Immigration Paper Series 2010

All or Nothing?
What the United States Can Learn from Europe as it Contemplates
Circular Migration and Legalization for Undocumented Immigrants

Patrick Weil
The German Marshall Fund of the United States
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 All or Nothing?

What the United States Can Learn from Europe as it Contemplates Circular Migration
and Legalization for Undocumented Immigrants

Immigration Paper Series

April 2010

By Patrick Weil*

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Sedentary Immigration vs. Circulatory Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
How to deal with illegal migrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
How to escape these massive legalizations? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

*
 atrick Weil is senior fellow at CNRS (University of Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne) and a transatlantic fellow at the German
P
Marshall Fund of the United States. Based in Paris, he has studied and published on comparative immigration, citizenship,
and integration policies. In 1997, he was appointed by the French government to write a report on immigration and
nationality policies reform. This report served as the basis for the immigration and nationality laws passed at the French
Parliament in 1998. Recent publications can be found on his website, www.patrick-weil.com.
Introduction

Imagine a country, which its new inhabitants have Bracero Program was initially developed to reduce
reached since their first settlement in the 17th the labor shortage in American agriculture that
century by sea as if it was an island. Furthermore, existed because of the country’s involvement in
imagine that the country from which these World War II. However, the program was extended
inhabitants inherited and borrowed their laws was far beyond the end of the war, finally ending in
an island. In the latter, borders were controlled at 1964. At its peak, in the middle of the 1950s, it
the ports of entry and freedom of circulation was brought more than 400,000 Mexican workers a
guaranteed and cherished once within the territory. year to the United States.3 “The increase of illegal However, the
Then, imagine that suddenly in the middle of the immigration was part of the side effect of Bracero political geography
20th century, the former is less and less reached by policies:” ‘returning Braceros spread the word of of the United
sea and becomes aware of its significant land border. employment opportunities in the U.S.’ and “the States has now
preference given [by many employers] to illegal
From the point of view of immigration policy, changed. In the
aliens for Bracero employment provided little
geography and politics do not always correspond. aftermath of the
incentive for aspiring Braceros to remain in Mexico
Australia and New Zealand are geographically and until they were legally contracted.”4
Bracero Program,
politically islands; Canada is not geographically an immigration from
island, but politically and in the management of its In theory, the Immigration and Nationality Act the Western
immigration policy, it is a de facto one: immigrants of 1965 was the first to limit immigration from Hemisphere
cannot travel very easily to Canada via its northern the Western Hemisphere (120, 000 persons). In has become the
land border. From the south, i.e. from the United practice, migratory flows from this region—both largest source of
States, there are not many immigrants who wish to legal and illegal—continued to increase and exceed new migrants.
leave the land of opportunity and forfeit their easy those numbers. In 2008, Mexico was by far the
access to the labor market. largest sending country of legal immigrants to the
United States, sending 188,000 of the 1,107,000
From the point of view of its immigration flows newly admitted migrants.5 Hundreds of thousands
and policy, the United States was an island until the of undocumented migrants also cross the Mexican-
middle of the 20th century, as a large majority of American land border each year, contributing to
immigrants and visitors arrived by boat.1 Moreover, the estimated 11 million irregular migrants in the
the United States inherited a number of its legal country.
traditions and structures from the island ways of
Great Britain. No other country has experienced such a dramatic
shift in the political geography of its immigration
However, the political geography of the United policy.6 Especially during the interwar period,
States has now changed. In the aftermath of the
Bracero Program, immigration from the Western
Hemisphere has become the largest source of 3
Cf. Kitty Calavita, Inside the State,The Bracero Program,
Immigration and the I.N.S., Routledge, London, New York, 1992.
new migrants.2 Based on an agreement signed on
April 4, 1942, by the United States and Mexico, the 4
Calavita, idem, 32.
5
2008 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics, DHS, Office of
Immigration Statistics, 10.
1
The main port of entry was Ellis Island. For the others see
Forgotten Doors, the Other Ports of Entry to the United States, 6
The only other examples are Germany and Austria when the
M. Mark Stolarik Ed. Philadelphia, 1988. Iron Curtain fell. But, the Iron Curtain lasted 40 years and the
legal culture of Austria and Germany was built over centuries
2
L Aleinhikoff, 65. so the change was not as drastic as in the United States.

All or Nothing? What the United States Can Learn from Europe 3
as it Contemplates Circular Migration and Legalization for Undocumented Immigrants
 the previous insular situation facilitated effective Branch to legalize undocumented immigrants.10
control of the number of immigrants arriving to The possibilities for suspending deportation
the United States. The quota system began in 19217 in hardship cases “were virtually eliminated by
and was restrictive as well as efficient because the Congress in 1996.”11 Since that time, the right
United States government could set limits, and the to detain asylum seekers or deportable aliens
numbers could never be exceeded. Despite all these indefinitely has also expanded. Nevertheless, the
new developments and the growth in immigration system remains broken and is felt as such: every
Nevertheless, the from neighboring countries, the legal culture and year, the number of foreign migrants who get
system remains the framework of U.S. immigration legislation have a legal residence permit equals the number of
broken and is remained structurally similar to what they were migrants who remain in the United States illegally;
felt as such: before World War II. When the Mexican border but 51 percent of American citizens believe a
became an increasing source of immigration, majority of immigrants are illegal12 and 63 percent
every year, the
the old system became less efficient. However, agree that their government is doing a poor or a
number of foreign
the political reaction has not been to change the very poor job in managing immigration.13 Today,
migrants who get
immigration system but to tinker with it in order legalization is necessary, but what is the political
a legal residence to recover its lost efficiency.8 Legislators have tradeoff that can make it happen?
permit equals not rethought either the most-entrenched (legal
the number of customs and the right to freely circulate on U.S. Some of the more common reforms mentioned as
migrants who territory) or even the least-entrenched aspects of possibilities for a comprehensive immigration bill
remain in the the system (the quota system); after undocumented include: a strong reinforcement of an efficient verify
United States migrants arrived in massive numbers it eventually system for employers, elimination or restriction
became necessary to legalize them. One prominent of some existing visas (most likely diversity visas
illegally.
example of legalization was the 1986 Immigration and non-nuclear family member visas) in favor of
Reform and Control Act (IRCA). In exchange, visas for skilled workers admitted by quotas, or by
the U.S. Congress imposed employer sanctions a points-based system similar to those developed in
and began prosecuting fake marriages through Canada or in the United Kingdom, and the
the Immigration Marriage Fraud Amendments
(IMFA).9 It also reduced the power of the Executive Cf. Adam B. Cox and Cristina M. Rodriguez, The President
10 

and Immigration Law, Yale Law Journal, 119:101 2009.

Mae N. Ngai, “We Need a Deportation Deadline,” Washington

11 

Post, June 14, 2005, p. A2.

Cf. Son-Thierry Ly and Patrick Weil, “The Anti-racist Origins

7 Cf. Transatlantic Trends: Immigration, 2009, question 4. Only
12 

of the American Immigration Quota System.” Social Research, 34 percent of American citizens believe that most immigrants
Volume 77, Number 1 (Spring 2010). are in the country legally. The main EU countries citizens
express the opposite view. A majority (56%) believe that most
This may be evidence of historical path dependency, which
8
immigrants are in the country legally (35 percent have the
can often explain public policy development. Cf. Paul Pierson, opposite view).
Increasing Returns, Path Dependence, and the Study of Politics,
The American Political Science Review, Vol. 94, No. 2 (Jun. Cf. Transatlantic Trends: Immigration, 2009, question 26. Only
13 

2000), pp. 251-267. 49 percent of the main EU countries citizens express the same
opinion toward their own government.
1.8 million immigrants filed applications under the program
9

for illegal immigrants who had resided in the United States

since 1982 and 1.3 millions under the Special Agriculture
Workers Program (SAW). Cf. Aristide Zolberg, A Nation
by Design, Immigration Policy in the fashioning of America,
Harvard University Press, 2006, at 371.

4 The German Marshall Fund of the United States

creation of a independent Standing Commission on France, Germany, Italy, and Spain—have significant
immigration.14 land borders. Like the United States, many
European countries are developed states in close
In addition to these commonly-discussed reforms, proximity to developing countries with a lower
some proposals, coming from Europe might be GDP. In addition, most European countries and the
interesting. United States share a trend toward courts increasing
the legal protections extended to migrants.16
In the field of immigration policy, there are no easy
answers and no scientific study that can tell you The United States
In this shared context, the United States and
how to perfectly manage the flow of immigrants. and continental
continental Europe face the new and common
Comparative studies between countries with challenge of how to adapt to a world of
Europe face the
similar immigration experiences are often the best globalization, where an increasing number of new and common
approach in such contexts. individuals wish to have the ability to freely cross challenge of
borders. Between 1990 and 2010, the number how to adapt
Similar to the United States, the four most populous
of international migrants rose 37.5 percent to a world of
countries in Western Continental Europe15—
(from 155 million to 213 million).17 With these globalization,
figures in mind, there are a number of possible where an
These propositions are made by Demetrios G. Papademetriou,
14 
and interesting actions based on the European increasing number
Doris Meissner, Marc R. Rosenblum, and Madeleine Sumption
in MPI, “Harnessing the Advantages of Immigration for a
experience. of individuals wish
21st Century,” Economy: A Standing Commission on Labor to have the ability
Markets, Economic Competitiveness and Immigration, May
2009 and/or by William Galston, Noah Pickus, Peter Skerry, Cf. Peter Schuck, “The Transformation of Immigration Law,”
16  to freely cross
conveners of the Brookings-Duke Immigration Policy
roundtable, “Breaking the Immigration Stalemate, From Deep
84 Col. L. Rev. 1-90 (1984). borders.
Disagreements to Constructive Proposals,” 2009. For a critique In the meantime, the world population has grown from 5.3
17 
of the idea of a Standing Immigration Commission, cf. Jorge to 6.91 billion, i.e. 30 percent. Source: The United Nations,
G. Castaneda and Tamar Jacoby, “Why “Legalization Only” Division of Population.
Won’t Fly, ” Washington Post, July 21, 2009.

In 2007, 8.8 percent (7.2 million) of residents in Germany had a

15 

foreign citizenship. In 2004, 8.1 percent of the total population

of France are immigrants (4.9 millions). Italy now has an
estimated 4 million to 5 million immigrants—about 7 percent
of the population. Since 2000, Spain has absorbed more than
3 million immigrants, growing its population by almost 10
percent. Immigrant population is now over 4.5 million.

All or Nothing? What the United States Can Learn from Europe 5
as it Contemplates Circular Migration and Legalization for Undocumented Immigrants
 Sedentary Immigration vs.
Circulatory Migration

Among the numerous reasons for undocumented With the internet, Skype, and further advancements
migration are the poorly-designed regulations for in communication technology, it is easier for
circulatory migration, which nevertheless represent a seasonal worker to stay in touch with his or
the desires and needs of some migrants. The lack her family at home.20 But seasonal workers will
of flexibility in granting circular residence status only return to their home country and leave
forces many migrants, both unskilled and skilled, to the United States if they have a guarantee that
remain against their personal inclination. Nation- they will be able to return. Otherwise, there is a
The modern 21st states of the 20th century were inert and liked stable strong incentive to remain in the country as an
century state must populations, quotas, and permanent residents. undocumented worker. Both previous and existing
learn to manage However, the modern 21st century state must learn seasonal workers’ programs have shown that in
circulatory to manage circulatory migration and adapt policies the absence of this kind of guarantee, seasonal
to address the legal rights and status of migrants in workers tend to remain illegally in the receiving
migration and
movement. country. However, the choice is not between a failed
adapt policies to
seasonal worker program and no program at all.
address the legal The possibility of circulating and re-circulating Following a Franco-German Initiative,21 since 2007,
rights and status on a permanent basis should be offered to the European Commission has encouraged circular
of migrants in seasonal workers.18 migration between the member states and third
movement. countries.22 In addition, Italy, Spain, and France
Such measures would benefit the worker, his or
have developed new approaches to the management
her family, the home country and the receiving
of seasonal workers.23
country with economic sectors (e.g. agriculture and
construction) dependent upon seasonal migrant In Italy, a quota of seasonal workers is fixed every
labor. It will reduce the number of illegal migrants. year. The following year, the seasonal worker who
In addition, it could also address a problem that has returned to his or her country of origin at the
has divided many policymakers: should the United end of his or her contract, has priority for returning
States admit temporary workers again?19 in the next year’s quota. Since 2009, there is no
longer a quota on permanent foreign workers, but
Not all unskilled workers want to settle in the
a specific quota remains set for seasonal workers at
United States with their families. If given the
option, many would return to their home country 80,000 for 2010.
after having worked in the United States for six to
ten months. With the wages they had earned, their Cf. DIMINESCU, Dana, (2005), Le migrant connecté : pour un
20 

manifeste épistémologique, in Migrations Société, Vol. XVII,

purchasing power would be much higher in their n°102, Nov.-Dec., pp. 275-293
home country than in the United States.
On the initiative of Wolfgang Schauble and Nicholas Sarkozy,
21 

October 26, 2006, cf. Stefan Angenendt, Circular Migration,

A Sustainable Concept for Migration Policy?, http://www.swp-
berlin.org/common/get_document.php?asset_id=4058.

Communication from the Commission to the European

22 
18 
Seasonal workers are needed for seasonal jobs that are by Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social
nature temporary while temporary workers are hired for a Committee, and the Committee of the Regions on circular
fixed term contract in which the temporal character comes migration and mobility partnerships between the European
from the nature of the contract and not of the job.Cf. Booth, Union and third countries /* COM/2007/0248 final */ 05. 16.
A.L., Dolado, J.J. & Frank, J, .2002, “Symposium on temporary 2007.
work, Introduction, The Economic Journal, Vol.112, 182.
Cf. for example, http://www.caritas-europa.org/module/FileLib/
23 
19 
Cf. Castaneda and Jacoby, footnote 9. 080407Stakeholderquestionnaireseasonalworkers-CEreply.pdf.

6 The German Marshall Fund of the United States

In Spain, a program has been negotiated with the control of its southern and northern borders.27
Moroccan government permitting an increased These workers—in some way permanent—should
number of Moroccans to come and work have the right to unionize and to be protected
temporarily. They are guaranteed the same level of by branch agreements between employers and
salary and social protection as permanent residents unions.28
and natives. In exchange for returning to Morocco,
they are offered the possibility of coming back to Permitting the highly-skilled to circulate and
Spain the following year. The fact that Spanish re-circulate
In exchange for
authorities give priority to women with children the granting
On the issue of highly-skilled labor migration,
remaining at home contributes to the 95 percent of seasonal
the United States used to be more advanced than
rate of return reached every year.24 green cards to
Europe. In many European countries such as
The European Commission has suggested that France and Germany, there were reservations thousands or tens
member states develop multi-annual permits for regarding skilled migration. Such views were, in of thousands of
seasonal workers.25 In France, the Immigration and some instances, based on racist or corporatist Mexican workers,
Integration Act of July 24, 2006 created a multi- sentiments and the desire to reserve the most Mexico could
annual permit of three years. Implemented in valuable professional positions in society for cooperate with
the summer of 2008, the permit has been offered native citizens. Reservations about this type of
the United States
to 6,500 seasonal workers. The government has migration were also based on the concept of
in the control of
recently emphasized “its adaptation to the targeted “third-world-ism,” the notion that world justice and
the development of less developed nations would
its southern and
public” (public visé).26 northern borders.
be hindered by the recruitment and retention of
For the United States, one could imagine a multi- highly-skilled workers from these nations.
annual permit of five or ten years, or even a green
card for seasonal workers. These permits could be This was both incoherent and absurd: If African,
offered to citizens of all countries or negotiated Asian, South American, or other students from
with select ones such as Mexico. In exchange for outside of the European Union graduate with a
the granting of seasonal green cards to thousands degree from a European university and do not want
or tens of thousands of Mexican workers, Mexico to return home, they will not do so. If European
could cooperate with the United States in the countries refuse them permanent residency, they
will migrate to the United States, Canada, or
Australia and their countries of origin, and the
country where they received their training would
not benefit from their intellectual and professional
capacities. This international competition
http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/en_GB/
24 
encouraged the United Kingdom, Germany, and
features/awi/features/2009/01/19/feature-02

Communication from the Commission to the European

25 

Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social

Committee, and the Committee of the Regions on circular
migration and mobility partnerships between the European Similar cooperation exists between the countries that have
27 

Union and third countries /* COM/2007/0248 final */ 05. 16. entered the Schengen zone of free circulation and their border
2007. countries like Romania or Bulgaria.

French Senate, Finances Committee, parliamentary question

26 
At some stage, for example at the end of the first five or ten
28 

36 of Pierre Bernard Reymond’s 2010 budget. years period they should be also able to transform their status.

All or Nothing? What the United States Can Learn from Europe 7
as it Contemplates Circular Migration and Legalization for Undocumented Immigrants
 later Italy and France to open their doors to highly- about losing highly-skilled citizens and some
skilled workers. countries (e.g. the Philippines) even encourage the
migration of their skilled workers. Yet, African,
Despite their convergence, the United States and Asian, South American, or students from other
Europe do not approach the issue of high-skilled non-EU countries with a degree from a European
migration in the same way. Both sides limit the rights university are on the world market, and any
of highly-skilled migrants they wish to attract, but selective restriction or discrimination is ineffective
they do so in different ways. In the United States, and counterproductive. The initial assessment of
Despite their
once legal permanent status is granted, a foreign the French policy is not good. It has discouraged
convergence, the
highly-skilled resident is prevented from returning higher-skilled workers from the poorest countries
United States
to Africa, the Caribbean, or Latin America for a in the world to apply for these French permits.
and Europe do significant period of time: the permanent resident
not approach the card (i.e. green card) is considered invalid if the However, it is in the interest of the United
issue of high- person has been outside for more than a year.29 States like Europe to have poor and unstable
skilled migration underdeveloped countries develop democratic
in the same way. Some European countries limit the right of highly- civil societies. The highly-skilled workers trained
skilled workers to obtain permanent residency. in European or American universities can be
France, for example, has created a new type of important agents of this democratic development.
three-year residence permit for this category of
workers. But if the worker is a citizen of a country Once their permanent status secured in the United
belonging to the poorest region of the world30 States, they should not be prevented from returning
this special permit cannot be renewed more than to their home country—for a few months to few
once (for a total possible stay of six years) and can years—while retaining their status.
be only delivered under approval of the sending
country authorities. This policy is a response to The European Commission is encouraging circular
the strong reservations and concerns expressed migration between the member states and third
by African leaders to the European Union on countries for higher-skilled workers.31 It wishes
policies that would increase the emigration of to give “people the opportunity to engage in an
their higher-skilled workers. It is true that among activity (business, professional, voluntary, or other)
developing countries the poorest (e.g. Haiti, Congo, in their country of origin while retaining their main
Rwanda, or Cambodia) are most in need of their residence in one of the member states. This covers
highly-skilled citizens. In comparison, countries groups such as business persons working in the EU
already considered to be global powers, such and wishing to start an activity in their country of
as China, India, and Brazil, are less concerned origin (or in another third country), and doctors,
professors, or other professionals willing to support
their country of origin by conducting part of their
29 
In addition, the government is required to look at the totality professional activity there.
of circumstances, i.e. the ties that they have maintained in
the United States (e.g. payment of U.S. taxes, residence, bank
accounts, etc). In practice, officers begin to ask questions after
about three to five years of infrequent returns to the United Communication from the Commission to the European
31 

States. Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social

Committee, and the Committee of the Regions on circular
30 
The “zone de priorité solidaire” created in 1998 includes the migration and mobility partnerships between the European
majority of African Countries, Vietnam, Laos, Kambodgia, Union and third countries /* COM/2007/0248 final */ May
Haiti Cuba, Dominican Republic etc. 16, 2007.

8 The German Marshall Fund of the United States

In the United States, three proposals could be made individuals’ salaries would be covered by the
with the purpose of facilitating circulation of the recruiting institutions for the duration of their
higher skilled: stay in their home country. This would allow
professors or doctors from Haiti, Rwanda,
1. Permanent legal residents should be able to Mali, or Cambodia recruited by a university
leave the United States for a maximum period of or hospital in the United States to utilize their
three years without forfeiting their legal status. expertise in their native country and contribute
2. When public institutions—hospitals, to its development, while also retaining the right
universities, research centers, etc—recruit to return to the United States to work, after an
highly-skilled workers from countries receiving agreed period of time.
U.S. development aid, these foreign-skilled 3. Long-term exit and re-entry visas for
workers should be offered the possibility of circulation should be offered to graduate
practicing and working in their countries of students with diplomas from American
origin. With the agreement of United States universities
Agency for International Development, these

All or Nothing? What the United States Can Learn from Europe 9
as it Contemplates Circular Migration and Legalization for Undocumented Immigrants
 How to deal with illegal migrants

Irrespective of the rules in place for the legal 800,000 applicants in 2002, and 300,000 in 2009 32)
migration, and regardless of the enforcement and Spain (in 2005 with 500,000 applicants).
of the law, and however tough the penalties
against employers and traffickers will be with the In 1989–1990,33 Italy enacted immigration
enactment of new legislation, some undocumented legislation that focused on respecting family life,
migrants will come and remain in the United States guaranteeing Geneva Convention protection to
as they do in the European Union. those persecuted in regions outside of Europe,
allowing for labor migration to fulfill labor
The American
There are two main reasons for this. The American shortages in the Italian economy, and mitigating
democratic
democratic model, and the opportunities provided illegal immigration. But above all, the total
model, and the
by its market economy attract more migrants number of immigrant admissions became subject
opportunities seeking permanent residency status than any to a national quota fixed after consultation with
provided by its legislation will allow. The United States, like the professional organizations of employers and trade
market economy European Union, respects basic individual human unions. The quotas included immigrant workers
attract more rights and is a major destination for tourism and for the first time in 1995.34 Between 1995 and 2008,
migrants seeking international business. Thus, legal limits have been the quota was raised from 25,000 to 150,000. In
permanent set for the ability of the State to “control” migration. parallel, from the mid 1980s to 2009, six sanatorie—
residency regularizations [of illegal immigrants]—were
One has therefore to admit that immigration organized: in 1986 (120,000), in 1990 (220,000),
status than any
policy is like any other policy—with a certain level in 1996 (246,000), in 1999–2000 (250,000), in
legislation will
of “fraud.” No one would imagine tax legislation, 2003–2004 (750,000), and finally in 2009 (300,000
allow. or a traffic code, that would totally eliminate tax applications were submitted). But since 2008 the
fraud or traffic accidents. Therefore, even with government has ceased the announcement of any
the development of fair and efficient systems to quotas. In exchange for the most recent legalization
process asylum applications, improved family concerning only domestic workers, a new law has
reunification methods, the issuance of better redefined illegal entry and over-staying as criminal
designed employment visas coupled with effective offenses to be punished with a pecuniary sanction
law enforcement could reduce illegal migration, no
measure can completely eradicate it.
Colombo, A., La sanatoria per le badanti e le colf del 2009:
32 
Can states address the issue of non-residents who fallimento o esaurimento di un modello?, FIERI – Gli
have illegally settled in the country, sometimes for approfondimenti, November 25, 2009, Torino: Forum
Internazionale ed Europeo di Ricerche sull’Immigrazione,
many years, either because they have found a job or http://www.fieri.it/download.php?fileID=301&lang=ita.
because they have joined or created a family?
Through a decree of 1989 that became law in 1990 under the
33 

impulsion the then deputy Prime Minister Claudio Martelli.

When the numbers are too high and the impacts
become politically, economically, and socially too After the Turko-Napolitano law of 1998, the prime minister’s
34 

office fixed the quotas directly each year See Ferrucio Pastore,
widespread, most states are forced to organize “Quote et Gestione degli ingressi per motivi economici. Primi
exceptional and all encompassing legalization. The elementi per una valutazione dell’esperienza italiana (1998-
most recent examples are in Europe: Italy (with 2003),” in Consiglio Nazionale dell’Economia e del Lavoro
(CNEL), Regolazione dei flussi migratory tra programmazione e
precarieta’ degli interventi, (Dec. 2003), pp. 45-57.

10 The German Marshall Fund of the United States

and immediate expulsion.35 Nevertheless, other hidden workers to obtain legal status each year, but
undocumented immigrants are legalized under the failed to regulate migratory flows. After legislation
remaining spots of the 2007 and 2008 quotas. was enacted in April 2000 aimed at developing an
integration policy, a new regularization brought
Spain adopted its first comprehensive immigration in 164,000 foreigners out of 250,000 applicants, as
law in 1985, in the lead up to its accession to the happened after the law created in August of 2002
European Union. Highly restrictive and focused on (184,000 regularizations for 350,000 applicants).
the control of borders and illegal immigration,36
it was followed by a regularization of illegal In August 2004, the government of José Luis
immigrants (23,000 permits were issued for 44,000 Zapatero announced the legalization of all
applicants). The government proceeded in a similar foreigners working illegally, provided they had a
vein in 1991.The imposition of visa requirements work contract for a minimum of six months. At the
for citizens of South American and North end of 2005, 576,000 of the 690,679 applications
African countries to enter the Schengen area was submitted were accepted.38 Additionally, between
accompanied by a second regularization covering 20,000 and 30,000 permits set in the quotas are
116,000 foreigners for 133,000 applicants. It was at used in the legalization process each year.
this point that immigration became a political and
social phenomenon. In trying to regulate this flow Just as in Italy, the quota system in Spain has been
of illegal immigrants and to respond to the needs an instrument of legalization for undocumented
of the labor force, quotas were instituted at the level immigrants. The quotas were never big enough,
of 20,000 to 30,000 per annum from 1993, divided so there was always a need for new immigrants
almost equally between seasonal and permanent and always an argument for massive legalization.
workers.37 This system allowed thousands of The political, social, and administrative impacts
of these massive processes are often harmful.
The civil service is disorganized, the impact on
In addition, the status of legal immigrants has been weakened
35 

through the enactment of a points-based system for the

migration is often to favor the sudden and massive
renewal of residence permits or more restrictive housing arrival of new applicants from neighboring
requirements for family reunion. Law July 15, 2009, No. 94, or sending countries, and governments and
entitled “Disposizioni in materia di sicurezza pubblica,”Cf.
Ferrucio Pastore, The impact of the economic crisis on parliaments are perceived as having created poorly
migrants and migration policy in Italy, IOM Paper, Dec. 2009. structured immigration policies. Furthermore,
The information that follows is taken from Francisco Javier
36  massive legalizations can create opportunities for
Moreno Fuentes, The Evolution of Migration Policies in Spain. xenophobic and populist reactions.
Between External Constraints and Domestic Demand for
Unskilled Labour, CEACS Working Paper no. 211 (Madrid:
Instituto Juan, March 2004), p. 37.

Except in 1996, 2000, and 2001, 20,600 in 1993 and 1994,

37 

25,000 in1995, zero in 1996, 24,690 in 1997, 28,000 in 1998, Joaquín Arango, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain.
38 

30,000 in 1999, zero in 2000 and 2001, 32,079 in 2002, and Hearing before the Migration, Refugees and Population
2004, 337 in 2003. Source: L. Einaudi, Programmation de Commission, Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of
quotas, régularisations et travail au noir : les politiques de Europe, Paris, Dec.11, 2006.
l’immigration en Italie et en Espagne (1973-2003), in Blanc-
Chaléard, Dufoix, et Weil, manuscrit.com, 2005.

All or Nothing? What the United States Can Learn from Europe 11
as it Contemplates Circular Migration and Legalization for Undocumented Immigrants
 How to escape these massive
legalizations?

Legal admission of immigrants in France and 6. Immigrants present for humanitarian reasons
Germany are not based on quotas, but on criteria (without any delay, Article 32 of the law 2006-
such as family reunification and having a job offer, 911, July 24, 2006)
which provoke less illegal migration. In addition,
these two countries have a permanent mechanism 7. Illegal workers (Article 12 of the law 2007-1631,
for legalization, which allows them to escape November 20, 2007)
massive regularization.39 France has been through Every year, 25,000 to 30,000 permits (20 percent
Not having a numerous exceptional and massive legalizations of the total) delivered in France are legalization
penalty for illegal in: 1972, 1981, 1991, and 1997. Yet since 1998, a permits.
migration would mechanism of permanent (vs. exceptional) and
open avenues to individual (vs. collective) legalization of illegal In Germany, the July 31, 2004 Law (section 25)
aliens has been created and implemented. Today, allows the granting of a permit for “humanitarian
massive illegal
seven categories of non-legal foreign residents who reasons.” This measure is meant to apply, in
migration.
created strong links in the country or have strong particular, to all those persons protected by the
reasons to stay can apply to the French Immigration European convention of human rights. In 2009,
Service and can get a permit. These include: 169,782 people benefited from this permit. The law
adds to, and completes, a measure already in place
1. Foreigners who can prove they have been living
in German law (section 60) that permits around
in the country for ten years40
100,000 people to live with a “Duldung” certificate
2. Foreign parents of French children of residence43 because the German state cannot
deport them.44 Why have these systems been
3. 18-year olds who arrived in France before the age adopted?
of 10
1. By legalizing the aliens who have shown the
4. Implementation of Article 8 of the ECHR 41
strongest will to integrate into the host society,
it allows an escape from the cycle of massive
5. Medical patients who can prove that deportation legalizations and their political and social
would prevent their access to life saving medical tensions and costs.
treatment42
2. This individual process is smoothly managed
in cooperation with the civil service, unions,
and NGOs who play the role of gatekeepers. It
In the U.K., two legalization mechanisms exist also for those
39 
doesn’t, however, prevent the enforcement of the
in the country for over 14 years illegally or for families with
children in the country for over seven years illegally. laws. On the contrary, before any application for
Since 2006, foreigners who can prove they have been living ten
40 

years in the country can still apply for their legalization, but
the decision to legalize them is no longer a right and is subject In the new law, the Duldung has become the “Bescheinigung
43 

to the discretionary power of the government. über die vorübergehende Aussetzung der Abschiebung”
(certificate of temporary suspension of expulsion).
Article 8 of the ECHR affirms the right to respect for private
41 

and family life. Expulsion or deportation of an illegal alien can In addition, the German Ministry of Interior registers
44 

be a violation of Article 8 if it separates an existing family or 465 811 foreigners without permit, http://www.destatis.
separate partners. de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/destatis/Internet/DE/
Content/Statistiken/Bevoelkerung/MigrationIntegration/
The four first categories were included in the May 11, 1998
42 
AuslaendischeBevoelkerung/Tabellen/Content75/Aufenthaltsr
law. echtlicherStatus,templateId=renderPrint.psml.

12 The German Marshall Fund of the United States

 legalization can be filled, there is an official delay The Registry Act of March 2, 1929 resolved this
during which an undocumented alien faces and impasse. The law authorized the creation of a
risks deportation. record of lawful permanent residence for any alien
ineligible for citizenship and whose case was not
3. Finally, it makes the system more assessable recorded, as long as the alien made a satisfactory
and more accountable. A good comparison is showing that he had entered the United States prior
immigration law and taxation law. If there were to June 3, 1921, had resided continuously in the
no penalty for not paying state taxes, nobody United States since then, and was not subject to To complete
would pay them. But if state controllers could deportation.45 the scheme of
investigate your income on your bank accounts
20 years after they had been received, it would Today, Section 249 of the INA reads that a record
comprehensive
mean living in a totalitarian regime. It is the of lawful admission for permanent residence may immigration policy,
same with immigration policy. Not having a be attributed to an alien who entered the United the United States
penalty for illegal migration would open avenues States prior to January 1, 1972, and who has held could borrow
to massive illegal migration, but having no continuous residence in the United States since from the Franco-
prospect for amnesty after living for ten years such entry. Unfortunately, this would not apply to German system
in a country would lead to the accumulation of most illegal migrants. and from the
anger and collective solidarity toward the illegal Spanish-Italian
immigrant population. To complete the scheme of comprehensive
system.
immigration policy, the United States could borrow
The first mechanism of individual legalization in from the Franco-German system and from the
the United States had its origin in the First Quota Spanish-Italian system. As in France and Germany,
Act of May 19, 1921. Prior to 1921, an immigrant mechanisms of individual legalization could be
who had not had his entrance in the United States set. Like in Italy and Spain, permits given on this
registered and who was interested in becoming basis could come out of the numbers of permits
naturalized could follow an easy procedure: go to fixed within the different quotas. The independent
Mexico or Canada and subsequently have his re- standing Commission on Immigration, if created,
entry into the United States officially recorded. The could have the task to assess the impact and the
First Quota Act of 1921 barred the entry of an alien criteria of the legalization tools.
whose country had already reached its established
annual quota. The problem was that a large The law allowed immigrants to register as permanent residents
45 

number of aliens for whom a record of permanent for a fee of $20 if they could show that they had resided in
the country continuously since 1921 and were of good moral
admission did not exist had entered the United character. The law did not formally favor Europeans over
States prior to June 3, 1921. Due to missing records, Mexicans. But of the 115,000 immigrants that registered
their prior entries into the country between 1930 and 1940,
these aliens were ineligible for naturalization. 80 percent were European or Canadian. Mae N. Ngai, “The
Strange Career of the Illegal Alien: Immigration Restriction
and Deportation Policy in the United States,1921-1965,” Law
and History Review, Vol.# 21, No. 1.

All or Nothing? What the United States Can Learn from Europe 13
as it Contemplates Circular Migration and Legalization for Undocumented Immigrants
Conclusion

For the nation-state, immigration is one of the control the flow of migration but how to manage
challenges of the future and not a problem of migrants’ “recirculation” over a longer period.
the past. We do not believe in the maintenance This will demand the most radical innovations in
of the state as it stands or in its diminution, but immigration policy.
rather in its reconfiguration. Because immigration
policies will become increasingly complex and The facilitation of circulation and “recirculation,”
diverse, they will require investments that were for citizens abroad or for foreigners at home,
not made in the past in order to better coordinate according to a regime adapted to each category of
the multiplicity of relevant administrative and migrants—for seasonal workers and also for highly
private actors, to incorporate the wishes of skilled workers—will be one of the new tasks for
migrant populations and to learn not only how to immigration policy in the 21st century.

14 The German Marshall Fund of the United States

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