lb/ft3 ) 2,000 lb/ton = 578 tons/place

Total tons lost due to partial pillars = 578 tons/place x 16 places = 9,248 tons

2 Openings

2 Openings

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Figure 9-8. Partial pillars will be left in 16 places in a 6 x 6 block.

d) Recirculation of Air Underground

In addition to improperly constructed and poorly maintained stoppings, the other major cause of air
recirculation underground is improper mine layout. One of the commonly encountered planning er-
rors in underground limestone operations is that main intake and return airways are located adjacent
to each other, causing the exhaust air to be recirculated back into intake airway(s). This situation is
exacerbated when a box cut, often used in limestone and coal mines where ore crops out, is used to
enter the mine. The air can not be discharged away from the intake area.

At the early stage of the mine development, main intake and return airways must be located
near each other, and it will be at least several years before an airshaft can be drilled some distance
from the portal and an entire ventilation circuit can be completed. It is recommended that intake and
return in the portal areas be physically separated in the start up of the mine to avoid air recirculation
(Figure 9-9).

Exhaust
fan

Fresh air
Return air

Figure 9-9. Fan duct is used to deflect exhaust air and to recover lost velocity pressure.

If this is not possible, and both intake and return have to be located next to each other at the
bottom of the boxcut, Figure 9-10 shows an alternative method of separating intake air and return
air by the use of a vertical fan duct at the discharge end of the exhaust fan.

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Surface

Fan duct to deflect

air to recover fan
Bulkhead velocity pressure

> 80 ft

Mine fan

Figure 9-10. Fan duct is used to deflect exhaust air and to recover lost velocity pressure.

Figure 9-10 shows a suggested layout where exhaust air is deflected upward using a vertical
duct (evase`) at least 80 feet in length. The evase` also serves another useful purpose: it can recover
fan velocity pressure (ranging from 0.2 in. to 1 in. W.G. depending on fan discharge velocity)
which otherwise would be lost. To avoid additional shock losses, the connecting bend should be
round and smooth.

Some of the other characteristics for mines with large openings are their low air velocity in
airways which can result in air stratification, or fogging, in airways caused by influx of ground
water and seasonal moisture content fluctuation. Excessive and fluctuating moisture content in air
also can contribute to the deterioration of roof layers, causing safety problems. Also, for limestone
operation, the combination of grade variation and fluctuating market demand requires certain
flexibility in mine development, which also will impact ventilation planning.

Air Tempering for Roof Stability

In a mine with large openings, in the summer and sometimes in late spring and early fall, as warm,
humid air enters the mine entries, air velocity is greatly reduced due to these large openings. The
air starts to interact with the surrounding rock and quickly reaches mine temperature. As air
temperature is reduced, its relative humidity will rise until the air is unable to carry the high
moisture levels. Moisture at that point begins to condense on, or be absorbed by surrounding
rocks. The intake air continues to cool and dry along the length of the entries until an equilibrium is
reached between mine temperature and specific humidity levels.

Laboratory studies have shown that very short term (daily) fluctuations in specific humidity
have little or no effect on shale moisture gains or losses. Shales require a 7- to 10-day exposure to
changes in specific humidity, whether higher or lower, before equilibrium between moisture con-
tent in the rocks and atmospheric conditions is reached ( Haynes, 1975; Anon., 1976; Stateham
and Redcliffe, 1978; Cummings, et al., 1983; ). As the intake air travels along the entries, contact
is made with rock and other materials in disequilibrium. Gradual moisture exchange takes place
from that point at increasing residence time until equilibrium again is achieved. Figures 9-11 and 9-

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12 show the seasonal effects (humidity and temperature) for an earlier study in a coal mine where
the roof is predominately shale.
100

SPECIFIC HUMIDITY, grains moisture per pound dry air

90
September
80
June June

70
June

60
Apr April
il
50
April

40
ry
February Janua
30
February February
20
ry
Janua January
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
AIR RESIDENCE, min.

Figure 9-11. Changes in mine air specific humidity as a function of air residence time.

Moisture exchanges between incoming air and surrounding rocks are site specific. Although
the exact moisture absorbing characteristics of the rock are not known, studies on shale in other
mines can be used as a guideline to reasonably estimate their interactions (Cummings, et al.,
1983). Previous USBM research indicates that the maximum efficient air residence time for
tempering summer air is 30 minutes; additional residence time will provide total tempering. In the
above mentioned study, it assumed 60 grains per pound of dry air as a good approximate summer
moisture equilibrium value and its results showed a 70% reduction in excess moisture in 15
minutes residence time. It was estimated that, if the residence reached 30 minutes, moisture
reduction could be expected to reach 90 to 95% tempering. Based on this, a minimum of 15
minutes residence time can be used as a good design parameter that will provide sufficient
tempering effect (Lucas, 1975; Haynes, 1975; Anon., 1976; Stateham and Radcliffe, 1978).
Having adequate air velocity is the most effective means for reducing moisture condensation.

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80

September
70

June
60
TEMPERATURE, F

April April
February
50 January
February

40

January

30

20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

AIR RESIDENCE, min.

Figure 9-12. Changes in mine air temperature as a function of air residence time.

Orebody Deposits

Metalliferous orebodies often occur in deposits of irregular geometry, varying from tortuous veins
to massive irregularly shaped deposits of finely disseminate metal and highly variable concentra-
tions. This causes mining layout necessarily less ordered than those for stratified deposits. In addi-
tion, the grade variation in metal mines and the ever-changing metal prices necessitate that more
stopes or working places be developed than would appear to be necessary, while with perhaps
only a fraction of them operating on any one shift. Thus, the ventilation shift must be sufficiently
flexible to allow airflow to be directed wherever it is needed on a almost day-by-day basis
(McPherson, 1993).

Ventilation networks for metal mines tend to be more complex than for stratified deposits and
usually are also three dimensional. Figure 9-13 illustrates the ventilation plan of many metal mines,
although the actual geometry will vary widely.

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Main level
R
Sub level
R
R R Downcast shaft
Upcast shaft or ramp
or ramp

R R

Figure 9-13. Section showing the ventilation system for a metal mine.

Airflow distribution systems for individual stopes also are subject to great variability,
depending on the geometry and grade variations of the orebody. In most of the cases, where
controlled vertical movement of the air is required, stope airflow systems employ ascensional
ventilation. Although auxiliary fans and ducts may be necessary at individual drawpoints, every
effort should be made to utilize the mine ventilation system to maintain continuous airflow through
the main infrastructure of the stope. Series ventilation between stopes should be maintained so that
blasting fumes can be cleared quickly and efficiently (Figure 9-14).

Main return to upcast shaft

Vent raise

Orepass Vent
Broken or service
or or fill raise
raise

From intake airshaft

Figure 9-14. An example of a simple ventilation system for shrinkage or cut-and-fill stopes.

With respect to fan locations and airflow direction, there primarily are three ventilation systems:
exhaust (pull) system, where the mine fan is located on top of the return airshaft; blowing (push)
system, with the mine fan installed at the intake airshaft; and combined system (push-pull), with
fans on both the intake and return airshafts. This refers to main ventilation systems only; local

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arrangements, for example a face ventilation system for a working area, can be different from the
main system.

Depending on the particular system, the mine pressure could be either negative (exhausting
system, since the fan creates a suction in the system, putting mine pressure below the atmospheric
datum) or positive (blowing system). This is because the mine pressure is measured against
atmospheric pressure, as shown in Figure 9-15:

Blowing Fan Generates

Positive Pressure Atmospheric Pressure

Exhausting Fan Generates

Negative Pressure

Absolute Zero

Figure 9-15. Schematic showing a positive mine pressure for blowing system and a
negative mine pressure for exhausting system.

The best way to describe the relation between pressure loss and air traveling distance is to use a
pressuregradient, as shown in Figures 4-14 and 4-15. The coal mine in Figure 4-14 shows that
pressure loss is zero at surface, slowly building up to approximately 0.2 in. W.G. as it proceeds
2,000-ft underground. Pressure drop accumulates to 0.7 in. W.G. after 9,000-ft just before the
longwall section. Total mine pressure is 6 in. W.G. at the end of the circuit. The negative sign
simply means it is an exhaust ventilation in which pressure is lower than the atmospheric pressure.
Similar gradient is also demonstrated in Figure 4-15.

Airflow Direction

Airflow direction is affected by the location of the main fan which, in turn, will significantly impact
the other aspects of operation or transportation. An antitropal system is one in which the airflow
and transported rock move in opposite directions, implying that the mineral transportation is carried
out in intake airways. This tends to put restrictions on the air velocities in intake airways so that
dust and other gases will not be too excessive. Conversely, a homotropal system is one where the
airflow and the mined rock move in the same direction, or the haulage is carried out in return
airways. This system will ensure that dust, heat, and other pollutants from broken rock will be
vented directly to the outside. In addition, this system also has the advantage in case of fire
occurring in the haulageway.

Another factor in airflow direction is the inclination of the airway. An ascensional ventilation is
when the airflow moves upwards through inclined workings. This takes advantage of the natural
ventilation effects caused by the added heat to the air. Descentional ventilation may be employed on
a more compact system, with both air and conveyed materials moving downhill.

It is the pressure difference that causes air to flow underground, regardless of how this

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pressure difference is generated. There are different merits and drawbacks in each system. A
particular system must be selected to accommodate the specific mining situation, and not the
ventilation designer's pet theories. The following is a list of pros and cons for both arrangements
(Tien, 1978):

1) Exhausting System

Advantages:
a) When main fan stops, underground pressure builds up to atmospheric. The increase in
pressure slows gas emissions from the gob and prolongs the time required for the gas to
reach active workings.
b) The haulage roads, where most travel is done, are kept free from dust, gas, and smoke.
This permits the men to perform their work in fresh air.
c) In the event of a fire or explosion, exhausting ventilation enables the rescue work to
proceed more rapidly, because the fresh air is on the haulage road, which provides an easy
route for carrying material and equipment to make mine repairs.
d) Both intake airways and track entries serve as escapeways, if stopping lines are well
maintained.
e) Greater power savings are possible if mine openings are small. This is due to the
potentially greater recovery of velocity pressure through the use of discharge evas (gradual
expansion ducts) on exhaust fans.

Disadvantages
a) It reduces temperatures in the belt slope, slope bottom, and main haulage line. During
winter, the belt sprinkler system, damp coal on the belt rollers, and water lines along the
haulageway can freeze. The temperature also is uncomfortable for the people working in
these areas.
b) It is more difficult to detect a fire in belt and track entries since the air is carried directly to
the return airways.
c) Dust produced at the portals and along the haulage road contaminates the intake air stream.
Similarly, fire in the belt and track entries can be carried to the working areas.
d) Contaminated air goes through the fan, corrosive particles settle on the fan blades and
corrode them, reduces effective air passage area, and can throw the fan out of balance.

2) Blowing System

Advantages
a) It applies a continuously decreasing overpressure from the air intake portal to the discharge
opening. This characteristic produces airflow from intake airways to the return and
prevents contaminated flow into working areas from idle areas and return airways. In fact,
the blowing system may be the only practical method of ventilation in shallow mines
having fractured ground, as well as areas of contiguous mining where there may be ground
cracks into abandoned mines.
b) The haulage roads and hoisting shaft stay free from ice, making it more comfortable for the
men in winter.
c) A fire in any part of the mine is soon evident, due to leakage, to anybody working in the air
current coming away from the face area.
d) Only outside air, non-corrosive and with normal moisture content, goes through the fan.
e) Fan unit is cheaper because of a shorter fan duct (diffuser).

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Practical Mine Ventilation Engineering

Disadvantages
a) Products of combustion from a mine fire or explosion are carried into the neutral
escapeway. Thus, fire-fighting and rescue work are more difficult because access often is
blocked by smoke. Ventilation reversal, in these cases, may endanger the men.
b) Dust, smoke, and other impurities are carried away from the face area and along the
haulage road. Methane tends to accumulate in pockets in the roof, sometimes causing slight
explosions.
c) Since neutral air flows away from working sections to the slope bottom, any accumulated
air contaminants converge on workmen in the slope bottom area.
d) Shock losses are greater. It requires a distance of 30 times the duct diameter away from the
pressure jet for the air velocity to lose 90% of its original velocity. For an exhausting
system, only one duct diameter distance is required to lose 90% of its velocity. As result,
pressure loss caused by shock, which is in addition to frictional loss, is considerably more
in a blowing system.
e) Dirt and dust from outside will settle on the fan blades.

3) Push-pull (combination) System

In the push-pull system, it is easier to get air to difficult places. The disadvantage of this system is
that it is harder to balance the ventilation system, resulting in neutral spots in the mine. According
to recent survey, the majority of the underground coal mines in the U.S. use exhausting ventilation
as their main ventilation system.

4 . Ventilation Planning/Designing

The ultimate goal for ventilation planning is to design a system that will be capable of
adequately ventilating all working faces, airways, and areas underground at minimum costs. A
good mine ventilation system always begins with the initial development of the mining plan, which
always should have alternatives. A well-thought out ventilation system can minimize long-term
problems, builds in flexibility for expansion without exorbitant cost, reduces up-front capital
expenditures, and phases in capital outlay over the life of the project (Bossard, et al., 1982).

Air volume requirements can be substantial in some operations. The presence of diesel,
gaseous products, strata gases, heat and humidity, and large openings all require a significant
increase in the minimum air velocity required, and hence a higher air volume requirement. Since
energy requirement is proportional to the cube of air volume circulated, optimization between air
volume and resistance must be considered. Other factors also must be factored in, such as
environmental requirements and available resources. Figure 9-16 shows a basic model for planning
a new underground mine (Viljoen, 1990).

Although many factors enter into an ultimate ventilation planning scheme, minimizing friction
and shock losses are the two most important among all the items considered.

1. To minimize friction losses

From the equation,

KPL
R=
5.2A 3 N 2

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Chapter 9 Mine Ventilation Systems
Practical Mine Ventilation Engineering

anything that can lower K, P, and L and increase A and N will reduce R, and ultimately lower
costs in terms of having lower overall ventilation pressure, realizing that there will be practical
limitations.

Obtain Environmental Resources

Information Requirements Required

Vent. of all workings Sec. vent. req'ts Manpower req't

Define Rescue strategy Design Airway velocities Underground Auxiliary fans
Strategy Parameters Shaft velocities Resources Rescue equip't
Monitoring Strategy
Noise control Strategy Leakage rate Gas detectors
Vent. method Monitoring equip't

Mine Plans 1, 2, 5 year and life Air Volume In sections Surface fans
of mine plans
Requirement Leakage Surface Rescue equip't
Total Req't Resources Emergency rooms
Seam height Rock dust silos
Mining Primary
Parameters Pillar centers Airway
Production Requirements Secondary
Tertiary
Mining Mining method
Layouts Number of sections
Geo. information Number of shafts
Shaft Sizes D/C capacity/size
U/C capacity/size
Methane emission rate
General Statutory req'ts
Other relevant info.

Figure 9-16. Factors considered in planning a new mine (Viljoen, 1990).

2. To minimize shock losses

Since up to 30% of total losses underground comes from shock losses, it is essential that shock
losses be minimized to lower costs. From the equation,

Hx = XH v

The obvious thing to do is to lower shock loss factor, X , for given air velocity. This can be
achieved by rounding off corners, avoiding sudden air velocity and airflow direction changes,
etc.

5 . Ventilation Planning and Design Parameters at Homestake A Case Study

The goal of a ventilation system is to provide a work environment that contains minimal safety and
health risks and is conducive to hard work. Since ventilation is a cost function, this goal should be
met as inexpensively as possible.

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Practical Mine Ventilation Engineering

Homestake is the largest underground gold mine in the U.S., currently operating at the 8,000-
foot level. The mine is ventilated by 1,069,000 cfm (504 m3 /sec) of air measured at mid-exhaust-
circuit density. Its air conditioning system includes a 2,300 ton (8.1 MWR) controlledrecirculation
plant, a 580 ton (2.0 MWR) chilled water plant, a 290 ton (1.0 MWR) drite exploration plant, 28
spot-coolers totaling 960 tons (3.4 MWR), and 35 spray coolers totaling 420 tons (1.5 MWR).
The mine employs 117 diesel units with a total nameplate rating of 10,672 hp (7,961 kW), plus
other mining equipment (Marks and Shaffner, 1993).

Faced with these challenges, the mine management formulated a ventilation planning method
called Requirements and Resources Analysis (Marks and Justus, 1993). A requirement is defined
as the air quantity or the amount of refrigeration necessary to meet the goal stated above. A
resource is a tangible thing: a fan, cooler, or an airway. A properly designed system has the
resources to meet the requirements. If not, work areas will be excessively warm or cold, or will
suffer from high contaminant concentrations. Requirements and Resources Analysis has four basic
components: 1) Establishing and justifying design parameters, 2) ascertaining present ventilation
system status, 3) projecting ventilation requirements, and 4) analyzing ventilation resources
alternatives.

Design parameters specify what is too hot or too cold, what concentrations of contaminants are
too high, and what specific air quantities and velocities are used for specific operations. For heat,
the economic temperature range for work is 80 to 85F wet-bulb, designated as the design reject
temperature. The 85 to 91F wet-bulb increment is considered the safety-factor range where only
temporary work is permitted. Above 91F wet-bulb, ingress is for short duration only.

For dust, toxic and dangerous gases, the guidelines set forth by Mine Safety and Health
Administration (MSHA) and the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH) are followed. For diesel equipment, a minimum 110 cfm per rated horsepower (0.07
m3 /sec per kW) is specified for ramp systems and general work areas. Dead and auxiliary fans can
get by with less air if diesel vehicles are only in the heading part-time. Scrams under 100 ft in
length usually are well enough ventilated by convection currents and the reciprocating action of the
loader.

References

Adam, et al. (1987) "Leakage Testing of Large Ventilation Control Structures for Room and Pillar
Oil Shale Mining," Proc. 3rd U.S. Mine Ventilation Symposium, Mutmansky, J.M., ed.,
SME, Littleton, CO, pp. 365-370.
Anon. (1976) "Humidity Effects on Coal Mine Roof Stability," USBM Contract #H0232057,
OFR 5-78, 164 pp.
Bossard, F.C., et al. (1982) "Chap. 22: Primary Mine Ventilation Systems," A Manual of Mine
Ventilation Design Practices, First Ed., Floyd C. Bossard & Asso., Inc., Butte, MT, 2 pp.
Cummings, R.A., Singh, M.M., and Moebs, N.N. (1983) "Effect of Atmospheric Moisture on
the Deterioration of Coal Roof Shales," Min. Engg., Mar., pp. 243-245.
Haynes, C.D. (1975) "Effects of Temperature and Humidity Variations on the Stability of Coal
Mine Roof Rocks Final Report," USBM Contract # H0122111, OFR 8-77, 385 pp.
Highton. W. (1980) "The Case Against Bleeder Entries and the Reasons for a Safer and More
Efficient Alternative," Proc. 2nd Int'l Mine Ventilation Cong., P. Mousett-Jones, ed., SME-
AIME, NY, pp. 437-447.

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Practical Mine Ventilation Engineering

Lucas, W.S. (1975) "Tempering Mine Air to Prevent Roof Falls," Proc. Illinois Min. Inst. Annual
Meeting, Oct., pp. 47-55.
McPherson, M.J. (1993) "Chap. 9: Ventilation Planning," Subsurface Ventilation and Environ-
mental Engineering, Chapman & Hall, New York, pp. 282-321.
Sames, G.P. (1985) "Coal Mine Air Tempering: Effectiveness, Design, and Roof Support,"
USBM Rpt Investigation No. 8955, 20 pp.
Stateham, R.M. and Radcliffe, D.E. (1978) "Humidity: A Clyclic Effect in Coal Mine Roof
Stability," USBM Rpt Investigation No. 8291, 19 pp.
Thimons, E.D., et al. (1988) "Leakage and Performance Characteristics of Large Stoppings for
Room-and-Pillar Mining," USBM Rpt Investigation No. 9148, 17 pp.
Tien, J.C. (1978) "Pros & Cons of Underground Ventilation System," Coal Min. & Proc., Jun.,
pp. 110-113.
Tien, J.C. (1997) "Chap. 17: Longwall Mining," Short Course Text, University of Missouri-Rolla
Press, Rolla, Missouri, Apr., pp. 341-378.
Uchino. K. and Hiraga, T. (1984) "Control of Thermal Environmental Conditions in a Retreating
Longwall Coal Face by E- and W Ventilation Systems," Proc. 3rd Int'l Mine Ventilation
Cong., Howes. M. J. and Jones. M. J., eds., Inst. Min. and Met.. London, pp. 339-342.
Viljoen, P.L.J. (1990) "Planning of a New Colliery (Flow Diagram)," Journ. Mine Ventilation
Soc. S.A., Apr., p. 80.

Longwall Ventilation

Banerjee, S.P. et al (1984) Methane Emission and Control in Caved Longwall Faces in Moonidih
Colliery, India, Proc. 3rd Int'l Mine Vent Cong, Howes, M.J. and Jones, M.M., ed., Inst. of
Min. Engrs., London, England, Jun., pp. 171-176.
Battino. S. and Mitchell. P.B. (1985) "Ventilation Experiences with Longwall Mining at
Macquarie Colliery," Proc. of the 2nd U. S. Mine Ventilation Sympo., Mousset-Jones, P.,
ed., A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 409-418.
Cecala, A, Konda, B.W. and Klinowski, G. W. (1989) A Comparison of Methane Flow Patterns
on Advancing and Retreating Longwalls, Proc. 4th U.S. Mine Vent Sympo., McPherson,
M.J., ed., SME, Littleton, CO, pp. 484490.
Cecala, A. B. et al (1985) Determining Face Methane Liberation Patterns During Longwall
Mining, Proc. 2nd U. S. Mine Vent Sympo., Mousset-Jones, P., ed., A.A. Balkema,
Rotterdam, pp. 361-367.
Colinet, J.F., Spencer, E.R., and Jankowski, R.A. (1997) "Status of Dust Control Technology on
U.S. Longwalls," Proc. 6th Int'l Mine Ventilation Cong., Ramani, R.V., ed., SME, Littleton,
CO, pp. 345-351.
Compoli, A.A., McCall, F.E., Finfinger, G.L., and Zuber, M.D. (1995) Potential for Improved
Longwall Dust Control by Surface Borehole Water Infusion, SME Annual Meeting, Denver,
CO, March 4-9, Preprint # 95-139, 8 pp.
den Drijver, et al. (1997) "Calculation of the Amount of Methane Degassing from Longwall Based
on a Mathematical-Physical Model," Proc. 6th Int'l Mine Ventilation Cong., Ramani, R.V.,
ed., SME-AIME, NY, pp. 237-241.
Diamond, W.P., et al. (1997) "Analysis and Prediction of Longwall Methane Emissions: A Case
Study in the Pocahontas No. 3 Coalbead, VA," Proc. 6th Int'l Mine Ventilation Cong.,
Ramani, R.V., ed., SME, NY, pp. 223-229.
Divers, E. F. et al (1987) Ventilation Drum Controls Longwall Dust and Methane, Proc. 3rd
U.S. Mine Vent Sympo., Mutmansky, J.M., ed., SME, Littleton, CO, pp. 85-89.
Divers, E.F. (1991) Coping with Longwall Dust, Coal, Jun., pp. 55-57.
Dziurzynski, W. and Nawrat, S. (1997) "Optimal Choice of the Parameters for Ventilation and

186
Chapter 9 Mine Ventilation Systems
Practical Mine Ventilation Engineering

Methane Drainage in a Longwall Face with Caving," Proc. 6th Int'l Mine Ventilation Cong.,
Ramani, R.V., ed., SME, NY, pp. 359-364.
Fuller, J.L. (1989) An Overview of Longwall Ventilation System Design, SME Annual Meeting,
Las Vegas, NV, Preprint # 89-53, 13 pp.
Garcia, F. and Cervik, J. (1985) Methane Control on Longwalls With Cross-Measure Boreholes
(Lower Kittanning Coalbed), USBM Rpt Investigation No. 8985, 17 pp.
Goodman, T. W. and Cervik, J. (1986) Comparisons Between Cross-Measure Boreholes and
Surface Gob Holes, USBM Rpt Investigation No. 9013, 14 pp.
Haake. J., Koppe. U., and Phillip. W. (1985) "Gas Emission and Ventilation in a Working with
Y-type Ventilation on the Return Side," (English translation). Gluckauf. v. 121, pp. 1144-
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Haneyn R.A., et al. (1993) Influence of Airflow and Production on Longwall Dust Control,
Proc. 6th U.S. Mine Vent. Sympo., Bhaskar, R., ed., SME, Littleton, CO, pp. 43-49.
Hanson, B.B. and Poepke, W.W. (1988) Computer Modeling of Dust and Forces for Longwall
Mining Systems, USBM Rpt Investigation No. 9203, 24 pp.
Heising, C. and Becker, H. (1980) Dust Control in Longwall Workings, Proc. 2nd U.S. Mine
Vent Cong., Mousset-Jones, P., ed., SME, NY, pp. 603-611.
Jankowski, R. a. and Babbit, C. A. (1986) Using Barriers to Reduce Dust Exposure of Longwall
Face Workers, USBM Rpt Investigation No. 9037, 10 pp.
Jankowski, R. A., Kissell, F. N. and Daniel, J. H. (1986) Longwall Dust Control: An Overview
of Progress in Recent Years, Min Engg, Oct., pp. 953-958.
Jankowski, R. A., Organiscak, J. A. and Jayaraman, N. I. (1990) Dust Sources and Controls on
High Tonnage Longwall Faces, SME Annual Meeting, Preprint #90-73, 9 pp.
Lama, R.D. and Liu, Y. (1993) Use of Diamond Tipped Picks for Dust Control on Longwall
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549.
Longson, I. and Tuck, M. A. (1985) The Computer Simulation of Mine Climate on a Longwall
Coal Face, Proc. 2nd U. S. Mine Vent Sympo., Mousset-Jones, P., ed., A.A. Balkema,
Rotterdam, pp. 439-448.
Longson, I., R.D. Lee, and I.S. Lowndes (1985) "The Feasibility of Controlled Air Recirculation
around Operating Longwall Coal Faces," Proc. 2nd U.S. Mine Vent Sympo., Mousset-Jones,
P., ed., A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 227-237.
Mukherjee, S. K. et al (1985) Laboratory Investigation on the Effectiveness of an Air Spray
System for Dust Control on Longwall Faces, Proc. 2nd U. S. Mine Vent Sympo., Mousset-
Jones, P., ed., A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 727-732.
Mundell, R. L. et al (1979) "Respirable Dust Control on Longwall Mining Operations in the
United States," Proc. 2nd Int'l Mine Vent Cong., Mousset-Jones, P., ed., A.A. Balkema,
Rotterdam, pp. 585-593.
Niewiadomski, G.E. and Jankowski, R.A. (1993) "Longwall Dust Trends and Development in
Longwall Dust Controls," Proc. 6th U.S. Mine Vent. Sympo., 'Bhaskar, R., ed., SME,
Littleton, CO, pp. 551-556.
Ondrey, R.S., Haney, R.A., and Tomb, T.F. (1995) "Dust Control Parameters Necessary to
Control Dust on Longwall and Continuous-Mining Operations," SME Annual Meeting,
Denver, CO, March 4-9, Preprint # 95-145, 6 pp.
Organiscak, J.A. and Jankowski, R.A. (1996) "U.S. Longwall Practices for Controlling
Respirable Dust Sources Outby the Shearing machine," Proc. Respirable Dust Hazard Control
in the Mining Industry, Szczyrk, Poland, Sep. 17-19, pp. 19-25.
Organiscak, J.A. and Leon, M.H. (1993) "Translucent Face Partition for Longwall Dust Control,"
Proc. 6th U.S. Mine Vent. Sympo., Bhaskar, R., ed., SME, Littleton, CO, pp. 557-562.
Organiscak, J.A., et al. (1985) "Factors Affecting Respirable Dust Generation from Longwall

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Roof Supports," USBM Information Circular No. IC-9019, 19 pp.

Pickering, A. J. and Robinson, R. (1984) "Application of Controlled Air Recirculation to
Auxiliary Ventilation Systems and Mine District Ventilation Circuits," Proc. 3rd Int'l Mine
Vent Cong, Howes. M. J. and Jones. M. J., eds., Inst. Min. and Met.. London, pp. 315-322.
Srinivasa, R.B., et al. (1993) "Three Dimensional Numerical Modeling of Air Velocities and Dust
Control Techniques in a Longwall Face," Proc. 6th U.S. Mine Vent. Sympo., Bhaskar, R.,
ed., SME, Littleton, CO, pp. 287-292.
Stevenson, J. W. (1985) "An Operators Experience Using Antitropal and Homotropal Longwall
Face Ventilation System," Proc. 2nd U. S. Mine Vent Sympo, Mousset-Jones, P., ed., A.A.
Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 551-557.
Stoke, A. W. (1985) "Air Leakage through Longwall Wastes in the Sydney Coalfield," Proc. 2nd
U. S. Mine Vent Sympo, Mousset-Jones, P., ed., A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 75-84.
Stokes, M.R. and Tuck, M.A. (1997) "Future Configurations of High Output Longwall Faces,"
Proc. 6th Int'l Mine Ventilation Cong., Ramani, R.V., ed., SME, Littleton, CO, pp. 487-492.
Tien, J.C. (1995) "Chinese Mine Ventilation," COAL, June, pp. 51-53.
Tomb, T.F., et al (1990) "Evaluation of Respirable Dust Control on Longwall Mining
Operations," SME Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, Utah, Feb., Preprint #90-41, 10 pp.
Tuck, M.A. and Longson, I. (1989) "Heat and Moisture Transfer within Advancing Longwall
Coalface Goafs and the Effect of Face Climatic Conditions," Proc. 4th U.S. Mine Ventilation
Sympo., McPherson, M.J., ed., SME, Littleton, CO, pp. 271277.
Uchino, K. et al (1980) "Study of Ventilation of Longwall Coal Face by Model," Proc. 2nd Int'l
Mine Vent Cong., Mousset-Jones, P., ed., SME, NY, pp. 103-107.
Urosek, J.E., Zuchelli, D.R., and Beiter, D.A. (1995) "Gob Ventilation and Bleeder Systems in
U.S. Coal Mines," SME Annual Meeting, Denver, CO, March 4-9, Preprint No. 95-78, 5 pp.
Watts, W.F. and Niewiadomski, G.E. (1991) "Respirable Dust Trends in Coal Mines with
Longwall or Continuous Miner Sections," Proc. 7th Int'l Pneumoconiosis, Pittsburgh, 12 pp.
Webster, J.B., Chiaretta, C.W. and Behling, J. (1990) "Dust Control in High Productivity
Mines," SME Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, Utah, Feb., Preprint #90-82, 9 pp.

Note: References on longwall dust control and related subjects are abundant and can be found in
many sources; refer to those sources for further details.

Other Related Information

Buchan, G. (1998) Long Panels for Longwall Mining: A Case Study at Twentymile Coal, SME
Annual Meeting, Orlando, FL, Preprint #98-101, 6 pp.
Carruthers, J, et al. (1993) "Chap. 28: Ventilation," Australasian Coal Mining Practice,
Australasian Inst. Mining and Metallurgy, Victoria, Australia, pp. 461-503.
Dalzell, R. W. (1972) "Longwall Ventilation Systems," Min. Cong. Journ., March, pp. 53-61.
Johnson, B. R. and Ramani, R.V. (1992) "Chap. 11.7: Mine Ventilation Design," SME Mining
Engineering Handbook, 2nd Ed., Vol. 1, Hartman, H.L., ed., pp. 1093-1121.
Lowndes, I.S. and Tuck, M.A. (1995) "Review of Mine Ventilation System Optimization," Trans.
Instn. Min. and Metall., May-August, pp. A114-A126.
Marks, J.R. (1989) "Nuts-And-Bolts Ventilation Planning for Hardrock Mines," Pre-symposium
Short-Course, 4th U.S. Mine Ventilation Sympo., Berkeley, CA, Jun., 61 pp.
Marks, J.R. and Justus, B.D. (1993) "Mine Ventilation Planning with Computer Exercises for
Metal Mines," Pre-Symposium Short-Course, 6th U.S. Mine Ventilation Symposium, Salt
Lake City, Utah, June.

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Practical Mine Ventilation Engineering

Marks, J.R. and Shaffner, L.M. (1993) "An Empirical Analysis of Ventilation Requirements for
Deep Mechanized Stoping at the Homestake Gold Mine," Proc. 6th U.S. Mine Ventilation
Symposium, Salt Lake City, Utah, June, pp. 381-385.
Montgomery, W.J. (1936) Theory and Practice of Mine Ventilation, Jeffrey Manufacturing Co.,
Columbus, Ohio.
Mutmansky, J.M. and Wang, W.H. (1997) "Results of Field Studies on Stratification of Diesel
Particulate Matter in Mine Openings," Proc. 6th Int'l Mine Ventilation Cong., Ramani, R.V.,
ed., SME, Littleton, CO, pp. 155-162.
O'Neil, T.J. and Johnson, B.R. (1991) "Chap. 14: Metal Mine Ventilation Systems," Mine
Ventilation and Air Conditioning, Hartman, L.H. et al, ed., Kreiger Publ, Malabar, FL, pp.
379-420.
Ramani, R.V. (1992) "Chap. 11.6: Mine Ventilation," SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 2nd
Ed., Vol. 1, Hartman, H.L., et al., ed., pp. 1052-1092.
Roberts, A. (1960) "Chap. 13: Ventilation Planning Estimation of Air Quantity," Mine
Ventilation, Roberts, A., ed., Cleaver-Hume Press, Ltd., London, pp. 244-261.
Suboleski, S.C. and Kalasky, J.D. (1991) "Chap. 15: Coal Mine Ventilation Systems," Mine
Ventilation and Air Conditioning, Hartman, H.L. et al., ed., Kreiger Publ, Malabar, FL, pp.
421-452.
Tisdale, J.E. and Urosek, J.E. (1997) "Examination of Bleeder Systems," Proc. 6th Int'l Mine
Vent Cong, Ramani, R.V., ed., SME, Littleton, CO, pp. 95-98.

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