GENERAL EXHAUST (DILUTION) VENTILATION SYSTEMS General exhaust ventilation, also called dilution ventilation, is different from local

exhaust ventilation because instead of capturing emissions at their source and removing them from the air, general exhaust ventilation allows the contaminant to be emitted into the workplace air and then dilutes the concentration of the contaminant to an acceptable level (e.g., to the PEL or below). ilution s!stems are often used to control evaporated li"uids. #o determine the correct volume flow rate for dilution ($d), it is necessar! to estimate the evaporation rate of the contaminant ("d) according to the following e"uation%

"d

&

('()) (lbs) (MW)(min)(d)

where "d & evaporation rate in acfm % '( & volume in cubic feet formed b! the evaporation of one lb* ) mole of a substance, e.g., a solvent + & molecular weight of emitted material , lbs & lbs of material evaporated mi & time of evaporation n d & densit! correction factor #he appropriate dilution volume flow rate for toxics is% Q
d

&

(qd)(Km)(-./) Ca

where%

$d & "d & 0m & 5a &

volume flow rate of air, in acfm evaporation rate, in acfm mixing factor to account for poor or random mixing (1ote% 0m & 2 to 34 0m & 2 is optimum) acceptable airborne concentration of the material (t!picall! half of the PEL).

#he number of air changes per hour is the number of times one volume of air is replaced in the space per hour. 6n practice, replacement depends on mixing efficienc!. ,hen using dilution ventilation% position exhausts as close to emission sources as possible4 use auxiliar! fans for mixing4 make sure emplo!ees are upwind of the dilution 7one4 and add make*up air where it will be most effective.

LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION SYSTEMS 8 t!pical local exhaust ventilation s!stem is composed of five parts% fans, hoods, ducts, air cleaners, and stacks. Local exhaust ventilation is designed to capture an emitted contaminant at or near its source, before the contaminant has a chance to disperse into the workplace air. FAN SELECTION #o choose the proper fan for a ventilation s!stem, this information must be known%

air volume to be moved4 fan static pressure4 t!pe and concentration of contaminants in the air (because this affects the fan t!pe and materials of construction)4 and the importance of noise as a limiting factor.

Once this information is available, the type of fan best suited for the system can be chosen. Many different fans are available, although they all fall into one of two classes: axial flow fans and centrifugal fans. For a detailed explanation of fans, see the AC !" !ndustrial #entilation Manual. HOODS $he hood captures, contains, or receives contaminants generated at an emission source. $he hood converts duct static pressure to velocity pressure and hood entry losses %e.g., slot and duct entry losses&. "ood entry loss %"e& is calculated according to the following e'uation:

He & (K)(VP) & 9SPh 9& VP where% 0 & :P & 9;Ph9 & loss factor velocit! pressure in duct absolute static pressure about 3 duct diameters down the duct from the hood.

8 hood<s abilit! to convert static pressure to velocit! pressure is given b! the coefficient of entr! (5e), as follows%

Ce &

Qideal Qactual

&

VP SPh

&

-=K

wher e%

0 :P

& &

loss factor velocit! pressure in duct static pressure

;P &
h

$o minimi(e air)flow re'uirements, the operation should be enclosed as much as possible, either with a ventilated enclosure, side baffles, or curtains. $his helps both to contain the material and to minimi(e the effect of room air *hen using a capture or receiving hood, the hood should be located as close to the contaminant source as possible. +educing the amount of contaminants generated or released from the process reduces ventilation re'uirements. $he hood should be designed to achieve good air distribution into the hood openings so that all the air drawn into the hood helps to control contaminants. Avoid designs that re'uire that the velocities through some openings be very high in order to develop the minimum acceptable velocity through other openings or parts of the hood. $he purpose of most ventilation systems is to prevent wor,er inhalation of contaminants. For this reason, the hood should be located so that contaminants are not

drawn through the wor,er-s breathing (one. $his is especially important where wor,ers lean over an operation such as an open)surface tan, or welding bench. "oods must meet the design criteria in the AC !" Industrial Ventilation Manual or applicable O."A standards. Most hood design recommendations account for cross) drafts that interfere with hood operation. .trong cross)drafts can easily reduce a hood-s effectiveness by /01. .tandard hood designs may not be ade'uate to contain highly toxic materials. $he hood should be designed to cause minimum interference with the performance of wor,. 2ositioning access doors inside an enclosure that must be opened and closed often means that in practice the doors will be left open, and locating capture hoods too close to the process for the wor,er-s convenience often means that the hood will be disassembled and removed. "oods should never increase the li,elihood of mechanical in3ury by interfering with a wor,er-s freedom to move around machinery. $wo common misconceptions about hoods that are a part of local exhaust systems are:

Hoods draw air from a significant distance awa from the hood o!ening" and therefore the can control contaminants released some distance awa # 6t is eas! to confuse a fan<s abilit! to blow a >et of air with its abilit! to draw air into a hood. ?oods must be close to the source of contamination to be effective. Hea$ier%than%air $a!ors tend to settle to the wor&room floor and therefore can be collected b a hood located there# 8 small amount of contaminant in the air (-,... ppm means -,... parts of contaminant plus @@@,... parts of air) has a resulting densit! close to that of air, and random air currents will disperse the material throughout the room.

DUCTS 8ir flows turbulentl! through ducts at between 2,...*/,... feet per minute (fpm). ucts can be made of galvani7ed metal, fiberglass, plastic, and concrete. Ariction losses var! according to ductwork t!pe, length of duct, velocit! of air, duct area, densit! of air, and duct diameter. AIR CLEANERS #he design of the air cleaner depends on the degree of cleaning re"uired. Begular maintenance of air cleaners increases their efficienc! and minimi7es worker exposure. ifferent t!pes of air cleaners are made to remove particulates (e.g., precipitators, c!clones, etc.) and gases and vapors (e.g., scrubbers). STACKS ;tacks disperse exhaust air into the ambient environment. #he amount of reentrainment depends on exhaust volume, wind speed and direction, temperature, location of intakes and exhausts, etc. ,hen installing stacks% Provide ample stack height (a minimum of -. ft above ad>acent rooflines or air intakes)4 Place stack downwind of air intakes4 Provide a stack velocit! of a minimum of -.C times the wind velocit!4 Place the stack as far from the intake as possible (3. ft is recommended)4 Place the stack at least -. ft high on most roofs to avoid recirculation4 and 8void rain caps if the air intake is within 3. ft of the stack. MAKE-UP AIR SYSTEMS Exhaust ventilation s!stems re"uire the replacement of exhausted air. Beplacement air is often called make*up air. Beplacement air can be supplied naturall! b! atmospheric pressure through open doors, windows, wall louvers, and ad>acent spaces (acceptable), as well as through cracks in walls and windows, beneath doors, and through roof vents (unacceptable). +ake*up air can also

be provided through dedicated replacement air s!stems. Generall!, exhaust s!stems are interlocked with a dedicated make*up air s!stem. Dther reasons for designing and providing dedicated make*up air s!stems are that the!% 8void high*velocit! drafts through cracks in walls, under doors, and through windows4 8void differential pressures on doors, exits, and windows4 and Provide an opportunit! to temper the replacement air. 6f make*up air is not provided, a slight negative pressure will be created in the room and air flow through the exhaust s!stem will be reduced. HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air*conditioning) is a common term that can also include cooling, humidif!ing or dehumidif!ing, or otherwise conditioning air for comfort and health. ?:85 also is used for odor control and the maintenance of acceptable concentrations of carbon dioxide. 8ir*conditioning has come to include an! process that modifies the air for a work or living space% heating or cooling, humidit! control, and air cleaning. ?istoricall!, air* conditioning has been used in industr! to improve or protect machiner!, products, and processes. #he conditioning of air for humans has become normal and expected. 8lthough the initial costs of air conditioning are high, annual costs ma! account onl! for about -E to 3E of total annual operating expenses. 6mproved human productivit!, lower absenteeism, better health, and reduced housekeeping and maintenance almost alwa!s make air*conditioning cost effective. +echanical air*handling s!stems can range from simple to complex. 8ll distribute air in a manner designed to meet ventilation, temperature, humidit!, and air*"ualit! re"uirements established b! the user. 6ndividual units ma! be installed in the space the! serve, or central units can serve multiple areas. ?:85 engineers refer to the areas served b! an air handling s!stem as 7ones. #he smaller the 7one, the greater the likelihood that good control will be achieved4 however, e"uipment and maintenance costs are directl! related to the number of 7ones. ;ome s!stems are designed to provide individual control of rooms in a multiple*7one s!stem. Foth the provision and distribution of make*up air are important to the proper functioning of the s!stem. #he correct amount of air should be supplied to the space. ;uppl! registers should be positioned to avoid disruption of emission and exposure controls and to aid dilution efforts. 5onsiderations in designing an air*handling s!stem include volume flow rate, temperature, humidit!, and air "ualit!. E"uipment selected must be properl! si7ed and ma! include% outdoor air plenums or ducts filters suppl! fans and suppl! air s!stems heating and cooling coils humidit! control e"uipment suppl! ducts distribution ducts, boxes, plenums, and registers dampers return air plenums exhaust air provisions return fans controls and instrumentation

RECIRCULATION 8lthough not generall! recommended, recirculation is an alternative to air exchanging. ,here used, recirculation should incorporate air cleaners, a b!*pass or auxiliar! exhaust s!stem, regular maintenance and inspection, and devices to monitor s!stem performance. 0e! points to consider in the use of recirculation are shown in #able 666%'*/. TABLE III:3-6. RECIRCULATION CRITERIA

Protection of emplo!ees must be the primar! design consideration. #he s!stem should remove as much of the contaminant as can economicall! be separated from exhaust air. #he s!stem should not be designed simpl! to achieve PEL levels of exposure. #he s!stem should never allow recirculation to significantl! increase existing exposures. Becirculation should not be used if a carcinogen is present. #he s!stem should have fail*safe features, e.g., warning devices on critical parts, back*up s!stems. 5leaning and filtering devices that ensure continuous and reliable collection of the contaminant should be used. #he s!stem should provide a b!*pass or auxiliar! exhaust s!stem for use during s!stem failure. #he s!stem should include feedback devices that monitor s!stem performance, e.g., static pressure taps, particulate counters, amperage monitors. #he s!stem should be designed not to recirculate air during e"uipment malfunction. #he emplo!er should train emplo!ees in the use and operation of the s!stem.