LOCUS 1

Basics of
Chemistry

CONCEPT NOTES
NOTES

01. The Foundations of Chemistry

02. Chemical Formulae and Stoichiometry

03. Chemical Equation and Reaction Stoichiometry

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Basics of Chemistry

Section - 1 THE FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMISTRY

Introduction
Chemistry is an integrated subject i.e. it has various facets and dimensions and these various facets and dimensions
of chemistry cannot be studied in isolation from one another. For example, one cannot study chemical equilibrium
without a sound foundation of thermodynamics. And similarly, studying organic chemistry without studying reaction
mechanisms (which are an integral part of chemical kinetics) would not take us too far in our endeavour to study
the organic chemistry.
So, the key to studying and developing a sound understanding of chemistry lies in realising this integrated nature of
the various aspects of chemistry and planning our study of chemistry accordingly. We can compare chemistry to a
necklace of beads in this regard. Just as a thread connects all the beads of a necklace together, certain fundamentals
of chemistry make the various aspects of chemistry an integrated subject. Our approach in the Locus Study
Material for chemistry has been to give this integrated approach a paramount importance and this unit on basic
chemistry is a part of our endeavour in that direction.
We intend to understand some basic tenets of chemistry in this unit which will help us understand various aspects
of chemistry in an integrated way. Although, the basics covered here are not exhaustive in content, they are quite
comprehensive to set the ball rolling on our way to understanding chemistry in an integrated way.
Thereafter, as we move on from unit to unit, this integrated approach would remain as an undercurrent and would
be further strengthened.

Content
Although the contents of this unit act as a prelude to the chemistry as a whole, they are particularly helpful in
enhancing our understanding of Physical and Inorganic Chemistry. But as we have pointed out above, this
approach of “connectedness” will be maintained throughout and as a part of this approach, we will provide you
with units on General Inorganic Chemistry and General Organic Chemistry covering the basic fundamentals
that will be used to enhance our understanding of the respective topics of chemistry in the above mentioned
“integrated way”.

The tree of Chemistry

Chemistry touches almost every aspect of our lives, our culture and our environment. Its scope encompasses the
air we breathe, the food we eat, our clothing, our dwellings, transportation, fuel supplies and much more.
In brief, we can say that chemistry is the science that describes matter-its chemical and physical properties, the
chemical and physical changes it undergoes, and the energy changes that accompany those processes. (We will
describe all these in brief as we move on.)

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Having such a wide scope, quite obviously chemistry is a vast subject. And to simplify the study of such a vast
subject a rough division of chemistry is generally followed. This division is explained in this figure:

CHEMISTRY

ORGANIC INORGANIC PHYSICAL

Figure 1: The tree of chemistry

These divisions should not be seen as absolute divisions but as being complementary to each other and overlapping
many a times. The basis on which this division is made are as follows:
• Carbon is very versatile in its bonding and behaviour and is a key element in many substances that are
essential to life. All living matter contains carbon combined with hydrogen. The number of these compounds
is so huge and so versatile, that it becomes imperative to study these as an integrated whole. This integrated
whole is what has been termed as Organic Chemistry, which is nothing but the chemistry of compounds
of carbon and hydrogen.
• The study of compounds that do not contain carbon combined with hydrogen is called Inorganic
Chemistry.
• Physical Chemistry applies the mathematical theories and methods of physics to the properties of
matter and to the study of chemical processes and the accompanying energy changes.
Besides these there are various sub-divisions like analytical chemistry and bio chemistry. But for now, the
understanding of the above is sufficient and these two terms will be dealt with in respective chapters.
Finally, it should be noted that in the early days of chemistry, its was believed that living matter and inanimate
matter were entirely different. The study of the former was termed as organic and of the latter as inorganic. But we
now know that many of the compounds found in living matter can be made from non-living or “inorganic” sources.
So, now, organic chemistry does not mean study of living matter only. Thus, the terms “organic” and “inorganic”
have different meanings than they did originally. Their contemporary meanings are explained above.
Matter and Energy
Lets use this subsection to recapitulate our understanding of Matter and Energy.
Matter is any thing that has mass and occupies space. Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in sample of
any material. The more massive an object is, the more force is required to put it in motion. Energy is defined as the
capacity to do work or to transfer heat. We are familiar with many forms of energy, including mechanical energy,
light energy, electrical energy and heat energy. Light energy from the sun is used by plants as they grow; electrical
energy allows us to light a room by flicking a switch; and heat energy cooks our food and warms our homes.
Energy can be classified into two principal types: kinetic energy and potential energy.
A detailed discussion of energy will be dealt with in the unit on thermodynamics. As of now it is sufficient to
understand what is written above.
Energy is an important concept because all chemical processes are accompanied by energy changes. As some
processes occur, energy is released to the surroundings, usually as heat energy. We call such processes
exothermic. Any combustion (burning) reaction is exothermic.
However, some chemical reactions and physical changes are endothermic. i.e. they absorb energy from their
surroundings. An example of a physical change that is endothermic is the melting of ice.
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The law of conservation of matter

When we burn a sample of metallic magnesium in the air, the magnesium combines with oxygen from the air to
form magnesium oxide, a white powder. This chemical reaction is accompanied by the release of large amounts of
heat energy and light energy. When we weigh the product of the reaction, magnesium oxide, we find that it is
heavier than the original piece of magnesium. The increase in mass of the solid is due to the combination of oxygen
with magnesium to form magnesium oxide. Many experiments have shown that the mass of the magnesium oxide
is exactly the sum of the masses of magnesium and oxygen that combined to form it. Similar statements can be
made for all chemical reactions. These observations are summarised in the Law of Conservation of Matter:

There is no observable change in the quantity of matter during a chemical reaction or

during a physical change.

(please note that a nuclear reaction is not a chemical reaction and the above holds only for chemical reactions and
physical changes.)

The law of Conservation of Energy

In exothermic chemical reactions, chemical energy is usually converted into heat energy. Some exothermic processes
involve other kinds of energy changes. For example, some liberate light energy without heat, and others produce
electrical energy without heat or light. In endothermic reactions, heat energy, light energy, or electrical energy is
converted into chemical energy. Although chemical changes always involve energy changes, some energy
transformations do not involve chemical changes at all. For example, heat energy may be converted into electrical
energy or into mechanical energy without any simultaneous chemical changes. Many experiments have demonstrated
that all of the energy involved in any chemical or physical change appears in some form after the change. These
observations are summarised in the Law of Conservation of Energy:
Energy cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction or in a physical change. It
can only be converted from one form to another.

(We will see some examples of this law in the unit on thermodynamics.)

The law of conservation of matter and energy

Now, note that both the laws above are valid only for a chemical or physical change and not for a nuclear reaction.
Actually in nuclear reactions neither matter nor energy are conserved absolutely. With the dawn of the nuclear age
in the 1940s, scientists, and then the world, became aware that matter can be converted into energy. In nuclear
reactions matter is transformed into energy. The relationship between matter and energy is given by Albert Einstein’s
now famous equation
E = mc2
This equation tells us that the amount of energy released when matter is transformed into energy is the product of
the mass of matter transformed and the speed of light squared. Now that the equivalence of matter and energy is
recognised, the Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy can be stated in a single sentence:
The combined amount of matter and energy in the universe is fixed.

States of Matter
You have studied the three states of matter in earlier classes. Here, we will briefly discuss them. A detailed
discussion will be taken up in the units on gaseous state and solid state. Matter can be classified into three states.
In the solid state, substances are rigid and have definite shapes. Volumes of solids do not vary much with changes
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in temperature and pressure. In many solids, called crystalline solids, the individual particles that make up the solid
occupy definite positions in the crystal structure. (We will discuss the crystal structure in detail in the solid state.)
The strengths of interactions between the individual particles determine how hard and how strong the crystals are.
In the liquid state, the individual particles are confined to a given volume. A liquid flows and assumes the shape of
its container up to the volume of the liquid. Liquids are very hard to compress. Gases are much less denser than
liquids and solids. They occupy all parts of any vessel in which they are confined. Gases are capable of infinite
expansion and are compressed easily. We conclude that they consist primarily of empty space; i.e., the individual
particles are quite far apart.

Chemical and physical properties

How do we differentiate between two persons so as to who is who? Of course by the height, weight, sex, skin,
hair colour and the many subtle features that constitute that person’s general appearance. These are the “properties
” of that person. Similarly to distinguish among samples of different kinds of matter, we determine and compare
their properties. We recognise different kinds of matter by their properties, which are broadly classified into
chemical properties and physical properties. Chemical properties are properties exhibited by matter as it undergoes
changes in composition. These properties of substances are related to the kinds of chemical changes that the
substances undergo. For instance, we have already described the combination of metallic magnesium with gaseous
oxygen to form magnesium oxide, a white powder. A chemical property of magnesium is that it can combine with
oxygen, releasing energy in the process. A chemical property of oxygen is that it can combine with magnesium.
All substances also exhibit physical properties that can be observed in the absence of any change in composition.
Colour, density, hardness, melting point, boiling point, and electrical and thermal conductivities are physical properties.
Some physical properties of a substance depend on the conditions, such as temperature and pressure, under
which they are measured. For instance, water is a solid(ice) at low temperatures but is a liquid at higher temperatures.
At still higher temperatures, it is a gas(steam). As water is converted from one state to another, its composition is
constant. Its chemical properties change very little. On the other hand, the physical properties of ice, liquid water,
and steam are different (see figure below:)

Gas
Co
nd
Ev

Ice is solid H 2O Liquid H2O Steam is gaseous H2O

en
on

ap

sin
or
siti

on

g
a ti

Property
po

a ti

on
De

lim
Sub

Rigidity Rigid Flows and assumes Fills the container

shape of container completely
Melting
Expansion Slight Slight Expands infinitely
on heating Solid liquid
Freezing
Compressibility Slight Slight Easily compressed

(a) (b)
Figure: 2 (a) A comparison of some properties of the three states of matter (for water) (b) Physical changes that occur among the
three states of matter. Sublimation is the conversion of a solid directly to a gas without passing through the liquid state;
the reverse of that process is called deposition. The changes shown in italics are endothermic (absorb heat); those shown
in bold are exothermic(release heat).

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Properties of matter can be further classified according to whether or not they depend on the amount of substance
present. The volume and the mass of a sample depend on, and are directly proportional to, the amount of matter
in that sample. Such properties, which depend on the amount of material examined, are called extensive
properties. By contrast, the colour and the melting point of a substance are the same for a small sample and for
a large one. Properties such as these, which are independent of the amount of material examined, are called
intensive properties. All chemical properties are intensive properties. We will discuss about various intensive
and extensive properties in much more detail in the unit on thermodynamics.

Chemical and physical changes

We described the reaction of magnesium as it burns in the oxygen of the air earlier in this chapter. This reaction is
a chemical change. In any chemical change,(1) one or more substances are used up (at least partially), (2) one
or more new substances are formed, and (3) energy is absorbed or released. As substances undergo chemical
changes they demonstrate their chemical properties. A physical change, on the other hand, occurs with no
change in chemical composition. Physical properties are usually altered significantly as matter undergoes physical
changes (Figure 2b).
Energy is always released or absorbed when chemical or physical changes occur. Energy is required to melt ice,
and energy is required to boil water. Conversely, the condensation of steam to form liquid water always liberates
energy, as does the freezing of liquid water to form ice. At a pressure of one atmosphere, ice always melts at the
same temperature (0ºC) and pure water always boils at the same temperature (100ºC).
(Please note that a pressure of 1 atmosphere is the average atmospheric pressure at sea level.)

Mixtures, substances, compounds, and elements

Mixtures are combinations of two or more pure substances in which each substance retains its own composition
and properties. Almost every sample of matter that we ordinarily encounter is a mixture. The most easily recognised
type of mixture is one in which different portions of the sample have recongisably different properties. Such a
mixture, which is not uniform throughout, is called heterogeneous. Examples include mixtures of salt and charcoal
(in which two components with different colours can be distinguished readily from one another by sight), foggy air
(which includes a suspended mist of water droplets), and vegetable soup. Another kind of mixture has uniform
properties throughout; such a mixture is described as a homogeneous mixture and is also called a solution.
Examples include saltwater; some alloys, which are homogeneous mixtures of metals in the solid state; and air
(free of particulate matter or mists). Air is a mixture of gases. It is mainly nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide,
and water vapour. There are only trace amounts of other substances in the atmosphere.
An important characteristic of all mixtures is that they can have variable composition. (For instance, we can make
an infinite number of different mixtures of salt and sugar by varying the relative amounts of the two components
used). Consequently, repeating the same experiment on mixtures from different sources may give
different results. Mixtures can be separated by physical means because each component retains its properties
(Figure 3). For example, a mixture of salt and water can be separated by evaporating the water and leaving the
solid salt behind. To separate a mixture of sand and salt, we could treat it with water to dissolve the salt, collect the
sand by filtration, and then evaporate the water to reclaim the solid salt. Very fine iron powder can be mixed with
powdered sulphur to give what appears to the naked eye to be homogeneous mixture of the two. However,
separation of the components of this mixture is easy. The iron may be removed by a magnet, or the sulfur may be
dissolved in carbon disulfide, which does not dissolve iron.

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MATTER
Everything that has mass

MIXTURES PURE SUBSTANCES

Variable composition Fixed composition
Components retain their characteristic Cannot be separated into simpler
properties substances by physical methods
May be separated into pure substances Can only be changed in identity and
by physical methods Physical properties bychemical methods
Mixtures of different compositions may changes Properties do not vary
have widely different properties

HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURES HETEROGENEOUS COMPOUNDS ELEMENTS

Have same composition throughout MIXTURES Can be decomposed into Cannot be decomposed
Components are indistinguishable Do not have same simpler substances by into simpler substances by
composition throughout chemical changes, always Chemical chemical changes
Components are at constant composition changes
distinguishable

Figure 3: A scheme for classification of matter. Arrows indicate the general

means by which matter can be separated

Now, imagine that we have a sample of muddy river water (a heterogeneous mixture). We might first separate the
suspended dirt from the liquid by filtration. Then we could remove the dissolved air by warming the water. Dissolved
solids might be removed by cooling the sample until some of it freezes, pouring off the liquid, and then melting the
ice. Other dissolved components might be separated by distillation or other methods. Eventually, we would obtain
a sample of pure water that could not be further separated by any physical separation methods. No matter what
the original source of the impure water –the Bay of Bengal, the Ganga river, a can of tomato juice, and so on–
water samples obtained by purification all have identical composition and under identical conditions, they all have
identical properties. Any such sample is called a substance, or sometimes a pure substance.

A substance cannot be further broken down or purified by physical means.

Now, suppose we decompose some water by passing electricity through it. (This process of bringing about a
decomposition using electricity is called electrolysis.) We find that the water is converted to two simple substances,
hydrogen and oxygen, more significantly, hydrogen and oxygen are always present in the same ratio by mass, 11.1
% to 88.9%. These observations allow us to identify water as a compound.
A compound is a substance that can be decomposed by chemical means into simpler
substances, always in the same ratio by mass.

As we continue this process, starting with any substance, we eventually reach a stage at which the new substances
formed cannot be further broken down by chemical means. The substances at the end of this chain are called
elements.

An element is a substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances

by chemical changes.

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For instance, neither of the two gases obtained by the electrolysis of water– hydrogen and oxygen –can be further
decomposed; so they are elements.
An another illustration (see Figure 4), pure calcium carbonate (a white solid present in limestone and seashells) can
be broken down by heating to give another white solid (call it A) and a gas (call it B) in the mass ratio 56:44. This
observation tells us that calcium carbonate is a compound. The white solid A obtained from calcium carbonate can
be further broken down into a solid and a gas in a definite ratio by mass, 71.5:28.5. But neither of these can be
further decomposed, so they must be elements. The gas is identical to the oxygen obtained from the electrolysis of
water; the solid is a metallic element called calcium. Similarly, the gas B, originally obtained from calcium carbonate,
can be decomposed into two elements, carbon and oxygen in fixed mass ratio, 27.3:72.7. This sequence illustrates
that a compound can be broken apart into simpler substances at fixed mass ratio; those simpler substances may be
either elements or simpler compounds.

Figure 4: Diagram of the decomposition of calcium

pure calcium carbonate
carbonate to give a white solid A (56.0% by mass) and
a gas B(44.0% by mass). This decomposition into
56.0% by mass 44.0% by mass simpler substances at fixed ratio proves that calcium
carbonate is a compound. The white solid A further
white solid A gas B decomposes to give the elements calcium (71.5% by
71.5% 28.5% 27.3% 72.7% mass) and oxygen (28.5% by mass). This proves that
by mass by mass by mass by mass the white solid A is a compound; it is known as calcium
oxide. The gas B also can be broken down to give the
elements carbon (27.3% by mass) and oxygen (72.7%
calcium oxygen carbon oxygen by mass). This establishes that gas B is a compound; it
is known as carbon dioxide.

Further, we may say that a compound is a pure substance consisting of two or more different elements in a
fixed ratio. Water is 11.1% hydrogen and 88.9% oxygen by mass. Similarly, carbon dioxide is 27.3% carbon
and 72.7% oxygen by mass, and calcium oxide (the white solid A above) is 71.5% calcium and 28.5% oxygen by
mass. We could also combine the numbers in the previous paragraph to show that calcium carbonate is 40.1%
calcium, 12.0% carbon, and 47.9% oxygen by mass. Observations such as these on innumerable pure compounds
led to the statement of the Law of Definite Proportions (also known as the Law of Constant Composition):

Different samples of any pure compound contain the same elements in the
same proportions by mass.

The physical and chemical properties of a compound are different from the properties of its constituent elements.
Sodium chloride is a white solid that we ordinarily use as table salt. This compound is produced by the combination
of the element sodium and the element chlorine.
Recall that elements are substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical changes.
Nitrogen, silver, aluminum, copper, gold, and sulphur are other examples of elements.
We use a set of symbols to represent the elements. These symbols can be written more quickly than names, and
they occupy less space. The symbols for the first 103 elements consist of either a capital letter or a capital letter
and a lowercase letter, such as C (carbon) or Ca (calcium). Symbols for elements beyond number 103 consist of
three letters. A list of the known elements and their symbols is given in the unit on periodicity.

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A short list of symbols of common elements is given in Table 1. Learning this list will be helpful. Many symbols
consist of the first one or two letters of the element’s English name. Some are derived from the element’s Latin
name (indicated in parentheses in Table-1 and one, W for tungsten, is from the German Wolfram. Names and
symbols for additional elements should be learned as they are encountered.
Most of the earth’s crust is made up of a relatively small number of elements. Only 10 of the 88 naturally occuring
elements make up more than 99% by mass of the earth’s crust, oceans, and atmosphere (Table 2). Oxygen
accounts for roughly half. Relatively few elements, approximately one fourth of the naturally occurring ones, occur
in nature as free elements. The rest are always found chemically combined with other elements.
Only a very small amount of the matter in the earth’s crust, oceans, and atmosphere is involved in living matter. The
main element in living matter is carbon, but only a tiny fraction of the carbon in the environment occurs in living
organisms. More than a quarter of the total mass of the earth’s crust, oceans, and atmosphere is made up of
silicon, yet it has almost no biological role.
Table 1:
Some Common Elements and Their Symbols
Symbol Element Symbol Element Symbol Element
Ag Silver F Fluorine Ni Nickel
(argentum) Fe Iron (ferrum) O Oxygen
Al Aluminum H Hydrogen P Phosphorus
Au Gold (aurum) He Helium Pb Lead (plumbum)
B Boron Hg Mercury Pt Platinum
Ba Barium I Iodine S Sulphur
Bi Bismuth K Potassium(kalium) Sb Antimony(stibium)
Br Bromine Kr Krypton Si Silicon
C Carbon Li Lithium Sn Tin (stannum)
Ca Calcium Mg Magnesium Sr Strontium
Cd Cadmium Mn Manganese Ti Titanium
Cl Chlorine N Nitrogen U Uranium
Co Cobalt Na Sodium (natrium) W Tungsten (Wolfrom)
Cr Chromium Ne Neon Zn Zinc
Cu Copper (cuprum)

Table 2:
Abundance of Elements in the Earth’s Crust, Oceans, and Atmosphere
Element Symbol % by Mass Element Symbol % by Mass
Oxygen O 49.5% Chlorine Cl 0.19%
Silicon Si 25.7 Phosphorus P 0.12
Aluminum Al 7.5 Manganese Mn 0.09
Iron Fe 4.7 Carbon C 0.08
Calcium Ca 3.4 Sulfur S 0.06
99.2% 0.7%
Sodium Na 2.6 Barium Ba 0.04
Potassium K 2.4 Chromium Cr 0.033
Magnesium Mg 1.9 Nitrogen N 0.030
Hydrogen H 0.87 Fluorine F 0.027
Titanium Ti 0.58 Zirconium Zr 0.023
All others combined 0.1%

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Measurements in Chemistry
Measurements in the scientific world are usually expressed in the units of the metric system or its modernised
successor, the international system of units (SI). [The abbreviation SI comes from the French le systeme
International.] The SI is based on the seven fundamental units listed in the following table:
Table 3:
The seven Fundamental Units of measurement

Physical property Name of Unit Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second S
Electric Current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Luminous Intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol

Common Prefixes
A lot many measurements in chemistry are very large or very small numbers. In order to simplify their representation,
we use certain prefixes. We enlist the common prefixes used in the SI and metric systems in table 4 below. This
table should be memorised.

Table-4:
Common Prefixes Used in the SI and metric systems

Prefix Abbreviation Measure Example

Mega- M 106 1 megameter (Mm)
= 1 × 106 m
Kilo- k 103 1 kilometer (km)
= 1 × 103 m
Deci- d 10–1 1 decimeter (dm)
= 0.1 m
Centi- c 10–2 1 centimeter (cm)
= 0.01 m
Milli- m 10–3 1 milligram (mg)
= 0.001 g
Micro- µ(mew) 10–6 1 microgram (mg)
= 1 × 10–6 g
Nano- n 10–9 1 nanogram (ng)
= 1 × 10–9 g
Pico- p 10–12 1 picogram (pg)
= 1 × 10–12 g

Volume
One common physical quantity the unit of which, though simple, is confusing to students is that of volume. We
discuss it here.

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Volumes are measured in liters or milliliters in the metric system. 1 litre (1 L) is one cubic decimeter (1 dm3) or
1000 cubic centimeters (1000 cm3). 1 mL is 1 cm3. What this means is that if we take a cube, the side of which is
1 cm and pile up 1000 such cubes, then the resulting volume of those 1000 cubes taken together is what is called
as 1 litre (1 L).

Unit Factor Method For Calculations in Physical Chemistry

Unit factor method is the method of calculation in which one carries along the units for quantities. We will be
following this method for most of the solved problems in Locus study material for physical chemistry. You are
requested to imbibe this approach when you do your calculations while solving a problem, as it has various
advantages attached to it.
The key to using unit factor method is the correct use of conversion factors to change one unit into another. A
conversion factor is a fraction whose numerator and denominator are the same quantity expressed in different
units. For example, 2.54 cm and 1 inch are the same length i.e. 2.54 cm = 1 inch. This relationship allows us to
write two conversion factors :

2.54cm 1 inch
and
1 inch 2.54 cm

The first of these factors is used when we want to convert inches to centimeters. For example, the length in
centimters of an object that is 8.50 inches long is given by :

desired
2.54cm unit
Number of centimeters = (8.50 inches ) × = 21.6cm
1 inch
Given
unit

Note that the units of inches in the denominator of the conversion factor cancel the units of inches in the data we
were given (8.50 inches). The centimeters in the numerator of the conversion factor become the units of the final
answer.
In general the units multiply and divide as follows :

desired unit
Given unit × = desired unit.
given unit

If the desired units are not obtained in a calculation, then an error must have been made somewhere. A careful
inspection of units often reveals the source of error.
We can use more than one conversion factor in the solution of a problem. For example, suppose we want to know
the length in inches of an 8 metre rod. However, the relationship between inches and metres is not given in any of
the standard tables. But relationship between cms and inches is given and we also know that 100 cms = 1 m. Thus,
we can convert first from meters to centimeters, and then from centimeters to inches :

 factor converting   factor converting 

Length in inches = (length in metres) ×  × .
 metre → cm   cm → inch 

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The relationship between meters and centimeters gives us the first conversion factor. Because we need to cancel
meters, we write meters in the denominator :
100 cm
1m
We then use the relationship 2.54 cm = 1 inch to write the second conversion factor with the desired units,
inches, in the numerator :
1 inch
2.54 cm
Thus, we have
 100 cm   1 inch 
Number of inches = (8.00 m)    = 315 inches
 1 m   2.54 cm 
The conversion factors above convert from length to length or, more generally, from one unit of a given measure to
another unit of the same measure. We also have conversion factors that convert from one measure to a different
one. The density of a substance, for example, can be treated as a conversion factor between mass and volume.
Suppose that we want to know the mass in grams of two cubic inches (2.00 inch3) of gold, which has a density of
19.3 g/cm3. The density gives us the following factors :
19.3 grams 1 cm3
and
1 cm3 19.3 grams
Because the answer we want is a mass in grams, we can see that we will use the first of these factors, which has
mass in grams in the numerator. To use this factor, however we must first relate cubic centimeters to cubic inches.
We know the factor for converting from inches to centimeters, and the cube of this gives us the desired conversion
factor : 3
 2.54 cm  (2.54)3 cm3 16.39 cm3
  = = .
 1 inch  (1)3 inch3 1 inch3

Notice that both the numbers and the units are cubed. Applying our conversion factors, we can now solve the
problem:
3  16.39 cm   19.3 grams 
3

Mass in grams = (2.00 inches )    = 633 grams.

 1 inch 3   1 cm 3 
  

Summary of the unit factor method

In using this method to do our calculations, we will always ask three questions :
1. What data are given in the problem ?
2. What quantity do we wish to obtain in the problem ?
3. What conversion factors do we have available to take us from the given quantity to the desired one ?
Answering these questions properly will leave us with all the necessary data to do our calculation easily and
efficiently using the unit factor method .

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Advantages of unit factor method

1. It makes the calculations a one step process, no matter how many conversion of units are involved.
2. The units for the answer will come out of the calculations. If you make an error in arranging factors in the
calculations (for example, if you use the wrong formula), this will become apparent because the final units
will be nonsense.
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of its density to the density of water, both at the same temperature.
Dsubstance
Specific gravity = (D here denotes density)
Dwater
The density of water is 1.000 g/mL at 3.98°C, the temperature at which the density of water is greatest. However,
variations in the density of water with changes in temperature are small enough that we may use 1.00 g/mL up to
25°C without introducing significant errors into our calculations.

• The density of table salt is 2.16 g/mL at 20°C. What is its specific gravity?

Solution: We use the definition of specific gravity given above. The numerator and denominator have the same
units, so the result is dimensionless.
Dsalt 2.16 g/mL
Specific Gravity = = = 2.16
D water 1.00 g/mL
This example also demonstrates that the density and specific gravity of a substance are numerically equal near
room temperature if density is expressed in g/mL (g, cm3).
Generally, we are given specific gravities of certain substances and their percentage by mass in a solution. From
this informations the amount of substance present in a given volume of solution can be calculated. We illustrate this
in Example 8.

Heat and Temperature

Earlier you learned that heat is one form of energy. You have also learned in earlier classes different forms of
energy can be interconverted and that in chemical processes, chemical energy is converted to heat energy or vice
versa. The amount of heat a process uses (endothermic) or gives off (exothermic) can tell us a great deal about
that process. For this reason it is important for us to be able to measure intensity of heat.
Temperature measures the intensity of heat, the “hotness” or “coldness” of a body. A piece of metal at 100°C
feels hot to the touch, while an ice cube at 0°C feels cold. Why? Because the temperature of the metal is higher,
and that of the ice cube lower, than body temperature. Heat is a form of energy that always flows spontaneously
from a hotter body to a colder body—never in the reverse direction:
There are three scales on which the temperature can be measured. These are celsius (or centigrade) (°C)
Fahrenheit (°F) and kelvin (K) scales. They are related to each other according to the following equations.
(i) °F = 1.8° C + 32° (ii) K = °C + 273.15°
Please note that any temperature change has the same numerical value whether expressed on the Celsius scale or
on the Kelvin scale. For example, a change from 25°C to 59°C represents a change of 34 Celsius degrees.
Converting these to the Kelving scale, the same change is expressed as (273 + 25) = 298 K to (59 + 273) = 332
K, or a change of 34 kelvins.

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Comparing the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales, we find that the intervals between the same reference points are 180
Fahrenheit degrees and 100 Celsius degrees, respectively. Thus a Fahrenheit degree must be smaller than a
Celsius degree. It takes 180 Fahrenheit degrees to cover the same temperature interval as 100 Celsius degrees.
From this information, we can construct the conversion factors for temperature changes:

180° F 1.8° F 100°C 1.0°C

or and or
100°C 1.0°C 180° F 1.8° F
But the starting points of the two scales are different, so we cannot convert a temperature on one scale to a
temperature on the other just by multiplying by the conversion factor. In converting from °F to °C, we must
subtract 32 Fahrenheit degrees to reach the zero point on the celsius scale

 1.8° F  1.0°C
?° F =  x°C ×  + 32° F and ?°C = ( x° F – 32° F )
 1.0°C  1.8° F
We illustrate these conversion in Examples 9.

Heat Transfer and the measurement of heat

Chemical reactions and physical changes occur with either the simultaneous evolution of heat (exothermic process)
or the absorption of heat (endothermic processes). The amount of heat transferred in a process is usually expressed
in joules or in calories.
The SI unit of energy and work is the joule (J), which is defined as 1 kg . m2/s2. The kinetic energy (KE) of a
body of mass m moving at speed v is given by 12 mv 2 . A 2-kg object moving at one meter per second has
KE =12 (2 kg )(1 m / s ) 2 = 1 kg . m2/s2 = 1 joule. You may find it more convenient to think in terms of the amount
of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C, which is 4.184 Joules.
One calorie is defined as exactly 4.184 joules. We shall do most calculations in joules.
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of the
substance one degree C (also one kelvin) with no change in phase. Changes in phase (physical state) absorb or
liberate relatively large amounts of energy. The specific heat of each substance, a physical property, is different for
the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases of the substance. For example, the specific heat of ice is 2.09 J/g. °C near
0°C: for liquid water it is 4.18 J/g. °C: and for steam it is 2.03 J/g. °C near 100°C. The specific heat for water is
quite high.

(amount of heat in J)
specific heat =
(mass of substance in g)(temperature change in °C)

The heat capacity of a body is the amount of heat required to raise its temperature by 1°C. The heat capacity of
a body is its mass in grams times its specific heat.
Please study Examples 10 and 11 to understand the concept of specific heat more comprehensively.

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A NOTE ON SOLVED EXAMPLES IN PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

To bring yourself to the level of IIT-JEE it is imperative that you start thinking with concepts on your own. One of
the best ways to develop this kind of thinking is to approach a solved example by only reading and understanding
the question first. Then one should think about the approach he/she would take to solve that particular problem.
Then attempt the problem by your method. Only then see the solution to the problem and compare it to your own
approach. This way you will be entirely involved in your learning process and will be able to see clearly (if you
were going wrong), so as to where exactly you were going wrong. It may even be that your solution and the
solution given in the material are different but both are correct. In that case you would have ended up finding an
alternative solution!

Here in your material for physical chemistry we have gone a step beyond to help you in your endeavour to study
“critically” as explained above. A critical thinking box is put up in almost every solved problem as a bridge
between the question and its solution. It contains at times detailed step by step procedure for approaching the
problem and at times only a hint required to solve the problem. However, although varying in content its focus
remains the same i.e., to help you think critically. To make use of it comprehensively it is suggested that you think
about the approach you would take to solve the problem. Only then study the critical thinking box and compare
your approach to the approach given. This kind of study will ensure that any errors in your approach are rectified
and also help you to develop your own thinking process. You should then try to attempt the problem yourself and
only then, see its detailed solution.

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Example – 1

A material is believed to be a compound. Suppose you have several samples of the material obtained from various
places around the world. Comment on what you would expect to find upon observing the melting point and colour
for each sample. What would you expect to find upon determining the elemental composition for each sample?

Critical thinking
What is a compound? Does property of 2 samples of the same compound vary? If they do vary, under what
conditions can they vary? If they do not vary, then consider what conditions? (Hint: the sample may be
pure or impure)

Solution: If the material is a pure compound, all samples should have the same melting point, the same colour,
and the same elemental composition. If it is a mixture, there should be a difference in these properties
depending on the composition.

Example – 2

You are working in the office of a precious metal buyer. A miner brings you a nugget of metal that he claims is gold.
You suspect that the metal is a form of “fool’s gold” called marcasite, which is composed of iron and sulphur. In the
back of your office, you have a chunk of pure gold. What simple experiments could you perform to decide
whether or not the miner’s nugget is gold?

Critical thinking
Gold is a very unreactive substance, so comparing physical properties is probably your best option. However,
color is a physical property that you cannot rely on in this case to get your answer. What are the other
physical properties that you can use to make the distinction clearer?

Solution: One experiment that you could perform is to determine the densities of the metal and the chunk of
gold. You could measure the mass of the nugget on a balance and the volume of the nugget by water
displacement. Using this information, you could calculate the density of the nugget. Repeat the
experiment and calculations for the sample of gold. If the nugget is gold, the two densities should be
equal and be 19.3 g/cm3.
Also, you could determine the melting points of the metal and of the chunk of pure gold. The two
melting points should be the same (1338K) if the metal is gold.

Example – 3

Consider the following compounds and their densities.

Substance Density (g/mL) Substance Density (g/mL)

isopropyl alcohol 0.785 toluene 0.866
n-butyl alcohol 0.810 ethylene glycol 1.114

You create a column of the liquids in a glass cylinder with the most dense material on the bottom layer and the least
dense on the top. You do not allow the liquids to mix.

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(a) First you drop a plastic bead that has a density of 0.24 g/cm3 into the column. What do you expect to
observe?
(b) Next you drop a different plastic bead that has a volume of 0.043 mL and a mass of 3.92 x 10–22 g into
the column. What would you expect to observe in this case?
(c) You drop another bead into the column and observe that it makes it all the way to the bottom of the
column. What can you conclude about the density of this bead?

Critical thinking
A cock floats on water because its density is less than the water. Apply this same fundamental in the
various cases of this problem.

Solution: (a) Since the bead is less dense than any of the liquids in the container, the bead will float on top of all
the liquids.
(b) First, determine the density of the plastic bead. Since density is mass divided by volume, you get

m 3.92 ×10 −2 g
d= = = 0.911 g / mL = 0.92 g / mL
V 0.043 mL

Thus, the glass bead will pass through the top three layers and float on the ethylene glycol layer,
which is more dense.
(c) Since the bead sinks all the way to the bottom, it must be more dense than 1.114 g/mL.

Example – 4

Express 1.47 miles in inches

Critical thinking
First we write down the units of what we wish to know. Then we set it equal to whatever we are given:
no. of inches = 1.47 miles
Then we choose unit factors to convert the given units (miles) to the desired units (inches):
miles → feet → inches

5280 ft 12inches
Solution: no. of inches = 1.47 miles × × = 9.31×104 inches
1 mile 1ft
Note that both miles and feet cancel, leaving only inches, the desired unit. Thus, there is no ambiguity
as to how the unit factors should be written.

(Note: Conversion factor is also called unit factor)

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Example – 5

One liter is exactly 1000 cubic centimeters. How many cubic inches are there in 1000 cubic centimeters?

Critical thinking
1 inch
We would multiply by the unit factor to convert cm to inch. Here we require the cube of this unit
2.54 cm
factor.

3 1 (inch )
3 3
 1 inch 
Solution: no. of (inch ) = 61.0 (inch )
3 3
= 1000 cm × 
3
 = 1000 cm × 3
 2.54 cm  16.4 cm

Example – 6
A common unit of energy is the erg. Convert 3.74 × 10–2 erg to the SI units of energy, joules and kilojoules. One
erg is exactly 1 × 10–7 joule.

Critical thinking
The definition that relates ergs and joules is used to generate the needed unit factor. The second conversion
uses a unit factor that is based on the definition of the prefix kilo-.

Solution: no. of J = 3.74 ×10–2 erg × 1×10 J = 3.74 ×10–9 J

–7

1 erg

1 kJ
no. of kJ = 3.74 ×10–9 j × = 3.74 ×10–12 kJ
1000 J

Example – 7

A 47.3 ml sample of ethyl alcohol(ethanol) has mass of 37.32 g. What is its density? If 103 g of ethanol is needed
for a chemical reaction, what volume of liquid would you use?

Critical thinking
mass
We use the definition of density i.e. Density = . Thereafter we are given the mass, m, of a sample
volume
of ethanol. So, we know values of D and m in the relationship
m
D= .
v
We rearrange this relationship to solve for V, put in the known values, and carry out the calculation.
Alternatively, we can use the unit factor method to solve the problem.

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LOCUS 19

Solution: D = m = 37.32 g = 0.789 g / mL .

v 47.3ml
The density of ethanol is 0.789 g/mL
m
now, D=
V

m 103g
⇒ V= = = 130 mL
D 0.789 g / mL
Alternatively,
1mL
no. of mL =103× =130 mL.
0.789g

Example – 8

Battery acid is 40.0 % sulfuric acid H2SO4, and 60.0% water by mass. Its specific gravity is 1.31. Calculate the
mass of pure H2SO4 in 100.0 mL of battery acid.

Critical thinking
The percentages are given on a mass basis, so we must first convert the 100.0 mL of acid solution to mass.
To do this, we need a value for the density. We have demonstrated that density and specific gravity are
numerically equal at 20ºC because the density of water is 1.00 g/mL. We can use the density as a unit
factor to convert the given volume of solution to mass of solution. Then we use the percentage by mass to
convert the mass of solution to mass of acid.

Solution: From the given value for specific gravity, we may write
density = 1.31 g/mL
The solution is 40.0% H2SO4 and 60.0 % H2O by mass. From this information we may construct the
desired unit factor:

40.0 g H 2SO 4 because 100 g of solution


→
100 g soln contains 40.0 g of H 2SO4

We can now solve the problem:

1.31g soln 40.0g H 2SO 4

grams of H 2SO 4 = 100.0 mL soln × × = 52.4 g H 2SO 4
1 ml soln 100 g soln

Example – 9

When the absolute temperature is 400 K, what is the Fahrenheit temperature?

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Critical thinking
We first use the relationship ºC = K – 273º to convert from kelvins to degrees Celsius; then we carry out
the further conversion from degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit.

1.0º C
Solution: no. of º C = ( 400K − 273K ) = 127º C
1.0 K

 1.8º F 
no. of º F =  127º C ×  + 32º F = 261º F
 1.0º C 

Example – 10

How much heat, in joules, is required to raise the temperature of 205 g of water from 21.2ºC to 91.4º C?

Critical thinking
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of substance
by 1ºC.

specific heat =
(amount of heat in J )
( mass of subs tan ce in g )(temperature change inº C )
We can rearrange the equation so that
(amount of heat) = (mass of substance) (specific heat) (temperature change)
Alternatively, we can use the unit factor approach.

Solution: amount of heat = (205 g) (4.18 J/g •ºC) (70.2ºC) = 6.02 × 104 J
By the unit factor approach.
 4.18 J 
amount of heat = ( 205g )   ( 70.2º C ) = 6.02 × 10 J or 60.2 kJ
4

 1g ⋅ º C 
All units except joules cancel. To cool 205 g of water from 91.4ºC to 21.2ºC, it would be
necessary to remove exactly the same amount of heat, 60.2 kJ.

Example – 11

How much heat, in calories, kilocalories, joules, and kilojoules, is required to raise the temperature of 205 g of
iron from 294.2 K to 364.4K? The specific heat of iron is 0.106 cal/g.ºC, or 0.444 J/g . K.
Critical thinking
First we recall that a temperature change expressed in kelvins has the same numerical value expressed in
degrees Celsius. Remembering that specific heat is in terms of temperature change, we can write the
specific heat of iron as 0.106 cal/g.K or 0.444 J/g.K. Then we can solve this problem with the temperature
change expressed in kelvins, and avoid the work of converting temperature to ºC.

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LOCUS 21

Solution: temperature change = 364.4 K – 294.2 K = 70.2 K

no. of cal = (205 g) (0.106 cal/g•K) (70.2 K) = 1.52 × 103 cal or 1.52 kcal
no. of J = (205 g) (0.444 J/g•K) (70.2 K) = 6.39 × 103 J or 6.39 kJ

Note: The specific heat of iron is much smaller than the specific heat of water:

specific heat of iron 0.444 J / g ⋅ K

= = 0.106
specific heat of water 4.18 J / g ⋅ K

As a result, the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 205 g of iron by 70.2 K (70.2ºC)
is less than that required to do the same for 205 g of water by the same ratio.

amount heat for iron 6.39 kJ

= = 0.106
amount heat for water 60.2 kJ

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TRY YOURSELF - I

Q. 1 When H2 and O2 is mixed in proportion 2 :1 by volume at constant temperature and pressure, what do
we get, a compound or mixture, if
(a) The final composition shows properties of O2.
(b) The final composition doesn’t show properties of O2.
Q. 2 The specific gravity of silver is 10.5 (a) What is the volume, in cm3, of an ingot of silver with mass
0.765 kg? (b) If this sample of silver is a cube, how long is each edge in cm? (c) How long is the edge
of this cube in inches?
Q. 3 Vinegar has density of 1.0056 g/cm3. What is the mass of two liters of vinegar?

You are requested to attempt the following basic problems (Q. 4 to Q. 6) to master the unit factor method:
Q. 4 The density of air at ordinary atmospheric pressure and 25°C is 1.19 grams/litre. What is the mass, in
kilograms, of the air in a room that measures 12.5 ×15.5 × 8.0 feet ?
Q. 5 A certain printed page has an average of 25 words per square inch of paper. The average length of the
words is 5.3 letters. What is the average number of letters per square centimeter of paper ?

Q. 6 The total amount of fresh water on earth is estimated to be 3.73 × 108 km3 . What is this volume is cubic
meters ? In liters ?
Q. 7 The specific heat of aluminium is 0.895 J/g.ºC. Calculate the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of 22.1 grams of aluminum from 27.0ºC to 44.3ºC.
Q. 8 The lethal dose of potassium cyanide(KCN) taken orally is 1.6 milligrams per kilogram of body weight.
Calculate the lethal dose of potassium cyanide taken orally by a 165-pound person.

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TRY YOURSELF - I

ANSWERS

Ans. 1 (a) mixture (b) compound

Ans. 2 (a) 72.9 cm3 (b) 4.18 cm (c) 1.65 inches
Ans. 3 2.0112 kg
Ans. 4 52 kilograms.
Ans. 5 21 letters/cm2

Ans. 6 3.73 × 1017 m3 ; 3.73 × 1020 liters.

Ans. 7 342 Joules
Ans. 8 120 mg KCN

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